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Lorraine Farrelly is deputy head ofthe University of Portsmouth’s Schoolof Architecture, where she teachesdegree and postgraduate courses inboth architecture and interior design. Also a qualified architect, Lorraine hasexperience of working on both large-scale and smaller-scale architecturalprojects, ranging from the interiormodelling of bars, restaurants and retail spaces, through to designingresidential and school buildings andpublic spaces. Lorraine lecturesextensively on representation inarchitecture and urban regeneration.

Featured topicsOrigins and chronologyCultural contextMaterial context ApplicationsKey directionsInnovationSustainability The futureMaterial samples

Featured contributorsBerthold LubetkinCharles and Ray EamesDaniel Libeskind de Rijke Marsh Morgan (dRMM)Eric Parry ArchitectsFosters + PartnersFrank Gehry Glen Howells ArchitectsGrimshaw ArchitectsPatrick BlancSchultes Frank ArchitektenSean Godsell ArchitectsStanton WilliamsStudio KAPWiel Arets ArchitectsWoolf ArchitectsZaha Hadid Architects

ava publishing sa [email protected]

BASICSARCHITECTURE

BASICS

nthe matter from whichsomething is or can be made

Lorraine FarrellyARCHITECTURE

nthe action or process of constructing a buildingor other structure

construction + materiality

02This second book in the BasicsArchitecture series explores theorigins, context and application ofbuilding materials such as stone,brick, concrete, timber, steel, glass and composite materials inarchitectural design. Construction + Materiality also takes a look at the future of construction andmateriality in architecture, payingparticular attention to issues ofsustainability and innovation.

Supported by examples fromboth classic and contemporaryarchitects who have championedthe use of the materials underdiscussion, and whose work is very much characterised by theapplication of its principles,Construction + Materiality providesan invaluable resource tool for students and architecturalprofessionals alike. It offers anaccessible introduction for anyoneinterested in architectural designand material application.

Other titles in AVA’s BasicsArchitecture series includeRepresentational Techniques,History and Precedent andSustainable Architecture.

For further details seewww.avabooks.ch

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BASICS

Construction + Materiality

ARCHITECTURE

Lorraine Farrelly

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ISBN 978-2-940373-83-3and 2-940373-83-3

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All reasonable attempts have been made to trace, clear and credit the copyright holders of the images reproduced in this book. However, if any credits have been inadvertently omitted, the publisher will endeavour to incorporate amendments in future editions.

Project: The Liquorish BarLocation: London, UKArchitects: Nissen AdamsDate: 2006

The door of this venue is made from reclaimed timbers, which are set in a stainless steel frame. Thesurrounding wall is made from castconcrete and the building’s number(123) has been set directly into theconcrete façade.

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Contents

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6 Introduction

10 How to get the most out of this book

12 Brick and stone

14 Timeline: brick and stone

16 Origins and chronology

20 Cultural and material context

22 Application

26 Grand master: Antonio Gaudí

32 Woolf Architects | Brick Leaf House

36 Eric Parry Architects | 30 Finsbury Square

40 Concrete

42 Timeline: concrete



50 Application

54 Grand master: Tadao Ando

60 Zaha Hadid | The Central Building

64 Axel Schultes and Charlotte Frank |

Baumschulenweg Crematorium

68 Timber

70 Timeline: timber



78 Application

84 Grand master: Edward Cullinan

90 Sean Godsell | The Carter/Tucker House

94 Glenn Howells Architects | The Savill Building

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98 Glass and steel

100 Timeline: glass and steel



108 Application

112 Grand master: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

118 Foster+Partners | The McLaren Technology Centre

122 Grimshaw Architects | Fundación Caixa Galicia

126 Composite materials

128 Timeline: composite materials



136 Application

138 Grand master: Charles Eames

144 Stanton Williams Architects | House of Fraser, Bristol

148 dRMM | The Kingsdale School

152 Innovation, sustainability and the future

154 Directions

156 Innovation

160 Sustainability

164 The future

168 Conclusion

170 Samples panel

174 Glossaryand picture credits

176 Acknowledgements

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Introduction

Materials create an ambience and provide texture orsubstance to architecture. To understand how to usematerials effectively, a designer needs to have anunderstanding of precedent or how materials have been used historically and an awareness of innovations in materialapplication. Both can provide a useful way to develop a range of design approaches.

Construction + Materiality introduces the ideas that ‘make’architecture and the materials used to create and definespaces. The structure (or frame) that supports a building can be considered to be analogous to the skeleton of a body, and the materials that the structure holds in place akin to the tissue and skin that define a body’s shape andspecificity. In this way, construction techniques and materialsare the starting point for architectural design; they create the possibilities for shape, form and space.

For an architect to use materials effectively, a soundunderstanding of construction methods and practices is essential. Construction methods and materials can beexpressed in such a way that they immediately reveal thearchitectural idea behind a building. But not all architecture is ‘true’ and the idea of ‘truth to materials’ is an essentialconsideration when understanding architecture.

In architectural terms, to be ‘true’ is to be honest. A buildingthat uses brick to construct a wall, which in turn supports a roof, is using materials honestly. A steel-framed buildingthat incorporates a brick wall is not necessarily true to itsmaterials because there is a sense of ‘hiding’ the building’sreal structure and creating an illusion of another sort ofarchitecture. A building’s structure does not always have to be obviously revealed: sometimes an architect may wantto create a sense of illusion as part of his or her design idea(for example, to make a heavy material appear light byintroducing a steel beam), but to make a concrete or steelframed building appear like a brick building conflicts with the idea of ‘truth’ to materials.

In addition to the concept of architectural ‘truth’, somematerials are strongly connected to their place or origin.Stone, for example, belongs to the ground where it is foundor quarried. Similarly, timber is a resource that is part of anatural landscape. Other materials, such as concrete andglass, are much less connected to the identity of a location

Project: Leslie L Dan PharmacyBuilding, University of TorontoLocation: Toronto, CanadaArchitects: Foster+ Partners withMoffat Kinoshita ArchitectsDates: 2002–2006

This building has been carefullydesigned to sensitively respond to its immediate surroundings. Its mainmass is elevated above a 20-metre,five-storey, colonnaded circulationspace. Two coloured pods aresuspended within this space, thelarger of which houses a 60-seatlecture theatre and a reading room,with the other housing a smallerclassroom and the faculty lounge.

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Introduction

or specific place. Instead, they are part of an industry thatmanufactures materials, using raw ingredients that canbelong and be made anywhere.

Increasingly, contemporary designers are taking materialsfrom different contexts and environments and applying them inventively in architecture. Materials from the world of product, fashion and furniture design are being consideredfor interior and exterior architectural applications. Thestandard convention of using traditional materials for buildingis changing as issues of cost and sustainability become evermore important. Thinking carefully about which materials tosource and specify, how far they have travelled and whetherthey can be recycled or reused is the responsibility of thearchitect when designing a building or space.

An architect needs to understand the nature of materials and their possibilities and limitations before they can be used to create buildings and spaces. This book introducestraditional, manufactured and more contemporary materials.Each chapter describes a particular material (or materials) in terms of its historical development and in the context of its application. This is accompanied by a canon of workfrom a ‘grand master' who has championed the development of an architecture associated with the material. Practical case studies from a range of contemporary architects willdemonstrate the innovative use of materials at various scales. The final chapter of the book explores issues ofsustainability, innovation and the future of materials andconstruction techniques.

As an architect, understanding the changing nature ofmaterials is critical. To be aware of the range and propertiesof the materials at your disposal is to extend the possibility of your design potential.

‘Let every material be true to itself… brick should appear as brick, wood as wood, iron as iron,each according to its own statistical laws.’Gottfried Semper

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Brick and stoneStone is found or excavated from the ground and brick ismoulded from the earth. These materials have weight andsolidity that belongs to a place. This chapter looks at the useof stone and brick in architecture and explores their naturalcolour, texture and surface.

ConcreteConcrete has the potential to be moulded and shaped tocreate dynamic form and, with reinforcement, can spanenormous distances and achieve great heights. This chapterexplores the view that concrete is the flexible material of thetwenty-first century.

TimberThis chapter explores the many architectural possibilities thattimber offers. There are many ways to apply timber becauseit is easily worked, its aesthetic variable depending on thenature of the wood’s grain.

Glass and steelIndividually these materials are used in a range of differentdesign contexts. In architecture, they allow a space to belight and a structure to be elegant. This chapter highlights theways in which steel and glass have the potential to create anarchitecture that is both beautiful and subtly engineered.

Composite materialsThese materials can be created and manufactured from a series of processes. The origin of a composite material maybe natural but it can be further modified or engineered tocreate a material that has new possibilities, both structurallyand in terms of its application.

Innovation, sustainability and the futureManufacturing and technological advances present newpossibilities for materials in architecture. This chapter looksat how these ideas suggest an exciting future forarchitecture.

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Cultural and material context

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Unlike other construction materials, which may stronglyconnect with the place of their origin, concrete is madefrom ingredients that can now be mixed anywhere. Thisnot only makes it flexible in terms of manufacture, butalso does not restrict the material to a particular location.This affords concrete a sense of anonymity, which meansit is much less limited by traditional ideas and conceptsthan other materials: it can be anything, anywhere.Notwithstanding this, the use of concrete in architectureis (usually) still informed by local ideas of construction,form, function and other aspects of context.

Concrete and the era of Modernism

The prominent Modernists of the early 20th century, notablyLe Corbusier and Auguste Perret, exploited the flexibility ofconcrete to create new forms and shapes. They designedcities for the future that contained strong, bold and tallstructures all made from concrete.

Project: Chapel Notre Dame du Haut (right)Location: Ronchamp, FranceArchitect: Le CorbusierDate: 1954

Le Corbusier’s Chapel Notre Damedu Haut at Ronchamp uses concreteto create a dramatic and sculpturalform on both the exterior and interiorspaces. The building is puncturedwith holes filled with coloured glassand these bring light into the chapelilluminating the interior space. Thebuilding appears as a sculpturalelement in the natural landscape.

Continuing this tradition, Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyeruses concrete in his designs to respond to organic forms in the landscape. Niemeyer extends the landscape andtopography with his architectural ideas, producing dramaticshapes on rolling planes or landscapes that are made fromcarpets of concrete.

In South America, Luis Barragan introduced colour to hisarchitecture to connect his building designs and materialswith the traditional colours found in the landscape andculture of the region. Barragan’s architecture has beendescribed as similar to an abstract painting with wall surfacescoloured to contrast against one another and sharp colouredwalls framing views across landscapes. His architecture isabout the surface experience, walls that are rendered incement and then painted, to create abstract planes.

Contemporary 21st century architecture uses concrete to create ever taller, more dramatic statements. DanielLibeskind, for example, specified the use of concrete in his designs for Berlin’s Jewish Museum to dramatise andaccentuate the Jewish experience in wartime Germany,producing both a provocative and commemorative result (see page 40).

Concrete is the substance of our new buildings, our greatestedifices and our skyscrapers, and it will challenge the futureof architectural forms. Yet even so, the adaptation ofconcrete to respond to local cultural and climatic issues is essential for its survival.

Topography

Topography is concerned withlocal detail in general, includingnot only relief but also vegetativeand human-made features, andeven local history and culture. This meaning is less common inAmerica, where topographic mapswith elevation contours have made‘topography’ synonymous withrelief. The older sense ofTopography as the study of placestill has currency in Europe.

Title: Ciudad de las Artes y lasCiencias (facing page)Location: Valencia, SpainArchitects: Santiago CalatravaDate: 2001

The Ciudad de las Artes y lasCiencias is an urban cultural centre. It reacts to the local environment anduses white concrete to contrast withthe blue Spanish skies. The concreteis used with local tile to connect thefinish with traditional industries.

Information panelsProvide additionalinformation about technicalterms that are used in thebody text.

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How to get the most out of this book

IntroductionsEach unit’s introductionappears in bold text andoutlines the concepts thatare to be discussed.

CaptionsProvide contextualinformation about eachfeatured project andhighlight the practicalapplication of key principles.

SectionheadingsEach chapter unit has a clearheading to allowreaders to quicklylocate an area of interest.

This book introduces different aspects of construction and materiality inarchitecture via dedicated chapters for each topic. Each chapter providesexamples of different construction techniques and materials at variousstages of the architectural design process. The examples shown here arecontributions from a range of contemporary architects and, together withdetailed analysis in the text, form a book that offers a unique insight intothe practical and professional world of architectural design.

Chapter navigationHighlights the currentchapter unit and lists theprevious and followingunits.

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The Church of the Light

Tadao Ando’s Church of the Light in Osaka, Japan (1988) is an example of a cultural building that embraces ideas ofgeometry and spirituality. Many of Ando’s previous projectswere simple houses constructed to make use of courtyardsto bring light into the interior spaces, but geometry, minimal,modern design and the use of concrete with a high level of craftsmanship are values evident throughout his canon of work and exemplified in The Church of the Light.

The church is aptly named as the chapel is illuminated bylight. The building is comprised of two rectangular volumes,that are both cut at a 15-degree angle by freestandingconcrete walls. Worshippers and visitors indirectly enter the church by slipping between the two volumes. Onevolume contains the Sunday school and the other containsthe worship hall. A cruciform cut in the concrete wall of theworship hall extends vertically from floor to ceiling andhorizontally from wall to wall, aligning perfectly with the joints in the concrete. It is a simple device, but an effectivedefinition of the space, and at night the cross creates anilluminated symbol on the outside of the church as light fromwithin pours outside.

Both the worship hall and the Sunday school use wood tosoften the interior spaces, but The Church of the Light is allabout contrast. The Sunday school opens up to a double-height space with a mezzanine level and its interior utilises a lighter-coloured, smooth-finish wood. The combination ofconcrete and wood creates a modern, spiritual atmospherethat focuses on light within to encourage a contemplativeinward experience.

The Church of the Light is superbly crafted. The smoothfinish of its concrete surfaces reflect light into the interiorspaces and the building reveals its construction processesvia traces of the joints and bolts that held the shuttering inplace, leaving tactile impressions on the smooth, grey walls.

Tadao Ando

Grand master

An interior view of the worship hall

Significant projects

1976 Azuma House, Sumiyoshi, Osaka, Japan

1976 Tezukayama Tower Plaza, Sumiyoshi, Osaka, Japan

1983 Rokko Housing One, Kobe, Japan

1986 Chapel on Mount Rokko, Kobe, Japan,

1988 The Church of the Light, Osaka, Japan

1989 Children’s Museum, Himeji, Japan

1992 The Japanese Pavilion for Expo 92,Seville, Spain

1993 Vitra Seminar House, Weil am Rhein, Germany

1995 Meditation space, UNESCO, Paris

1999 Rokko Housing Three, Kobe, Japan

2000 FABRICA Benetton Communication Research Center, Treviso, Italy

2001 The Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts, St. Louis, Missouri, USA

2002 Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas, USA

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Images Examples from architects anddesigners bring the principlesunder discussion to life.

Body textIn-depthdiscussion ofworking methodsand best practiceis covered in thebook’s body copy.

Grand master pagesFocus on the work of anarchitect who has championedthe use of a particular material.

Case study pagesFocus on a project or buildthat demonstrates aninnovative use of materials.

Timelines Provide details ofsignificant projectsin an architect’scanon of work.

QuotesProvide key insightfrom professionalarchitects.

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Case study

Foster+Partners | The McLaren Technology Centre

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The McLaren Technology Centre is the corporate and manufacturingheadquarters for the McLaren Group.Designed by Foster+Partners, the group’sstate-of-the-art centre is located inSurrey, England. Foster+Partners arerenowned internationally for theirapproach, which combines functionalarchitectural design with an elegance inengineering. This combination producesexpressive buildings that envelope andcontain function, but challengepreconceptions of space via theinnovative use of building materials.

The design brief

The McLaren headquarters fits the paradigmof a Foster + Partners building. McLarendepends on the continued development ofhigh technology in order to produce some of the fastest Formula One cars in the world.The architecture that would become thecompany’s headquarters needed to reflectthis technological sophistication and serve as a ‘laboratory’ for McLaren’s innovation.

McLaren came to the architects with anumber of preconceptions, not about whatthe architecture should look like, but whatthe spirit of the building, its aspirations andits social generators should be.

The building’s site plan shows the scheme within its context,surrounded by a lake and carefullyorganised planting

Foster + Partners were asked to ensurethat the headquarters would house themajority of the McLaren Group’s employees(who had been previously scattered across 18 locations in Surrey). The architectsworked with the client to respond to theirworking methodology and processes toensure that the building could accommodatetheir experimental, developmental andmanufacturing needs.

There was a natural synergy betweenMcLaren and Foster+ Partners and indetermining what the architect and client,both of whom came from very differentdesign disciplines, wanted to achieve.

‘As architects, my colleagues and I had been engaged for many years in meeting thechallenge of social, technological and lifestyle change, the way they interlock and looking at the re-evaluation of the workplace as a good place to be. This inspiration has permeateddown into the building itself.’ Sir Norman Foster

An exterior view of the McLarenheadquarters



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Title: Entrance of the NaturalHistory MuseumLocation: London, UKArchitects: Alfred WaterhouseDates: 1830

Terracotta tiles were used on theinterior and exterior walls of London’sNatural History Museum, servingboth decorative and practicalfunctions. The museum’s entrance isconstructed from a range of differentcoloured bricks that have been laidusing many different courses tohighlight the ‘horizontality’ of thebuilding. Decorative features, alsoconstructed from tile and marble,serve to create a highly adorned andthree-dimensional effect.

Brick and stone

The most basic of building materials are those that comefrom the ground, either found as part of the landscape(such as stone), or sourced from the earth (such as clay,which can then be moulded into bricks). Architecturebuilt from such materials will literally become a part of itssurrounding landscape. Other rocks or stones such asgranite or marble (which are mined or quarried) can alsobe incorporated into designs to produce architecture thatis strongly connected to its place of origin.

Perhaps surprisingly, stone is a versatile material. It canbe used for a structure’s ground surface, walls and roof(if carefully selected and cut); it can be shaped or slicedinto thin slabs or heavy monolithic blocks, and itsphysical properties mean that it retains heat in the winterand remains cool in the summer. Additionally, there is a degree of symbolism associated with stone. It is oftenused for memorials or to mark a point in the landscapebecause it has a timeless, indestructible quality, whichsuggests a degree of permanence and solidity.

Stone and brick structures characteristically highlighttheir materials as key building components because theyform a series of clearly visible pieces that belong to thebigger jigsaw of the architecture. There is a buildingprotocol that is specifically associated with brick andstone architecture. For example, openings in stone wallsneed to be supported with lintels; and in brick walls, an arch is used to support material under compression.

Regardless of advances in construction technologies,stone or brick buildings will retain their sense of placewithin the context of the natural environment. Although itmay have been shaped or adjusted by the mason or thecraftsman, stone is nature’s ‘found’ material and brick isthe earth moulded – as such it is the closest that thearchitect can get to nature’s grain.

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Timeline: brick and stone

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c.2560 BCGreat Pyramid of Giza, Egypt

Built by the Ancient Egyptians astombs for their Pharaohs, the pyramidsat Giza were constructed from hugelimestone blocks that were brought tothe site along the River Nile. A roughlimestone was used for the main coreof the pyramids and a finer, whitelimestone with a polished finish wasused as the outer stone.

c.1530 BCHypostyle Hall, Egypt

The Hypostyle Hall is part of a complex of buildings situated in Karnak, near Luxor, Egypt. The complex comprises a number of temples built over a period of 1300 years. The Hypostyle Hall is animpressive 28-metre-high structurecontaining a series of papyruscolumns made from sandstone,which would have originallysupported a stone roof.

1420Cupola (of the Basilica di SantaMaria del Fiore), ItalyFilippo Brunelleschi

Designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, thecupola of the Basilica di Santa Mariadel Fiore in Florence, Italy, consists of a double-walled dome made ofseveral million bricks, with largestones supporting the main structure.The base of the dome is held intension with iron chains.

1514–1737Hampton Court Palace, EnglandVarious architects

Successive monarchs from the early16th century have developed thispalace. It comprises a series ofhouses, courtyards and surroundingformal gardens that were expandedto accommodate bishops (at first)and then royalty and their familiesand servants. The buildings are made of brick, with stone and brickstructures added over successivegenerations.

1566–1571Villa Rotunda, ItalyAndrea Palladio

Andrea Palladio’s Villa Rotundahas a completely symmetrical planand a circular hall roofed with a dome. This Renaissance-stylebuilding was made from stone andheavily influenced by Greek andRoman temples in terms of itsmateriality and proportion.

3100–2500 BCSkara Brae, Scotland

This Neolithic village is located in Orkney (off the north coast ofScotland). It comprises a series ofliving spaces that are lined with stoneand covered with earth. Within theliving spaces there are shelves,seating areas and evidence of tables,all made from stone. Skara Brae is one of the earliest examples of a complete stone settlement.

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1163–1250Notre Dame de Paris, FranceMaurice de Sully

Built on an island in the River Seine,Notre Dame de Paris is widelyconsidered one of the finestexamples of French Gothicarchitecture in the world. Thecathedral has two towers at its frontand also a distinctive rose window. It is built of cut stone and uses flyingbuttresses (a type of external framingsystem), to support the exterior walls.

c.1300Piazza della Signoria, Italy

The Piazza della Signoria is an L-shaped square in front of thePalazzo Vecchio in Florence, Italy.The piazza originally had a surfacemade of ancient brick and thebuildings that surround it are made of marble. This square has becomean open-air museum with a range of statues and art works on display.

1859Red House, EnglandPhilip Webb

Philip Webb designed this house,which is located in Kent, England, for William Morris. Webb specifiedthe use of local materials andcraftsmen (as part of the arts andcrafts tradition) to realise the building,which referenced a local style ofarchitecture. The house is made from brick with arched openings anda clay-tiled roof.

1906–1910Casa Mila, SpainAntonio Gaudí

Constructed almost entirely fromlocally-sourced stone, Casa Mila was a residential building designedby Antonio Gaudí. The walls aresculpted in a distinctive, biomorphicfashion and suggest an almost wave-like form. The building’s roof is also of note: its chimneys appearas abstract pieces of sculptureproducing a surreal landscape on the Barcelona skyline.

1960The Salk Institute, USALouis Kahn

Kahn used baked brick in thebuilding of this Californian collegecampus. The campus contains aseries of buildings for teaching andaccommodation that have beenconstructed using traditional buildingtechniques. The modernist complexconsists of two symmetrical buildingswith a stream of water flowing in themiddle of a courtyard that separatesthe two.

c.70–80Coliseum, Italy

This amphitheatre was built as anarena for public spectacles andgladiator contests. The exterior wasmade of travertine stone and theinterior areas were later built frombrick. Originally, the building hadwooden floors and temporarystructures built within it.

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Origins and chronology

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Some of the earliest settlements and architecturalstructures that survive are made of stone. The SkaraBrae site in Orkney, Scotland, is Europe’s most completeexample of a Neolithic village; it dates back to around3100 BC and consists of approximately ten stone-builtdwellings. Found stone was lifted, stacked, sized andcarved to create the walls, roof and even the furniturewithin the dwellings.

Brick

Traditionally, bricks were manufactured by placing mud insimple wooden frames and allowing these to ‘bake’ in thesun. In many countries this method of manufacture is stillused. One of the earliest examples (c.7050 BC) of the use ofsuch shaped bricks was found in a Neolithic settlement insouthern Turkey. Kiln-fired bricks are believed to have arisenin the Middle East several thousand years later.

Fired bricks were further developed by the Romans to allowthem to engineer structures such as aqueducts, whichrequired arches to be built within the structure. As they aremuch more resistant to cold and moist weather conditions,fired bricks enabled the construction of permanent buildingsin regions where harsher climates had precluded the use ofmud bricks. Bricks have the added benefit of slowly storingheat energy from the sun during the day and continuing torelease heat for several hours after sunset.

During the 15th and 17th centuries in much Europeanarchitecture brick was usually covered by plaster. It was not until the late 18th century, with the start of theIndustrial Revolution, that brick was once again usedexpressively in construction.

Modern architecture increasingly uses concrete- and steel-frame structures to achieve ever larger and taller buildings;however, brick remains a popular and frequently usedmaterial for small-scale buildings such as domestic houses.

Project: The Great WallLocation: Shanhaiguan (east) to Lop Nur (west), ChinaDate: From the fifth century BC to the 16th century

The Great Wall was constructed overa vast geographical area and thematerials used were locally sourced.Quarried limestone block was usedin the areas of wall near Beijing;other sites saw quarried granite andfired brick used as key buildingmaterials. In particularly remoteareas that had a lack of locallyavailable materials, rammed earthwas used for construction.

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Stone

The earliest stone structures were defensive structures.Stone is solid, heavy and creates a sense of safety andsecurity. Structures such as the Great Wall of China (parts of which date back to the fifth century BC) still remain aspowerful divisions in the landscape. In some areas, the GreatWall was constructed using rammed earth that was dressedin local stone. It was both practical (defining boundaries andterritories) and symbolic.

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Monumentalism

Stone has long been associated with permanence andsolidity. A stone building has a presence, which is why thematerial has been used to construct many of our symbolicand/or monumental cathedrals, castles and civic buildings. In Ancient Egypt the Great Pyramids of Giza (c.2560 BC)were constructed from layers of stone. Here, stone was used to create monumental structures that signified power,authority and longevity.

The Parthenon in Greece is one of the most significantstructures in Europe. Built initially as a temple dedicated to Athena, it was later used as a Christian church and then a mosque. It now houses a museum detailing how thestructure has adapted to its changing functions over theyears. The Parthenon was built under the general supervisionof the sculptor Phidias. Construction began in 447 BC, andthe building was substantially completed by 432 BC, butwork on the decorations continued until at least 431 BC.Some of the financial accounts for the Parthenon survive andshow that the largest single expense was transporting thestone from Mount Pentelicus, about 16 kilometres fromAthens, to the Acropolis.

One of the great advantages of stone buildings is that theyhave survived the ravages of time and allow us to learn fromarchitects past. In Europe the most dramatic and impressivearchitecture is made of durable stone. Stone buildings todayremain synonymous with an idea of permanence, quality andsolidity, and this suggests a connection between thearchitectural past, present and the future.

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Project: ParthenonLocation: Athens, GreeceArchitects: Iktinos and KallikratesDate: c.447–432 BC

The Parthenon is an icon of classicalarchitecture. The structure comprisesa series of columns, beams and wallsthat are all made from locally sourcedstone and marble. Each of theParthenon’s columns appear as ifcreated from a single piece of stone,but they are actually constructedfrom a series of interlocking carvedstone components that are heldtogether with discreet iron clamps.

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Of all the materials available to the architect, it isarguably the use of stone and brick that produces an architecture most closely associated with itsgeographical and cultural context. One reason for this is that historically stone would have been sourced nearthe construction site; small quarries where the materialwas extracted out of the ground have been found nearmany Neolithic settlements, for example.

In their most basic form, structures can be created bycarefully stacking stone pieces together in such a way thatthey complement one another and create an integrated mass(a dry stone wall is an example of this). More complex stonebuildings use interlocking pieces that are carefully cut tocreate larger, more structurally efficient forms.

Initially, stone was used in construction in its raw state, but as stonemasonry skills developed the surface became an opportunity for architectural expression. For example, thestone columns that support the temple of the Erechtheion in Athens, Greece, have been carved to create a series ofcaryatids. Similarly, cathedrals and places of worship oftenhave symbolic figures carved into the stone so that theyappear as part of the wall or building.

As with stone, brick also belongs to its place of origin andmanufacture. Both are sourced from the earth and createtheir own material landscape. Bricks were first made fromclay or mud that was first shaped and then baked in the sun (see page 16), but with the introduction of kiln-firing, a manufactured, industrially processed material that was much more associated with utilitarian buildings, factories and houses was produced.

Bricks are easy to handle and laid using a modular system.As such, structures built from bricks can be assembled fairly swiftly and easily. However, this should not imply thatbrickwork produces ‘plain’ architecture as there is a languageof expression when brick is used in buildings.

Caryatids

A caryatid is a sculpted femalefigure serving as an architecturalsupport (instead of a column orpillar). The figure’s head supportsthe building’s entablature.

Some of the earliest knownexamples were found in thetreasuries of Delphi, dating to about the sixth century BC. Thebest-known examples are the sixfigures of the Caryatid Porch of the Erechtheion on the Acropolis at Athens (pictured). One of thoseoriginal six figures, removed byLord Elgin in the early 1800s, is now in the British Museum inLondon. The other five figures arein the Acropolis Museum, and havebeen replaced onsite by replicas.

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Title: Compton Verney HouseLocation: Warwickshire, UKArchitects: Stanton WilliamsArchitectsDate: 1997

Stanton Williams Architects werecommissioned to extend an existingstately home into an arts venue. Thebuilding is carefully detailed and usesstone in a considered and subtle wayto reinvent the existing architecture.The new spaces work in harmonywith the existing ones, creating a fluidarchitectural promenade through thebuilding for visitors.

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Both stone and bricks can be reused. Once extracted fromthe ground and cut, stone might be used to build a wall, butafter time the wall could be dismantled and the cut stonecould then be reused in another structure. Reclaimed bricksmade in the Georgian or Victorian period are expensivematerials to use in construction today: there is a softness to the texture of the material due to age and the process ofmanufacture is difficult to replicate using contemporary andmass manufacturing processes.

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Application

Both stone and brick can be used in a range ofarchitectural applications. As both materials have load-bearing potential to support their own weight (and more)they are used most effectively in constructing walls andfor floor surfaces.

Walls

A brick wall requires standard components. For example,a foundation or footing will provide stability, and whenopenings are created (for doors or windows), the bricksabove the aperture will need to be supported. Traditionally an arch was used as a self-supporting method of framing an opening; nowadays lintels serve the same purpose. Lintels may be concrete or steel and they may be expressedor hidden. A hidden lintel sits within the cavity of a wall andthe bricks appear to be suspended from it.

Project: High HouseLocation: Vaduz, LiechtensteinArchitect: Hansjörg Göritz Date: 2008

High House was the first newdedicated parliament building for Liechtenstein. The schemecomprises a main assembly and a series of offices, all of which areconnected by a large open space.The buildings collectively use aroundone million bricks.

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Both brick and stone walls were originally built to support theload or weight of their building. However, developments inmaterial manufacture and technology have changed the wayboth materials are used. Solid, brick or stone load-bearingwalls are slow to construct and require a great deal ofexpensive materials. Though less ‘true’, cladding can give the impression of solid brick and stone walls but offers thearchitect more flexibility in terms of time and money. Thinlayers of stone or brick are attached to a steel or concreteframe providing a system that looks effective but uses lessmaterial and can be built more efficiently.

Rubble walls are traditionally built from found stones that are selected and organised so that they all complement oneanother. Usually larger stones create the base and smallerstones are used to fill gaps as the wall progresses – thehigher the wall the smaller the stones used.

A gabion wall is usually constructed by filling a wire-framed mesh with found rocks. These have been used asengineering structures that easily withstand lateral forces,such as a retaining wall that may be used to hold back largeareas of earth. Latterly gabion walls are being used incontemporary building schemes as a variable external finishaccording to the size and type of stone used.

Floors

Stone and brick can be used as a floor covering to greateffect. For exterior areas, stone surfaces are frequently usedin cities to identify a particular space and brick laid as a flooris also considered a very urban finish. Both materials canalso be used to frame floor surfaces such as pavements andpedestrian zones.

In interior spaces a much thinner stone finish can be used.Traditionally flagstones (flat stones that are laid for pavingsurfaces) would have been used to produce a simple floorsurface. Today, various types of stone are used to provide an interior floor finish, in particular limestone and marble.

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Roofs

Stone can be used as a roof finish. For temperate climates a roof material that can retain heat and is impervious to wateris essential. Slate is traditionally used in the UK for thispurpose and is also manufactured and used in countriessuch as China, Mexico and Spain.

Terracotta tiles are used in many Mediterranean countries,where the traditions of both brick and pot making have beenadapted and applied to roofing. Terracotta tiles can be glazedor left in their raw state.

Finishes

Stone can be left in its raw state or it can be polished tovarying degrees depending on the application. Saw-cutstone has a rough finish and is most appropriate for exteriorfeatures in garden and landscape design. A honed finish isextremely smooth but not reflective, making it suitable forinterior wall and floor applications. A polished finishenhances the colour of the stone and creates a smooth andreflective surface that is suitable for interior and exterior use.

The colour of brick is affected by its raw material content, for example, yellow bricks have more lime content andredder ones a higher iron content. This can provide variousaesthetic options for the architect. The pattern that bricks arelaid in is referred to as a ‘bond’ and there are many variationsof these, each of which is based on context, tradition andlocation. The length of an exposed brick is referred to as the‘stretcher’ and the shortest side of an exposed brick is a ‘header’. The simplest bond, the running bond, is justcontinuous rows of stretcher bricks. The pattern of the bricksdoes not just serve a decorative function, the overlap of thebricks is essential to maintain stability in the wall.

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Project: Solstice Arts CentreLocation: County Meath, IrelandArchitect: Grafton ArchitectsDate: 2006

The Solstice Arts Centre in Navan,County Meath, incorporates a theatre space, exhibition areas and a café. Located on a sloping site, the main building is constructed fromreinforced concrete and clad inashlar stone blocks. The building has a transparent, glazed façade atground level, which opens onto a public square.

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Antonio Gaudí

Grand master

Catalan architect Antonio Gaudí (1852–1926) wasinspired by natural and Gothic forms, his sculpturalbuilding designs were both organic and dynamic in theirexpression and he was famously experimental withstructural and physical forms.

Both Gaudí’s buildings and concepts challenged traditionalSpanish architecture. His portfolio of work includes housingblocks in Barcelona with façades that interpret structure andwalls that are sculpted architectural forms. Throughout hislife, Gaudí studied nature’s own angles and curves andincorporated them into his designs. The hyperboloids andparaboloids he borrowed from nature were easily reinforcedby steel rods and allowed his designs to resemble elementsfrom the environment.

At Parc Güell located to the north of Barcelona, Gaudí’sshapes and forms in the landscape present playful lines andsurface. His work is distinct. He uses traditional local craftand building skills (such as the mosaic work in Parc Güell),but reinterprets them, mixing references to nature andabstract ideas of animal and plant forms.

Antonio Gaudí

La Sagrada Familia’s distinctivetowers

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La Sagrada Familia

In his later years, Gaudí devoted his architectural energies tothe designs for the Templo Expiatorio de la Sagrada Familia(La Sagrada Familia), a Roman Catholic church in the heart of Barcelona, Spain. A hugely ambitious project from theoutset (and groundbreaking in terms of structural ambition),construction began in 1882 and is still to be completedtoday. One of its remarkable factors is that the designs wereconsidered ‘modern’ in Gaudí’s time, yet they somehowremain ‘new’ in the context of today’s architecture, displayingabstract expression and challenges in structure.

The scheme is intended to have 18 towers,12 to representeach of the Apostles (so far eight have been constructed,each with a statue of the Apostle beneath it), four more to represent the Evangelists and a tower each for the VirginMary and Jesus Christ. La Sagrada Familia’s towers areundoubtedly the most impressive feature on the Barcelonaskyline and they can also be experienced from within. Thetowers have staircases that wind up inside them and bridgesthat link from one to another, allowing incredible views overthe city and beyond. The towers get thinner as oneprogresses, almost appearing to defy gravity. The pinnacles at the top of the towers are finished with forms inspired byplants and flowers, which are decorated in brightly colouredmosaic work.

The building design has three façades: the Nativity façade tothe East, the Glory façade to the South (yet to be completed)and the Passion façade to the West. The exterior is coveredwith carefully designed narrative carvings, describing scenesassociated with Christianity, from the nativity to the passion.

The internal plan of the building consists of five aisles with a central nave. The central vault reaches 60 metres and theapse is capped by a hyperboloid structure that reaches 75 metres. Gaudí’s intention was for it to be possible for thevisitor to see the vaults of the nave, crossing and apse fromthe main entrance, and for the vault to appear to increase inheight as he or she approached the centre of the space.

Antonio Gaudí

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1882 (–present) La Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, Spain

1883 Casa Vicens, Barcelona, Spain

1883 Villa El Capricho, Comillas, Spain

1885 Palau Güell, Barcelona, Spain

1887 Episcopal Palace of Astorga,Astorga, Spain

1888 Casa Calvet, Barcelona, Spain

1898 Crypt of the Church of Colònia Güell, Santa Coloma de Cervelló, Spain

1900 Bellesguard tower,Barcelona, Spain

1900 Parc Güell, Barcelona, Spain

1905 Casa Mila, Barcelona, Spain

1905 Casa Battllo, Barcelona, Spain

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An interior view of the towers

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The complex ground floor plan

Exterior view of the entrance and towers

The cathedral’s interior columns have a unique design. Aswell as serving their load-bearing purpose and supporting thetowers above, they change shape from their base, which isoctagonal, slowly becoming a 16-sided shape and finishingin a circle form.

La Sagrada Familia has been likened to a piece of three-dimensional art or sculpture. It can be admired from adistance as an impressive piece of engineering and formmaking and it can be further explored from within.Thebuilding was designed to challenge ideas of structure andcelebrate the most incredible craftsmanship; to carve andtransform stone from a solid, static material to a dynamicexpressive surface. This building exemplifies the potentialthat stone offers the architect and the real possibility its use presents to create symbolic, iconic and memorablestructures.

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Case study

Woolf Architects | Brick Leaf House

Jonathan Woolf studied architecture in Rome and in London where, forMunkenbeck & Marshall, he was projectarchitect for the house of art collectorCharles Saatchi. He established his ownpractice in 1990 and has taught at schoolsthroughout the UK and Europe since 1995, including the University of Bath, the Architectural Association, London,andat Robert Gordon University in Scotland.

Woolf Architects have completed over 24 projects to date including residentialhouses, artist and photographer’s studios,office spaces, apartments and hotels.

The design brief

The clients for Brick Leaf House, twobrothers, wanted a design that incorporateda modern white building in the style of LuisBarragan, a South American architect whosework is characterised by juxtaposing lightrendered walls with brightly coloured wallplanes. The project planners suggestedsomething contemporary in concrete, butWoolf Architects argued the case for usingbrick. This offered a possibility to work with a material that would age with the naturalelements of the site and would only requirelimited maintenance.

An exterior view of Brick Leaf House

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Plan showing how the twoseparate house spaces are divided

The design solution

Brick Leaf House (1999–2003) sits on the edge of Hampstead Heath in London. The building is located over a steeply sloping site and its only real immediate context is its garden setting. Brick Leaf House is alsoreferred to as ‘double house’ because it is actually two dwellings, and wascommissioned by two brothers and theirrespective families for use as residentialaccommodation.

The house’s tectonic expression is verystraightforward, comprising a steel frame (to allow flexibility in the internal layout) cladin an laconic brick skin. As well as beingrelatively low-maintenance, a key advantageof using brick for this build was that it is partof the palette of the area.

‘‘I wanted to create an urban feel, the typeyou get where a brick building abuts hard upagainst a stone road, very much like the hilltowns of Italy and Spain.’Jonathan Woolf

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The ‘ordinariness’ of this language is furtherreinforced by the use of off-the-shelf steelwindows, the frames of which are finished in white. This building demonstrates aninformal minimalism, which responds well to its context, amongst mature trees on theedge of London’s Hampstead Heath.

The houses of Spanish and Italian hill townsin this scheme heavily influenced WoolfArchitects in their designs for this project.Brick Leaf House is situated on a naturalslope and the architects were keen to workwith and exploit this element of the site. The house was originally conceived as aPalladian villa. Situated on the edge of thecity, the double dwelling had sufficientsurrounding area to warrant designing a grand house in this tradition. There was an intention to create an urban house in a suburban context.

Views showing the relationshipbetween the house and thesurrounding gardens (above andfacing page, left), and the externalapproach to the house (facing page right)

Case study

Woolf Architects | Brick Leaf House

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At first sight, Brick Leaf House appears as one home, but there are clues (such asthe two entrances and the building’s outline) that it has two dwellings within it. There areclearly shared areas to this house, but eachdwelling is connected only at basement level by a communal swimming pool, andthere are two quite separate living spaceswhere the families can conduct their ownprivate lives.

The specification for the brick used in thisbuild is a departure from the red brick ofmany traditional British suburban homes. For Brick Leaf House a hand-made, mauvishbrick with a bucket-handle and jointedmortar in a matching colour was specified.

Working with the building’s natural context(particularly in wet weather), the brick’s richtextural effect complements the wet bark ofthe 50-year-old copper beech trees that areplanted in the surrounding garden, serving as an important visual marker for the site.

Brick Leaf House challenges the standardnotion of scale in a suburban home becauseit is two houses that read as one within thecontext of a ‘special’ landscape. The brick isused simply, but it reads as a subtle, texturedmaterial that works with the light, shadowand the surrounding trees.

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Founded in 1983, Eric Parry Architects is an established and award-winningpractice with a growing portfolio of work and clients. The practice has areputation for challenging convention and for working carefully and subtly with materials. An understanding of the architectural idea manifested in the careful specification, consideration and detailing of materials lies within their work.

The design brief

Eric Parry Architects (EPA) werecommissioned by investment companyScottish Widows in 1999 to develop andachieve planning approval for a new officedevelopment in Finsbury Square, London.The project is situated in a conservation areaand required the demolition of a locally listed1920s structure. The project team thereforehad to carefully consider conservation issueswithin their design scheme and consultheavily with the local authority and localforum groups.

Eric Parry Architects | 30 Finsbury Square

The main elevation

Case study

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The building’s ground floor plan The design solution

This project presented something of achallenge to the EPA team. Most corporateclients want their office building to be distinctand connect directly with their commercialidentity, which can be a difficult brief for anybuilding. In addition to this requirement, thesite, located as it is within a conservationarea, had strict planning issues andlimitations concerning the height of thebuilding. EPA’s solution had to work within a limit of six storeys (with an additional twoattic storeys) and it needed to respond to the material used for surrounding buildings in the square: Portland stone.

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Eric Parry Architects | 30 Finsbury Square

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A view of the building wrappingaround the corner of the square(facing page), and a detail of thestone elevation (above) B

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EPA’s design evolved from a study of theexisting urban setting and building fabricsused. The block successfully responds to the planning and conservation limitations,but the building’s elevation design reinventsthe idea of the use of stone in a buildingfaçade. In this build, the Portland stone takes the form of innovative load-bearinglimestone piers, which support the internalsteel beams.

The façade reinterprets the idea of stackingstone, with openings staggered across eachelevation (each window within the elevationsvaries in its location and proportion from theone above), and in doing so it challenges theconvention of how stone is used in buildingand construction.

Behind the stone, the elevations areconstructed from glass (this building isessentially a glass office block containedwithin a stone ‘cloak’). The deep stonefaçade acts as a brise soleil to provideshading and reduce the amount of sunlightentering the building, which is in keeping with energy conservation requirements. As sunlight passes over the façade, thedepth of the stone animates the surface,transforming it from a two-dimensionalsurface to a three-dimensional one.

Stone is not often used structurally incontemporary builds; its expense means that it is usually used as a cladding materialinstead. So in addition to this unusual,functional and perhaps luxurious use ofstone for a structural application, this façade(because it bears the weight of the building’sfloors) also allows the interior space to bekept completely free of structure, providingflexibility for the internal planning.

This project exemplifies the large-scale useof high-quality materials and this combinationcreates a distinct identity for the building.EPA have successfully used materialsintelligently and inventively, and in doing so have challenged the conventional idea of an office block façade in an urban, workingenvironment. The building has won a RIBAaward, an AIA/UK Design Excellence Award,a commendation from the British Council forOffices and was shortlisted for the StirlingPrize in 2003.

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C+M chapter 2 (40-67)_ 10/4/08 1:07 PM Page 41

Project: The Jewish MuseumLocation: Berlin, GermanyArchitect: Daniel LibeskindDates: 1998–2001

During the design process for Berlin’sJewish Museum, Daniel Libeskindplotted the addresses of prominentJewish and German citizens on amap of pre-war Berlin and joined thepoints to form an ‘irrational andinvisible matrix’ on which he basedthe language of form, the geometryand shape of the building. Themuseum also houses the HolocaustTower. The bare concrete tower is 24 metres high and neither heatednor insulated. It is lit by a singlenarrow slit high above the ground.

Concrete

Concrete has been used in building and constructionsince Roman times (the dome of the Pantheon, whichdates from AD 125, was made from a form of concrete). It is a composition that can be easily mixed from sand,cement and stone, and has the potential to be both solid and fluid (and so take any shape). It is a flexible,malleable material that can be mixed to whateverconsistency is required.

Concrete was once considered an industrial, rough and brutal material that was typically used to createstructure rather than a finished surface and as such was commonly associated with industrial architecture.However, changing methods of construction haverevealed concrete as an important material in its ownright. As construction techniques have become morerefined, exposed concrete surfaces have becomeincreasingly popular in wider architectural applicationsand with steel reinforcement, concrete can be incrediblystrong, which is why its use is favoured forsuperstructures such as bridges or skyscrapers.

Concrete can be pre-cast (poured in a factory), producingprefabricated elements that can be quickly assembled on site for swift and simple construction. Alternatively, it can be cast in situ (on site), to create a form or shapethat responds to a mould. This flexibility allows manydynamic forms and shapes to be achieved. The container(or ‘formwork’) holds the concrete as it sets and in doingso leaves an impression on the surface of the material.

As technology develops, concrete becomes ever moreversatile, offering architects the possibility to create ever more dynamic forms and shapes. This releases thepotential for organic form in architecture and revealsconcrete’s ability to be subtle as well as strong. It is a truly flexible material of the 21st century.

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1903Ingalls Building Elzner & Anderson

Situated in Cincinnati, USA, the Ingalls Building was the world’s firstconcrete skyscraper. The building wasconstructed without the use of steelreinforcement and incorporated eight-inch concrete walls, and floors, beams,columns, stairs and a roof all madefrom concrete.

1905Garage at 51 Rue de PonthieuAuguste Perret

Designed by Auguste Perret, this reinforced concrete structurespanned a large space and provideda light, open and airy interior. The concrete structure providedsufficient support for the elevation tohave large openings, which allowedlight to penetrate into the interior ofthe building.

1945Le Havre Cathedral Auguste Perret

The cathedral in Le Havre, northernFrance, formed a central part of thecity’s post-war redesign. The cityplan was developed by AugustePerret, and he used reinforcedconcrete to create remarkablestructures in Le Havre includingroadside colonnades and civicbuildings as well as the city’scathedral.

1965Chandigarh Urban PlanningLe Corbusier

Le Corbusier determined the urbanform for this new settlement in Indiaand was responsible for designingthe key ‘Special Areas’ of the city,each of which contains severalindividual buildings. The Chandigarhproject comprised a city centre,parks, a cultural complex, art galleryand college of art.

1965The Salk Institute Louis Kahn

The buildings in this educationalcomplex in California areconstructed from reinforcedconcrete, wood, marble and water. The concrete is leftexposed to create the aesthetic of the buildings and the wood isused to produce a contrast withthe hardness of the structure.

AD 125Pantheon

Rome’s Pantheon is one of theearliest and most celebratedexamples of a concrete building. Its crowning dome is constructedfrom stepped rings of concrete thatsit on masonry walls. The dome’sinterior features an oculus from whicha series of coffers (sunken panels in the ceiling) radiate.

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1916Orly Airport Hangars Eugene Freyssinet

Freyssinet was the inventor of the‘prestressing’ technique, which wasdevised to overcome difficulties increating curved shapes in reinforcedconcrete. Freyssinet’s hangars at Orly Airport in Paris needed to houselarge structures and concrete had the flexibility to provide a high, wide-spanning structure using a barrelvault construction.

1934Penguin Pool, London ZooBerthold Lubetkin

Having studied the behaviour of thepenguins, Lubetkin designed thispool as a pair of intertwining rampsthat allowed the penguins access tothe pool. They are constructed fromreinforced concrete and are bothsculptural and functional.

1991Niterói Contemporary Art Museum Oscar Niemeyer

This extraordinary museum respondsto the surrounding landscape with dramatic form. Located inNiterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, thisbuilding has a futuristic, space-agepresence. Use of concrete givesNiemeyer the freedom to exploreexperimental sculptural form,influenced by geometry.

1998La Ciudad de las Artes y lasCiencias de ValenciaSantiago Calatrava

The City of Arts and Sciencesbuilding, developed by SantiagoCalatrava, is a large-scale urbanrecreation centre for culture andscience in Valencia, Spain. Thecentre covers an area of 350,000square metres. Calatrava’s designsspecified the use of pure whiteconcrete and fragments of shatteredtiles in the traditional Catalan style.

2007 The Museum of Modern LiteratureDavid Chipperfield Architects

Winner of the 12th RIBA Stirling Prize and located in Marbach amNeckar, Germany, this museum wasdesigned to display and archiveworks of literature from the 20thcentury. The construction materialsreflect the museum’s spaces andinclude fair-faced concrete,sandblasted reconstituted stone and limestone aggregate.

1915Lingotto Building Giacomo Matté-Trucco

Located in Turin, Italy, the LingottoBuilding is probably most famous for housing the Fiat Factory between1923 and 1982. Built entirely fromconcrete, it has always been a strongposter image for early Modernismbecause its forms are determined by functional requirements.

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Project: Penguin Pool, London ZooLocation: London, UKArchitect: Berthold LubetkinDate: 1934

The Penguin Pool at London Zoosuccessfully combines theengineering and sculptural potentialsof concrete in architectural design. A pair of ramps intertwines to allowpenguins to travel from differentlevels in the enclosure to a pool at a lower level. The ramps are madefrom reinforced concrete and appearto be suspended. Concrete, a characteristically ‘heavy’ material,appears to be ‘light’ in Lubetkin’sdesign, creating a clever andcarefully engineered solution.


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Concrete is a mixture of sand, rock and cement (cement is the binding material that holds the rock andthe sand together). Historically, concrete structuresexisted where these materials were present because it needed to be mixed wherever the raw materials wereavailable. The use of ‘concrete’ can be seen in earlyforms of Egyptian architecture; for example, there isevidence of a type of cement used on a wall in Thebes,which dates back to 1950 BC. However, earlier evidenceof the use of cement can be found as far back as 6500 BC (where it is believed to have been used bySyrians to create floor surfaces).

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The Romans used a form of concrete to engineer many of their impressive structures, a number of which still standtoday. For example, both the Coliseum (AD c.82) and thePantheon (AD c.126) contain large amounts of concrete, and the Basilica of Constantine and foundations of the Forum buildings also were built using concrete.

Following the Roman civilisation, there was less evidence of the use of concrete in architectural forms. Concrete hadbeen considered as an engineering material: heavy andbrutal. Many buildings that have survived from this period are those considered to be culturally valuable or celebratedfor their skilled use of materials (rather than for engineeringinnovation).

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Modern architecture

‘Modern architecture’ is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics,primarily the simplification of formand the elimination of ornament.The style was conceived early in the 20th century. Modernarchitecture was adopted by many influential architects andarchitectural educators, howeververy few ‘modern’ buildings werebuilt in the first half of the century. It gained popularity after theSecond World War and became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporatebuildings for three decades.

Structural possibilities

In the late-18th and early-19th century, the IndustrialRevolution triggered a new interest in engineering, innovation, structure and form. The discovery and creation of new materials in this period was to create a new form ofarchitecture. Concrete offered the architect a material thatcould be moulded to form new shapes and one that, whenreinforced with metal, could be used structurally to challengeideas of building form and scale.

In 1903, the Ingalls Building was constructed in Cincinnatti,Ohio, USA. Designed by architects Elzner & Anderson it wasthe world’s first (reinforced) skyscraper and its realisation was made possible by the use of reinforced concrete in itsconstruction. The building was designed to house variousoffice spaces and its elevation was in a beaux-arts style.Although the building’s construction embraced innovative building techniques, its appearance was conventional for the era.

The 20th century was to see a new language of modernarchitecture develop and Modernist architects were to use concrete as their material of choice. Concrete offeredpossibilities for a flexible type of building shape and alloweddesigners to move away from an architecture defined bydecoration to one of dynamic spaces and fluid shapes.

The new machines of the 20th century (such as airships,airplanes and cars) needed new structures to house themand the modern factories of early 20th-century Europecommonly used concrete for this purpose. This produced anarchitecture characterised by an industrial aesthetic and it isonly in recent years that this brutal style has been challengedas new techniques and processes of manufacture arecreating a more subtle type of concrete. These innovationsmean that concrete is no longer just a heavy, hard-wearingengineering and building material; it has its own beauty andcharacter that continues to evolve as the manufacturingprocesses become ever more refined.

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Project: Aircraft Hangar Location: Orbetello, ItalyArchitect: Pier Luigi NerviDate: 1940

Nervi was a trained engineer whoused his understanding of materialsto create incredibly elegantstructures. He designed aircrafthangars that incorporated large-span, open spaces to comfortablyaccommodate the airplanes. He isrenowned for his work on the ideasassociated with the development ofreinforced and prefabricatedconcrete technologies.

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Unlike other construction materials, which may stronglyconnect with the place of their origin, concrete is madefrom ingredients that can now be mixed anywhere. Thisnot only makes it flexible in terms of manufacture, butalso does not restrict the material to a particular location.This affords concrete a sense of anonymity, which meansit is much less limited by traditional ideas and conceptsthan other materials: it can be anything, anywhere.Notwithstanding this, the use of concrete in architectureis (usually) still informed by local ideas of construction,form, function and other aspects of context.

Concrete and the era of Modernism

The prominent Modernists of the early 20th century, notablyLe Corbusier and Auguste Perret, exploited the flexibility ofconcrete to create new forms and shapes. They designedcities for the future that contained strong, bold and tallstructures all made from concrete.

Topography

Topography is concerned withlocal detail in general, includingnot only relief but also vegetativeand human-made features, andeven local history and culture. This meaning is less common inAmerica, where topographic mapswith elevation contours have made‘topography’ synonymous withrelief. The older sense ofTopography as the study of placestill has currency in Europe.

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Project: Chapel Notre Dame du Haut (right)Location: Ronchamp, FranceArchitect: Le CorbusierDate: 1954

Le Corbusier’s Chapel Notre Damedu Haut at Ronchamp uses concreteto create a dramatic and sculpturalform on both the exterior and interiorspaces. The building is puncturedwith holes filled with coloured glassand these bring light into the chapelilluminating the interior space. Thebuilding appears as a sculpturalelement in the natural landscape.

Continuing this tradition, Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyeruses concrete in his designs to respond to organic forms in the landscape. Niemeyer extends the landscape andtopography with his architectural ideas, producing dramaticshapes on rolling planes or landscapes that are made fromcarpets of concrete.

In South America, Luis Barragan introduced colour to hisarchitecture to connect his building designs and materialswith the traditional colours found in the landscape andculture of the region. Barragan’s architecture has beendescribed as similar to an abstract painting with wall surfacescoloured to contrast against one another and sharp colouredwalls framing views across landscapes. His architecture isabout the surface experience, walls that are rendered incement and then painted, to create abstract planes.

Contemporary 21st century architecture uses concrete to create ever taller, more dramatic statements. DanielLibeskind, for example, specified the use of concrete in his designs for Berlin’s Jewish Museum to dramatise andaccentuate the Jewish experience in wartime Germany,producing both a provocative and commemorative result (see page 40).

Concrete is the substance of our new buildings, our greatestedifices and our skyscrapers, and it will challenge the futureof architectural forms. Yet even so, the adaptation ofconcrete to respond to local cultural and climatic issues is essential for its survival.

Title: Ciudad de las Artes y lasCiencias (facing page)Location: Valencia, SpainArchitects: Santiago CalatravaDate: 2001

The Ciudad de las Artes y lasCiencias is an urban cultural centre. It reacts to the local environment anduses white concrete to contrast withthe blue Spanish skies. The concreteis used with local tile to connect thefinish with traditional industries.

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Application

Concrete has evolved dramatically over the last fewyears, using technology to create a material that isincreasingly flexible in its application. Varying themanufacturing process and using new additives allowsconcrete to have versatile properties and offers thearchitect new possibilities.

There are several key characteristics to consider when usingconcrete in building design. It has excellent thermal mass,which means it can retain heat efficiently, and as it is a high-density material it can also absorb heat during summer(helping to cool a building), and release it again at night whenthe temperature drops. Another advantage is that it can bemade in situ using locally sourced materials and so does nothave to be transported to site (though it can also be pre-cast). Finally it is non-combustible and so can be used as afire barrier between different layers or areas of a building.

Concrete and construction

Pre-cast/cast in situ: concrete is often available on site as ‘pre-cast’ pieces. These pieces are prefabricatedcomponents that can then be fitted in accordance with thearchitectural plans. Concrete that is cast in situ is mixed andpoured into prepared formwork (or mould) on site.

Hybrid concrete construction: this is a constructionmethod that uses both pre-cast elements and in situformwork, allowing the project greater flexibility on site. Inthis method, concrete can also be sprayed onto a subframeto create a variety of spaces and surfaces.

Foundations: most buildings will have foundations that aremade of concrete to provide a stable base for either abuilding’s frame or walls. These may be simple poured stripsor more complex engineered solutions using piles.

Frame: concrete is very good in compression, which meansit can be used effectively to create a stable structure.Building frames can be made from pre-cast concrete andassembled on site, or poured into formwork in situ. Steelreinforcements will make the frame stronger and capable ofsupporting greater loads. Using concrete for the frame allowswalls to be constructed from non-load-bearing materialssuch as glass.

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Wall: concrete walls can be constructed using formwork tocreate dynamic shapes, and concrete can also be used ascladding to cover existing wall surfaces. Reinforced, pre-castconcrete panels are available in many different colours andfinishes (such as acid-etched, smooth, sand-blasted orpolished), and various materials can be incorporated into thepanels (such as marble or glass), which offers the architect a wealth of aesthetic and tactile possibilities.

Floor: many floors are made by casting a complete concreteslab at ground level, or even below ground level, whichstabilises the building and provides a flat, clear surface.Intermediate floors can also be cast on site by pouringconcrete into formwork. Pre-cast concrete flooring systemsusing concrete planks can also be used to create animmediate floor surface.

Roof: flat roofs in particular can be made and finished usingconcrete. A pitched roof can be made from pre-cast beamsand covered with a waterproof surface or concrete slabs.Additionally dynamic shapes and forms can be achieved bycasting concrete shapes for roof pieces on site.

Surface: using concrete as a surface material provides anumber of opportunities for the architect. The material that is used to cast concrete can leave an impression on it. For example, timber formwork can be used to lend concretea soft grain texture.

Project: The Collection at Lincoln Location: Lincoln, UKArchitect: Panter HudspithArchitectsDate: 2005

This gallery was designed with theconcrete as the defining interiorsurface. Panter Hudspith Architectsadopted an experimental approachhere by treating concrete withgraphic impressions. Carefullyplacing leaves on to the wall surfaceas the concrete was setting alloweda natural and organic impression tobe left on an industrial surface.

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Innovations in concrete

Grancrete: is a tough new ceramic material that is almosttwice as strong as concrete. The ceramic material is sprayedonto a basic styrofoam frame and dries to form a lightweighthard surface. Grancrete is fire-resistant and can withstandboth tropical and sub-freezing temperatures, making it idealfor a range of varying climate conditions.

Hycrete: one of the crucial challenges when building withconcrete is to prevent water penetration (because concrete is intrinsically porous and so will absorb water). Hycrete (or waterproof) concrete is not only useful when buildingbelow ground, but also in wet climates as it removes theneed for a membrane, allowing quicker and easierconstruction methods.

Translucent concrete: Litracon is a form of light-emittingconcrete. It is produced by adding glass fibres to theconcrete mix to provide a translucent material that can beused to construct walls or floors.

Project: PavilionLocation: London, UKArchitects: Alan Dempsey andAlvin HuangDate: 2008

This structure was designed inresponse to an ArchitecturalAssociation competition. The pavilionutilises 13mm-thick fibre-reinforcedconcrete panels and was conceivedas a prototype for testing thestructural potential of a material thatis more usually used for cladding.The pavilion is a temporary structureand was initially located outside the Architectural Association’sheadquarters in Bedford Square,London.

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Graphic concrete: it is possible to apply patterns to differentconcrete pieces. In addition to being patterned, the concretesurface can also have a smooth or a completely exposedfine-aggregate finish. To achieve this, a surface retarder isapplied to a special membrane, which is spread over aformwork mould. The designed pattern is created by thecontrast between the smooth finish and the exposed fine-aggregate finish.

The cement can also be pigmented, which provides colourfor the smooth surface. The aggregates can be a variety ofdifferent colours, which are then highlighted in the exposedareas. This creates a new way to adapt the surface of theconcrete panel to respond to different contexts and siteconditions.

Ductile concrete: in 2005, a new type of fibre-reinforcedductile concrete was used for the first time in Michigan, USA. It looks like standard concrete, but is 500 times moreresistant to cracking and 40 percent lighter in weight. Ductileconcrete is made using the same ingredients in regularconcrete, but without the coarse aggregate. It is engineeredand reinforced with microscale fibres, which act as ligamentsto bond the concrete more tightly (making it flexible).

Title: Concrete floor finishLocation: Liquorish bar, London, UKArchitect: Nissen AdamsDate: 2006

The floor aesthetic in this buildingresembles timber planks. However,the material used is actually concretethat has been cast to create such a finish.

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Grand master

Born in Osaka, Japan in 1941, Tadao Ando and hisdesigns have been heavily influenced by 20th-centuryModernism. Ando creates spaces that pay particularattention to the way in which light is controlled withinthem and the way in which they work in harmony withnature. This is commonly achieved via framing views andconnecting the inside space of his buildings with theirurban or rural exterior landscape. His designssuccessfully combine Japanese cultural sensitivity withan understanding of European modernism.

The process of making concrete is also something that Ando celebrates in his buildings. He uses modular shuttering(the timber frame that supports the concrete while it sets) that is based on the tatami mat (a traditional Japanesesleeping mat). The tatami mat is determined by a man’sheight, so this in turn lends a human scale to thearchitecture. Another characteristic feature of Ando’s designsis that the fixings which secure the shuttering are often leftexposed in the concrete wall, providing a visible reference tothe construction process in the finished architecture.

Ando is an architect who understands how and when to use concrete. It can often be thought of as a dense andoppressive material. However, through careful use ofopenings that allow natural light to flood in his designs, Ando creates a sense of contrast between the heaviness of the material and the energy and brightness of sunlight. His architecture celebrates the use of concrete as a craftedmaterial cast in situ. The process of casting and the finish of the surface create buildings that have a spiritual sense of place defined by substance and lightness.

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The Church of the Light’s west-facing elevation

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The Church of the Light

Tadao Ando’s Church of the Light in Osaka, Japan (1988) is an example of a cultural building that embraces ideas ofgeometry and spirituality. Many of Ando’s previous projectswere simple houses constructed to make use of courtyardsto bring light into the interior spaces, but geometry, minimal,modern design and the use of concrete with a high level of craftsmanship are values evident throughout his canon of work and exemplified in The Church of the Light.

The church is aptly named as the chapel is illuminated bylight. The building is comprised of two rectangular volumes,that are both cut at a 15-degree angle by freestandingconcrete walls. Worshippers and visitors indirectly enter the church by slipping between the two volumes. Onevolume contains the Sunday school and the other containsthe worship hall. A cruciform cut in the concrete wall of theworship hall extends vertically from floor to ceiling andhorizontally from wall to wall, aligning perfectly with the joints in the concrete. It is a simple device, but an effectivedefinition of the space, and at night the cross creates anilluminated symbol on the outside of the church as light fromwithin pours outside.

Both the worship hall and the Sunday school use wood tosoften the interior spaces, but The Church of the Light is allabout contrast. The Sunday school opens up to a double-height space with a mezzanine level and its interior utilises a lighter-coloured, smooth-finish wood. The combination ofconcrete and wood creates a modern, spiritual atmospherethat focuses on light within to encourage a contemplativeinward experience.

The Church of the Light is superbly crafted. The smoothfinish of its concrete surfaces reflect light into the interiorspaces and the building reveals its construction processesvia traces of the joints and bolts that held the shuttering inplace, leaving tactile impressions on the smooth, grey walls.

Tadao Ando

Grand master

An interior view of the worship hall


1976 Azuma House, Sumiyoshi, Osaka, Japan

1976 Tezukayama Tower Plaza, Sumiyoshi, Osaka, Japan

1983 Rokko Housing One, Kobe, Japan

1986 Chapel on Mount Rokko, Kobe, Japan

1988 The Church of the Light, Osaka, Japan

1989 Children’s Museum, Himeji, Japan

1992 The Japanese Pavilion for Expo 92,Seville, Spain

1993 Vitra Seminar House, Weil am Rhein, Germany

1995 Meditation space, UNESCO, Paris

1999 Rokko Housing Three, Kobe, Japan

2000 FABRICA Benetton Communication Research Center, Treviso, Italy

2001 The Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts, St Louis, Missouri, USA

2002 Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas, USA

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Ando’s concrete can appear to sculpt space. To successfullyachieve this it needs to be carefully moulded and controlledat each stage of its manufacture. To emulate this finish, thearchitect needs to understand precisely how concrete ismade. Ando’s is an architecture of contrasts. His interiorspaces are carefully sculpted and his structural forms displaypowerfully defined, geometrically influenced shapes thatcontrast with the natural world and their surroundinglandscape.

Plan showing the relationshipbetween the worship hall’ssymmetrical interior and angular exterior

Light enters the church via apertures in the wall planes

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Case study

Zaha Hadid | The Central Building

Zaha Hadid has a reputation forchallenging architectural form. Herbuildings are organic, dynamic andsculptural and many of her designsspatially reinvent interior experience andexterior form. To achieve such forms, thematerials Hadid uses need to be fluid,flexible, strong and beautiful, andconcrete provides an extremely effectivesolution to these design requirements.With structural support and carefulengineering, Hadid’s architecture can liveup to the expectations of her incredibleconcepts, drawings and models.

The design brief

One of Hadid’s more recent projects, theBMW Central Building in Leipzig, Germany,was completed in 2005. Hadid’s brief was to reinterpret the open office space and toconnect this in some way with the functionaldemands of BMW’s manufacturing andassembly environment (located on the samesite) where the organisation’s cars areproduced. The project comprises a centralbuilding with associated fabrication volumes.The Central Building is intended to beBMW’s main control and administrativecentre, and the body shop, paint shop, and assembly units converge into it.

The Central Building’s elegantconcrete exterior

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The ground-floor plan showing both the manufacturingand administration areas of the building

The design solution

Hadid’s solution works to juxtapose the very different functions of the office andmanufacturing divisions; those activities that are perhaps unseen in other plants are celebrated in this building’s design. This building facilitates and encourages the integration of different functions andoperatives within the building.

The large glazed lobby allows views right intothe building (revealing the manufacturingprocesses), and courtyards puncture throughthe building’s deep plan to allow daylight intothe main spaces. The ground and first floorare interconnected to create one continuouslandscape; these planes appear much like a terrace and move through the building.

‘Architecture is really about well-being. I think that people want to feel good in a space... On the one hand it’s about shelter, but it’s also about pleasure.’Zaha Hadid

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Zaha Hadid | The Central Building

The first plane runs from the lobby andextends up to the first floor (in the middle ofthe building), the other begins at the cafeteriaand moves into the main entrance area.These planes define the spaces and voidsabove, beneath and between them. Carsmove through these voids as they travelalong their assembly line, again connectingthe main function of the building back to theentrance area and lending a transparentquality to the main building.

This building has an ambition to bringtogether disparate functions and activitiesusing dynamic sculptural form. It is anenvironment that is unreservedly industrialand this is in harmony with the use ofconcrete for the build. An additionaladvantage is that concrete allows giantplanes and landscapes to be moulded andproduce an organic, sculpted shape.

The building’s interior spaces are dramatic, fluid and sculptural(above and facing page)

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To achieve this form, the building design was originally drawn in CAD and drawinginformation was then used to determine thecomplex shapes and forms that had to becreated in reinforced concrete. The beauty of the building is that its form is a piece of carefully considered engineering. Such a design requires a hierarchy of structuralconsideration. At the first level is the‘superstructure’: the main supportingstructure of the architecture. The secondaryelements follow and finally the finishedelements complete the hierarchy.

The Central Building’s superstructure ismade of precast and prestressed concreteslabs that are supported on precast concretebeams and columns. The ground floorconsists of a mesh fabric, reinforcedconcrete slab that is built directly off theground. The first-floor slab is supported onprecast concrete columns that are based on a 10x10 metre grid. This slab consists of 450mm prestressed concrete double-Tunits spanning between main floor beams.The area of first-floor slab, which cuts acrossat an angle in front of the main entrance, has a clear span in excess of 45 metres.

The Central’s Building’s dramatic spacesrequire the structure to span large distances,and this requires specialist bridge-buildingtechnology and engineering. Five thincolumns form an A-frame support at one endof the span whilst a simple vertical wallincorporated into the adjacent car plantbuilding provides support at the other end. In situ reinforced concrete walls surround thestair and lift cores and these serve as mainbracing elements to assist lateral stabilityand prevent the structure from folding ordeforming. In addition to providing lateralstability to the structure, these walls alsoprovide vertical support to the first-floor androof-slab elements.

The Central Building is a piece of carefullyconsidered and beautifully detailedarchitecture. It uses structural bridge-building concepts and technology to achievelarge spans that create exciting voidsthroughout the building. The design exploitsthe possibilities of concrete, which itenhances by the knowledge that there is astructural necessity to every part of thebuilding and nothing is superfluous.

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Case study

Axel Schultes believes in an architecturethat could last for ever. Rather thancreating temporary solutions, Schulteschampions architecture of permanenceand substance. He wants architecture tobe emotional and affect the soul, believingit has to strike a balance betweenfreedom and necessity. Many of hisbuildings are clearly influenced by ancientarchitectural forms, buildings that have a solidity, a sense of purpose and a clearfunction. Schultes Frank Architectscreated the urban master plan for theSpreebogen (the government andparliament quarter) in Berlin as well as the city’s Chancellery building.

The design brief

Designed by Axel Schultes and Charlotte Frank, and completed in 1998,Baumschulenweg Crematorium is situated in south-east Berlin, Germany. Schultes andFrank’s scheme was a competition-winningentry that successfully responded to anexisting building and surrounding gardens.To realise their design was a task thatrequired tenderness, but not sentimentality.

‘Architecture can’t change the way things work. But it can create a place for rest, a place for silence.And it can do it even now that stones aren’t as solid as they used to be in days when faith wassomething more eternal, like the faiths of Saqqara and Giza.’Axel Schultes

Exterior view from the south-west of the crematorium

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The crematorium’s floor plan

The design solution

This crematorium is a place for both theliving and the dead. Cremation or traditionalfuneral ceremonies can take place in thebuilding and it provides a serene, controlledenvironment for the ritual of commemoratingthe death of a loved one. The intention withthis building was to suggest a more secularor neutral place to allow for the reflection and contemplation of those who havepassed away.

The crematorium is located within a formalwoodland area. The new building is reachedvia a main axis, which immediately connectsit with its surrounding landscape, presentinga symmetrical façade on approach. Onentering, the sky and woodland can be seenbeyond the building. The design of theinternal hall suggests an abstraction of theforest as irregularly placed columns appearas a grove of trees, which are enhanced bylight streaming in from above.

The intention with this building was to createa respectful and calm space; a place wherethe architecture could be invisible and silent.The building materials and structure were animportant part of realising this. The mainhall’s structural support is provided byreinforced concrete columns (29 support themain roof); the roof and floor are concreteand the walls are finished in polishedconcrete. Glass is used to bring light into the space from above and to animate thesurface of the columns and walls.

Despite its large-scale use, the concrete’sfinish is not refined and its imperfectionssuggest both a sense of memory and ahuman quality. The natural light entering thespace highlights the texture and surface ofthe concrete, which brings depth to anotherwise flat surface.

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The enclosed columnar hall creates thecharacter for the entire crematorium; it isboth monumental and ceremonial, evoking a sense of spirituality through its control of light and space. The hall’s 29 concretecolumns appear to rise from the ground atirregular intervals and give structure to therectangular-shaped space. Rings of daylightdefine the top of these columns giving theimpression that the roof is floating aboverather than fixed on to the supporting pillars.Cantilevered brackets at the top of eachcolumn allows the roof to ‘hover’ over thisspace much like a translucent canopy.

A round pool lies within this ‘forest’ of pillars,reflecting light and animating the surroundingspace. This is a space that is both simpleand complex and provides an experiencethat uses material and light to suggest acalm, contemplative area, a place in which to reflect and consider.

The cremation rooms on the basementfloor are accessed via two ramps at theback of the building. Separated from therooms where the funeral services are held,they are kept out of the mourners’ view and the only visible signs of them from theoutside are three stacks that are alignedalong one side of the roof.

The funeral services are held in one of the building’s three chapels. These areaccessible from the building’s main façade,via two niches that run the full height of the building.

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Project: Peninsula HouseLocation: Victoria, AustraliaArchitect: Sean GodsellDates: 2002

Sean Godsell’s Peninsula House is dug into the side of a sand dune on a beach south of Melbourne. It is an apparently simple exercise inJarrah timber and light, sun and sea.But it is made with subtlety anddetailed care.

Timber

Timber is a versatile building material. It can be used to create a building’s skeleton structure or be utilised to great effect for internal and external finishes. It’s possible to design and construct a building entirely of timber, from its frame and wall coverings to the roof. In addition to its versatility, timber is the ultimatesustainable material. If properly sourced it can be grown,used and replenished with little or no waste from itsmanufacture and production.

Timber also offers the architect more than just practicaladvantages; it is an aesthetically rich material that canvary depending on a tree’s species and type. Additionally,it has a natural beauty that (over time) can weather, a feature which can gradually add to a design scheme.

Different finishing techniques that further cultivate thebeauty of timber are also at the architect’s disposal. For example, it may be sanded, smoothed, waxed,varnished, stained or painted. A timber finish is ultimatelyflexible and can be adapted to suit a great number of possibilities, tastes and applications.

Timber architecture has often been most associated withthose countries that have plentiful natural sources of it(such as Canada or Scandinavian countries), but inrecent years timber-framed designs have become morecommonplace in a range of countries. The eco-friendlyand sustainable houses that make good use of timber intheir design are the smart houses of the future.

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c.3100 BCStonehenge

In 2005 timber structures werediscovered at Stonehenge (in Wiltshire,England), which are thought to be theremains of the builders’ living quarters(used whilst the stone structures werebeing built). These are some of theoldest timber structures that survive.

1400–1500Wealden Hall houses

Wealden Hall houses wereconstructed in Kent and Sussex,England for the yeoman class(gentleman-farmer). They combinedall elements of lodgings under asingle roof. This neat solution pavedthe way for later timber-framedblocks. Earlier examples of thesehouses have a recessed centralsection representing a double-heighthall, which was lit by a large windowat one end.

1804Timber windmill

The windmill pictured is located inLeisele, Alveringem, West-Flanders,Belgium. Old windmills, made entirelyfrom local timber, have been in usesince the 12th century here. They area part of the landscape and enabledthe land to be drained.

1972Timber-framed Huf HausPeter Huf

German company Huf Hausspecialises in creating individuallycrafted homes that combine beautifularchitecture with environmentallysound building practices. All aspectsof the house are made in a factorythen shipped to sites around theworld. In 1972 Huf Haus developedits timber-framed house, which hasan open plan interior.

1988Oslo AirportAviaplan

The main terminal building of Oslo’sGardermoen Airport was designed by the Aviaplan group (including Niels Torp, Narud Stokke Wiig andSkaarup & Jespersen), and usestimber to incredible structural andaesthetic effect. It is believed to bethe world’s only major airport with a wooden structure and is the largestlaminated structure in the world.

c.5000 BCNeolithic house

The farmers of Central and WesternEurope first introduced this style ofNeolithic longhouse around 5000 BC.Very few examples remain simplybecause timber does not preservewell. The example shown here is areconstruction, but the connectionbetween the style of the house andthe form of a Viking ship is clearlyvisible; it’s likely that the samecraftsmen would have worked onboth ships and buildings.

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1700sMedieval jetties

This street in York, England,demonstrates the aesthetic effectthat the application of overhangingtimber jetties achieved. This was an architectural feature that wasextremely popular between the 14th and 17th centuries.

c.1700–1800Farmstead log cabin

Log cabins were commonplacedwellings in many parts of NorthAmerica and Canada during the 18th century. Most were similar intheir design and were usually built in heavily wooded areas using felledlogs that were simply stacked andinterlocked. Roofs were constructedfrom cut and shaped timber shingles(or tiles).

2006Welsh Assembly BuildingRichard Rogers Partnership

The Senedd was designed by theRichard Rogers Partnership and usestraditional Welsh materials such asslate and Welsh oak in itsconstruction. The design is basedaround the concepts of opennessand transparency, and is alsodesigned to be as environmentallysound as possible.

2007Moonah Links lodges Hayball Leonard Stent Architects

Winner of the 2007 Australian TimberDesign Awards, the Moonah Linkslodges are located at the MoonahGolf Resort on the MorningtonPeninsula in Victoria, Australia. Theyuse timber for decorative effect;mixing rough sawn timber withplaned timber to give a natural finish.

1600sComplex façades

During the 17th century timber-framed façades become verycomplex. This was attributed to adeveloping aesthetic preference forextra decoration rather than a needfor any additional structural pieces.The Feathers Hotel in Ludlow,Shropshire (shown here) is a classicexample of this style.

2006The Alnwick Garden Visitor CentreHopkins Architects

The roof of this visitor centre is atimber diagrid structure that iscovered with transparent PTFEpillows. The structure is made fromsolid larch sections that are boltedtogether at intersections with steelplates and fixings.

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Historically, timber buildings have not survived theravages of time incredibly well. The properties of timbermake those buildings constructed wholly from itvulnerable to rot, fire and general wear and tear. As such,timber buildings do not have the lasting history of theirstone, brick or concrete counterparts. However, it is the‘temporary’ nature of timber buildings that characterisestheir architecture, and this is further enhanced by thosecrafts and skills that have developed and evolved torespond to the timber tradition.

The past

The earliest timber buildings include Neolithic longhouses,which were commonly found in Europe around 5000 BC. This building type was a timber-framed construction made with locally sourced timber. Neolithic longhousessubsequently influenced the development of medievalhouses in Europe and Scandinavia.

In the medieval period, timber frame structures wereenhanced with infill panels made by weaving willow andlighter timbers to make wattle and daub (the lattice ofwooden strips is called the ‘wattle’, and this is ‘daubed’ witha sticky material usually made of some combination of wetsoil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw). All the materialswere locally sourced and easily replaced and repaired. Inearlier buildings of this period the use of timber was purelyfunctional, but in later buildings both the structure and infillpanels became much more decorative.

During the mid-16th century, brick became a populararchitectural material of substance and permanence. Oftentimber-framed buildings were clad with a thin layer ofbrickwork to transform the appearance of the architecture.

The industrial revolution in the mid-18th century created atransport system of canals that allowed heavy materials to be transported long distances. Before this, building materialshad had to be sourced locally (which promoted the use oftimber as a viable architectural material). This advance led toa period of decline for timber buildings; however, during the19th century, the Victorian architecture referred back to themedieval past and used faux timber framing (which waspainted black) to suggest that the buildings were older thanthey really were.

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The present

In much contemporary architecture the use of timber hasbecome increasingly appropriate as the building industryresponds to the sustainable sourcing and application ofmaterials debate. Timber is becoming more adaptable in its use, more readily specified in mass building and thecarpentry and joinery skills needed to construct timber-framed buildings are now being rediscovered. Crucially,timber is a crop and as such it can be grown to replace andgenerate future reserves; this makes timber one of the mostsustainable materials in the construction industry. As such,timber has responded well to the social and economicalissues associated with construction and materials.

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Project: Little Moreton Hall`Location: Cheshire, UKArchitect: UnknownDates: 1450–1580

This Tudor manor house is a fineexample of a timber-framed building.It uses oak for the main structure and the panels are wattle and daub (a timber lattice infilled with a clayand animal dung mixture). Thebuilding’s oak frame is expressiveand clearly visible (because it isaccentuated by black paint). Thetimber is also decorative and usessquare panels with different patternsto create a distinctive facade.

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Project: Felix Nussbaum Museum Location: Osnabrück, GermanyArchitect: Daniel LibeskindDate: 1998

The Felix Nussbaum Museum is anextension to the Cultural HistoryMuseum in Osnabrück and isdedicated to the work of the Germanartist. The building’s exposedreinforced concrete and aluminiumstructure is clad with timber. Thescheme consists of three maincomponents: a tall and narrowcentral corridor, a long main section,and a bridge, which acts as aconnection to the Cultural HistoryMuseum.

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Unsurprisingly, timber buildings are most commonlyassociated with those countries that hold rich naturalreserves of the material. The European Alps, Scotland,North America and in particular, Scandinavia haveinfluenced and informed generations of architecturalexpression.

Timber is a natural building material choice in Norway wherea third of the country’s surface area is covered by forests.The material is readily available and there is a strong traditionand skilled craftsmanship associated with woodworking. In Finland and Sweden the simple cabin structure was thefirst vernacular timber building. These were traditionally builtusing log construction techniques and the region’s extensiveconiferous forests offered a plentiful supply of timber.Wooden churches were also commonly built in north-westFinland; for example, some church buildings in Turku(Finland’s oldest and fifth largest city) date back to 1150.

There is a practicality to the way that timber buildings arebuilt; with skill they can be easily constructed and are quickto repair. Timber buildings have a warmth that comes fromthe colour and texture of the material itself, but they can alsobe constructed to provide a physically warm environment.

Buildings made from timber are heavily influenced by tradition and craft, but they can also connect tocontemporary cultural ideas. In architectural practice today,the concept of ‘craft’ is enjoying a period of renaissance and how the material references its origin is a key aspect of this.

Project: David Douglas PavilionLocation: Pitlochry, ScotlandArchitect: Gaia ArchitectsDates: 2003

Gaia Architects have a reputation for their integrated and ecologicallysensitive approach. This pavilion is made entirely from locally sourcedScottish timber. It was designed to commemorate the 19th-centuryexplorer and one of the founders of the Scottish forestry industry,David Douglas.

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Project: Muuratsalo ExperimentalHouseLocation: Lake Päijänne, FinlandArchitect: Alvar AaltoDates: 1952–1954

Shown above is a smoke sauna that forms part of Alvar Aalto’sMuuratsalo Experimental Housecomplex. The sauna was constructedon stones that were specificallyselected from the shore by Aalto and the building’s logs were obtainedfrom trees felled on the site. A specialtype of timber blocking was used in the construction of the sauna. The idea is always to turn thenarrower ends of the round logs inthe same direction in order toachieve a firm result.

Alvar Aalto

Finnish architect Alvar Aalto(1898–1976) championed the use of timber in his designs. In1939 he constructed the FinnishPavilion for an exhibition in NewYork. This ‘symphony in wood’connected aspects of the Finnishlandscape with a completereinvention of timber architecture.The pavilion demonstrated whatwas possible with timber andproved that it could take on a variety of shapes and forms.Organic forms and use of naturalmaterials became signatures of Aalto’s work.

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Application

Timber and timber products can be applied in manydifferent contexts; from a building’s structure or frame to boarding and cladding for walls, to construct a roof or to produce purpose-made elements such as stairs or window frames. Traditionally, a carpenter would haveworked with timber on site, cutting and jointing as thedesigns or architect specified. Nowadays, however, theuse of timber in building demands an understanding ofhow prefabricated elements that are created off site areassembled together on site. Ease and speed of assemblyare key factors in timber-framed buildings today.

In the construction industry, timber is graded in differentways and these grades determine whether the wood is used for structural purposes or for finishes. It is also supplied in standard sizes and these are determined by the manufacturing process. For structural timbers thestandardisation is determined by the timber’s sectional sizeand for sheet materials by its panel size. When designing a building it is important that the architect is aware of thesestandards so the building components will fit togethercorrectly and easily.

Project: MacFarlane HouseLocation: Glasgow, ScotlandArchitect: Studio KAPDate: 2002

Studio KAP extended this villa totake greater advantage of itsspectacular setting. The building’smain entrance (at pavement level)gives way to a spatial sequence that,without changing levels, reveals atreetop setting to the rear. Thebuilding is covered in shingles (splitpieces of wood), which blend subtlywith the natural surroundings.

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Structural frame

Structural framing forms the shape of a building. It isgenerally hidden behind the internal and external claddingand so is rarely seen except during construction (although it can be left exposed if the architectural idea is to celebratethe material and form of the building). Framing typically usesa number of closely spaced parallel elements to supportlarge areas of lining or cladding. Timber framing can be usedfor walls, ceilings, floors, partitions and a building’s roofbecause it (generally) has the ability to bridge small tomedium spans and carry light loads.

Engineered timber can increase the structural strength offramework. For example, metal connectors and fittings orglue-laminated timber (layers of wood that are carefully gluedtogether) can create strong structural components that neednot be restricted by raw timber sizes and can be used inlarge-scale projects.

Project: The Millennium HutLocation: Glasgow, ScotlandArchitect: Studio KAPDate: 1999

Located within a new public space as part of Glasgow’s 1999 ‘FiveSpaces’ initiative, the Millennium Hut was designed by Studo KAPin collaboration with artist Claire Barclay to provide a much neededcommunity facility. The structureuses timber as a frame and cladding,with shingles and timber boarding as an external skin.

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Roof frame

A timber roof frame will comprise several elements. Theseinclude triangular truss units, which are connected to thewalls and also tied to one another for structural stability;rafters that serve as beams and are laid to support the roof;and joists that are laid at regular intervals from wall to walland provide constant support for the ceiling or the floor.Finally, purlins are horizontal structural elements that support the rafters; these need to be carefully supported by structural walls.

Flooring and decking

Timber can be used for both the floor frame and as a floorfinish. The floor finish can be achieved using pieces of solidtimber or wood layered on top of a composite board. Eitherlaminated or solid timber floor pieces can be supplied in a range of colours and lacquers.

Decking is a type of timber board flooring, and each board is structural rather than decorative. Decking is commonlyused externally in gardens, marinas, bridges, pier structuresand footbridges.

Panelling

Timber panels can offer structural rigidity in a timber-framedbuilding, provide support for a floor surface or roof finish orthey can be used decoratively as an interior or exterior finish.This sort of versatility requires a range of timber products thatare specifically designed to suit different functions. Examplesinclude plywood, tongue and groove, particle- or oriented-strand board or solid wood.

An important consideration with all timber panelling is toensure that there is adequate ventilation. Any wood productsused externally need to be regularly maintained as thematerial finish will naturally discolour and deteriorate.

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Project: Cliveden VillageLocation: Berkshire, UKArchitect: Onko ArchitectsDate: 2008

This building has timber shakes(slices of timber used as a protectiveedge) applied to its end wall. Thetimber specified for the shakes wassweet chestnut, which will weatherover time to a soft grey colour.

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External cladding

Buildings can be clad with a range of different timberapplications, such as solid boards or shingles, to suit avariety of functional demands. Another advantage of usingtimber to clad buildings is that it can be designed to suitmost environments and fit most sites with a minimum ofexpense. To deal with varying weather conditions differentcoating systems can be applied to timber to protect its finish.As well as prolonging the life of the material, these systemscan be used to quickly and effectively change the colour andstyle of the building.

Open-vented timber rainscreens have become a popularform of cladding in much contemporary architecture. Theseouter screens allow the rain to drain away from the building(beneath it will be an airspace and a watertight wall system)and can provide an interesting aesthetic to the architecture.

Stairs

Primarily, a staircase is a functional, structural element in a building that allows movement between levels, but it canalso form a decorative feature (for example, it may be free-standing or sculptural). It may be made completely fromtimber or just some of its component parts, such as thetreads, balusters or handrail could be made from wood.Often stairs that are made out of steel or concrete will have a wooden handrail, as there is a warmth to themateriality of this.

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Grand master

Since its foundation in 1965, Edward Cullinan Architectshas earned a reputation for designing carefullycomposed, award-winning and innovative buildings. They are committed to the idea that a successful buildingis one that responds thoughtfully and gracefully to theirclients’ needs and to its local context.

Over his long career Edward (Ted) Cullinan has drawn onmodernism’s social ideals, nature and natural forms to createa highly personal and inventive architecture. He studied atCambridge University and the Architectural Association at a time when the discipline was starting to broaden its rangeof reference. On graduating Cullinan joined the office of Sir Denys Lasdun and then continued his studies at theUniversity of California at Berkeley in the early 1960s.

Throughout his career, Cullinan has worked to ensure aholistic approach to building production. Sustainability andconsultation have been central to his practice’s buildingtechniques long before they became widely popular and he has successfully developed a strong connection to thenatural environment with his sustainable objectives. Centralto all of his projects is an inventive, innovative rethinking ofbuilding material application and assembly and it is this thathas characterised his work.

Edward Cullinan

The timber-clad roof of the Downland Gridshell

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The Gridshell’s exterior skin iscovered in cedar timber panels

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The Downland Gridshell

Located in Singleton, West Sussex, the Weald and DownlandMuseum houses numerous ‘real’ examples of Britishmedieval buildings ranging from a market hall and a series of individual houses to several barns that are now used for displays and exhibitions. The exhibits display particularaspects of carpentry, construction and specialist buildingtechniques, which may inform current and future ideas ofarchitecture and building.

Edward Cullinan Architects (ECA) were asked to add aworkshop and education centre to the existing museumcomplex, the design for which would need to respond to the museum’s collection of buildings and reinforce its aim to explain design concepts and building techniques througharchitectural forms. The space needed to be large enough to reassemble and display salvaged medieval timber-framedbuildings and house workshops, teaching sessions anddisplay spaces. ECA’s response to this was the concept of a rural ‘barn’ (or gridshell) that could be built as afunctional enclosure.

A gridshell is a structure that has the shape and strength of a double-curvature shell, but has a grid form instead of a solid surface. The Downland Gridshell was the first of itskind in the UK and employed a new range of constructionand manufacturing techniques. It was designed anddeveloped by engineers Buro Happold, ECA and the GreenOak Carpentry Company using CAD technology to enableadvance modelling of the building's structure and form.

The Downland Gridshell is made from oak laths or strips. To prepare the oak laths for use, all defects were firstremoved and the resulting pieces were then finger-jointedtogether into standard lengths of six metres. Six of thesewere then joined to form 36-metre lath pieces. A diagonalgrid of laths was initially formed flat on top of a supportingscaffold. The edges of the grid were then lowered graduallyand the grid bent into shape until the full shell was formedand secured. The grid is actually a double layer, with twolaths positioned in opposite directions, this is necessary inorder to combine the required degree of flexibility withsufficient cross-section for strength. A fifth layer triangulatesthe grid to increase its stiffness.


1962–65 Cullinan House, London, England

1985 Lambeth Community Care Centre, London, England

1990 RMC International Headquarters, Surrey, England

1992 Fountains Abbey Visitor Centre, Yorkshire, England

1997 Archaeolink Visitor Centre, Aberdeenshire, Scotland

1996–99 University of East London Docklands Campus, London, England

1999 Cookson-Smith House, London, England

1996–03 Cambridge University Centre for Mathematical Sciences, Cambridge, England

2000 Greenwich Millennium School and Health Centre, London, England

2002 Downland Gridshell, Weald and Downland Museum, West Sussex, England

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Lower and upper floor plans

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The Gridshell’s construction method is clearly expressed inthe building. Timber pieces create the roof pattern and thebolt and plate fixings form part of the shell’s interior surface.The exterior of the building is covered in cedar timber panelsblending it with the surrounding woodland to such a degreethat it appears to become part of it.

The Downland Gridshell is one of a very small number ofgridshell structures in Britain, and both its design andmethod of construction are unique. Highly skilled carpentryrealised its fabrication, emulating but not imitating thetraditional framed buildings at the museum. This buildingexemplifies innovation in design via a sensitivity andunderstanding of the project’s client, context andsurrounding natural environment.

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Case study

Sean Godsell | The Carter/Tucker House

Sean Godsell (b.1960) is one of Australia’sleading architects and his work isrenowned for its spare industrial formsand innovative use of materials. Trained at the University of Melbourne, Godselltravelled through Europe and Asia in theearly and mid 1980s and then spent twoyears working in London with Sir DenysLasdun. He subsequently returned toMelbourne to work for the Hassell Groupand in 1994 opened his own practice.Godsell has built a reputation in particularfor his residential architecture.

The design brief

Sean Godsell was asked to create a newresidential build in the extreme landscapeand climate of Australia’s outback. Godsellwanted to produce a design and useconstruction materials that could mediate the region’s hot climate and at the same timeensure that the client could take advantage(in terms of views and the relationship tooutdoor space) of the landscape surroundingthe house. In addition to this the clientrequested flexibility of the building’s internallayout to allow an adaptable living space. In terms of material specification, a sensitivityto the landscape would be required toensure that the architecture was read as partof its surroundings.

A conceptual sketch of the Carter/Tucker house

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Sean Godsell | The Carter/Tucker House

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is made from thin strips of cedar that arepositioned horizontally on a light steel frame.The screen softens the outside edge of thebuilding, blurring it into the surroundinglandscape and providing a subtle interfacebetween the inside and outside. The entirebuilding has been designed to weather andallow the region’s climate and environment to play a positive role over time.

The changing angles of the screen’s louvresconstantly modify the building’s appearance(depending upon the position of the viewer),and this is a conscious attempt toaccentuate the buoyancy of intermittent lightchanges and conditions throughout the day.Light enters (or is prevented from entering)the building in an ever-changing way.

The design solution

Embedded in a sand dune in Victoria,Australia, Godsell’s Carter/Tucker House(1998–2000) takes the form of a glass boxthat is clad with slender cedar panels.Fulfilling the client’s requirement for flexibleaccommodation, the house has three levels.A single space on the lower ground floor canbe divided into two rooms by a sliding wall ifrequired. Another single space on the middlelevel can also be divided to separate theowner’s bedroom from a small sitting area.The top floor is an area for living and eating.

On all three levels the building’s outer timberscreen (or skin) tilts open via a system ofadjustable louvres and by doing so forms anawning on the perimeter of the house. Thisallows the horizontal plane of the ceiling toextend beyond the building line. The screen

Exterior view showing how thecedar screen clads the building

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The interior spaces are strongly connected to views of the landscape

‘I have two responsibilities as an architect:one is to be true to myself and be an artist of the utmost integrity, which is what I’vetried to do. Another way of putting that is,once you’re a hooker, you’re a hooker for life.You can’t prostitute yourself and build abuilding and say I didn’t mean to do that onebecause buildings tend to stay there. Theother responsibility is to be a really vigilantand analytical observer of society – by doingso we remain relevant to society.’Sean Godsell

As well as filtering light, the panels can beopened and shut at various points to allowan interaction between the interior andexterior of the building and provide the client with different views over the course of the day.

The Carter/Tucker House also responds toideas that are commonly associated with the Australian vernacular. For example, thehouse is surrounded by a verandah, whichcan be partially enclosed with flywire or glassto form an indoor/outdoor space. Dependingon the time of the year the verandah canthen be enclosed with sliding flyscreens tobecome a sunroom or left open as a porch.

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Glenn Howells Architects | The Savill Building

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Formed in 1990, Glenn Howells Architects(GHA) has quickly established a strongtrack record in the design and delivery of its projects. The practice prides itselfon being governed by four key principles:vision, responsibility, delivery andexperience. Characteristic of both thepractice’s designs and its approach are a commitment to creativity, innovationand collaboration as well as a desire to seriously consider the integrity andimpact of their architecture on thesurrounding environment and immediatecommunity. These have served GHA wellas the practice now boasts a long list ofsatisfied clients and a range of prestigiousdesign awards.

The design brief

The British Crown Estate commissionedGHA to design a new visitor centre thatwould serve as a gateway for Windsor’sGreat Park. The building needed toaccommodate a range of visitor facilities andrespond sensitively to the landscape aroundit. The sourcing and specification of materialswas another key aspect of this build. Wherepossible local and sustainable resourceswere to be incorporated in the designscheme and traditional engineering and craftskills be used in the building’s construction.

Exterior view of the Savill Building

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The centre’s floor plan The design solution

Opened in 2006, The Savill Building is GHA’s award-winning visitor centre located in the south-eastern section of Windsor’sGreat Park. The centre provides an entranceto The Savill Garden and has become aunique man-made landmark within the park’snatural surroundings.

The pavilion-like building takes the form of a dramatic gridshell structure and housesvisitor facilities such as a ticket office, shop,self-service restaurant, seminar rooms,offices and a small garden centre all underone gently undulating roof. On entering thebuilding the visitor’s eye is drawn upwards to the roof structure, which appears to hoverover the internal facilities.

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The pavilion’s undulating roof

Combining contemporary engineeringtechniques with traditional craft skills, TheSavill Building is a landmark structure andhas been designed to reflect the characterand quality of the surrounding gardensthrough its form and material application.GHA worked closely with the design teamand client to create a sustainable building bymaking innovative use of traditional materialssourced on the estate itself.

European larch was used for the roofstructure and this timber was sourced from Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)plantations in Windsor Forest on The CrownEstate. After sampling and testing, larch was specified, as it was thought to be thebest available timber from a local source that would meet the strength requirements of the build.

‘The Savill Building, designed by GlennHowells Architects, has certainly provided us with a magnificent new iconic buildingthat forms the entrance to the Savill Gardenand gateway to the Royal landscape.’Roger Bright, The Crown Estate

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The structural timber was rigorously gradedto meet the specification requirements, but the roof design allowed the reuse oflower grade timber in less critical areas,thereby obtaining the maximum useful yieldfrom the resource.

The Crown Estate’s woodlands at Windsoralso supplied English oak for the building’srainscreen and timber floor. English oak wasselected for maximum durability and also for its appearance (it weathers naturally to a silvery-grey finish). Other timber structuralelements specified for the roof were spruceLVL (laminated veneer lumber) fromScandinavia and birch plywood (which was treated to prevent surface spread offlame/fire).

The building’s gridshell roof in plan is 90 metres long, 25 metres at its widest and8.5 metres at its tallest. To construct it, fourlayers of timber were first laid out flat andthen manipulated into a doubly curved shellform. The manipulation technique usesidentical components (timber laths and shearblocks), which were brought together on site. The curved shell was braced in plane, for shear strength and stiffness, by the birchplywood sheathing that supports the roofinsulation and outer cladding, thus makingthe skin of the shell multifunctional.

The Savill Building is the UK’s first free-standing gridshell complex and its ripplingand visually compelling roof is approximatelyfour times the size of that of the DownlandGridshell (see pages 84–89). This isdemonstrative of the advances that havebeen made, over a relatively short period oftime, in building technologies and techniquesand the way in which architectural conceptsand designs for such structures can bemoved forward in light of these.

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Project: German Bundestag domeLocation: Berlin, GermanyArchitect: Foster + PartnersDate: 1999

The dome of the Reichstag wasreinterpreted by Foster + Partners by incorporating a glass cupola thatpunches through the building’sstructure. The dome offers views upto the sky above and also into thedebating chamber below. The use of glass symbolically opens theReichstag up to the German peoplecreating a transparent architecturethat is intended to reflect thetransparency of the democraticvalues that the building houses.

Glass and steel represent a manufactured form ofarchitecture; these are materials that are used frequentlyin contemporary architecture to produce buildings thatare both functional and practical. Yet the aestheticpossibilities with glass and steel are impressive; thearchitecture that utilises these materials can becomealmost invisible, framing views of landscape or sky, ortransport us to the height of a bird soaring above a city.

Before the use of steel in architecture becamecommonplace, the weight of the building material andthe forces of gravity and compression defined a structureand its architectural possibilities. Advances in the use ofsteel-frame forms brought with it a new conceptual wayof thinking about structures. As steel has tensilestrength, it allows new structural systems (such ascantilevers) and far-reaching aesthetic possibilities (such as gravity-defying skyscrapers) to be developed.

Methods in the manufacture and engineering of glasshave also evolved. Glass is no longer limited to taking the form of a transparent surface that is held by a steelframe. Nowadays, it has the potential to be structural,creating an almost invisible architecture in the process.

Historically, glass and steel were used as interdependentmaterials in architectural forms. However, as glasstechnology has evolved, the architecture thatincorporates it is becoming less and less dependent onsteel for its structural integrity. Glass is a material of thefuture and provides both practical and symbolic qualitiesof transparency, lightness and openness.

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1919Monument to the Third InternationalVladimir Tatlin

The Monument to the ThirdInternational was designed tocelebrate Russia’s Third CommunistInternational in 1919. It was to becomposed of three glass volumes that would house offices and assemblyhalls, and these volumes were to move at different speeds. It was avisionary structure, but one that wasnever realised.

1929Barcelona PavilionLudwig Mies van der Rohe

The Barcelona Pavilion was createdto showcase German design for the1929 International Exposition, whichwas held in Barcelona, Spain. It questioned ideas of walls, floorsand roof and introduced anarchitecture of planes. The BarcelonaPavilion represents a reductiveapproach to architectural forms.

1971–1977Pompidou Centre Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano

This building reinvents conventionalideas of service area (such as liftsand stairs) placement. Instead ofbeing hidden in the depths of thebuilding they are celebrated on theelevations. The Pompidou’s frame is expressed on the outside of thebuilding, liberating itself from the restof the architecture.

1988–1992Torre de Collserola Foster + Partners

The Torre de Collserola is a 288-metre-high telecommunicationstower, providing all-round viewsacross Barcelona. The building iswrapped in glass to allow the all-round views, but also houses a structural glass platform on one of the decks. Using glass as a floorplate creates an even greater senseof excitement about both thebuilding’s interior and exterior views.

1987L’Institut du Monde Arabe Jean Nouvel Architects

This building’s glazed elevation usesa decorative mechanised screen tomodify the light coming in to it. Thebuilding brings together traditionalmethods of screening and separationwith sophisticated technologyproducing an elevation that adapts tovarying external light levels to modifythe interior environment.

1851Crystal PalaceJoseph Paxton

Using an iron frame and glasspanels, Paxton’s Crystal Palace wasthe world’s first prefabricated glassbuilding. It was constructed for The Great Exhibition, which was heldin London’s Hyde Park in 1851.

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1951Farnsworth House Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

At both its simplest and mostcomplex this building has beenreduced to a frame that is filled with glass. The Farnsworth House, in Illinois, USA, is a great example of steel and glass working in perfect harmony.

1958Seagram BuildingLudwig Mies van der Rohe

The completion of this 38-storeybuilding in 1958 suggested a new paradigm in architecture. Its reinforced concrete frame is wrapped with non-structural, bronze-tinted glass.

1989Louvre PyramidIM Pei

The Louvre in Paris wasreinvented by the architecture of IM Pei. He used a platonic shape– a pyramid made of glass – tomake a connection between themuseum and La Défense (an office development on the edge of Paris). Pei’s pyramid is botharchitectural and culturallysignificant to Paris.

2003Laban Dance CentreHerzog & de Meuron

Glass is used in this building as awrapping that mediates betweeninside and outside. The wrappingcomprises a glass layer and anexternal outer polycarbonate skin,creating thermal and acousticseparation. This building plays withideas of transparency, translucencyand shadow.

2004Swiss ReFoster+Partners

This building, which uses glass as a skin and steel as a means to aliberated form, is a paradigm of the21st century. It represents architectureof the future, incorporating aspects ofenvironmental design with structuralelegance.

1931Maison de VerrePierre Chareau

Literally translated, the ‘house ofglass’ was designed in a traditionalParisian courtyard as an infill project.Maison de Verre uses ideasborrowed from industrial designincluding glass bricks and openingwindows and shutters. This house is defined by light, which istransformed as it enters the buildingby the structure’s glass block bricks.

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Experts believe that the ancient Syrians discoveredglass-making, probably by accident, around 3000 BC.Syrian glass was a simple melted mixture of soda ash,lime and sand.

Historically, the application of glass in architecture has been limited by the manufacturing techniques used toproduce it, as these controlled size of panels or pieces made. Its fragility has also made it expensive to produce,transport and handle. Advances in manufacturing andconstruction technologies, however, have allowed glass to be used in innovative applications and for structuralpurposes in contemporary architecture.

Spirituality and wealth

In places of worship numerous and large glass windowsallow a building’s interior to flood with light, which mightsuggest qualities of the heavenly and the divine. Medievalcathedrals used stained glass (the staining was achieved by painting or adding colours during the manufacturingprocess) to illuminate heavy cold spaces and create dramaticcontrast in the interior. One of the most remarkable examplesof this style is Chartres Cathedral (in Chartres, France), which has magnificent glazing dating from 1150. The colours of the cathedral’s stained glass animate the interior anddepict narrative scenes from the old and new testaments of the Bible.

In Elizabethan times glass was a rarity and its production a craft; as such its application in architecture was a goodindicator of the wealth of a building’s owner or occupant.Robert Smythson’s Hardwick Hall (1591–1597) is one of the most significant country homes in England. Almost 40 per cent of its elevation is glazing. For the period, the use of so much glass was both rare and extravagant and led the building to be described as ‘more glass than wall’ by one commentator.

In the Georgian era, windows in buildings became larger toallow increased light and ventilation into the interior spaces.Their increased size made them heavier and more difficult to open and this led to the the introduction of the sliding sashwindow. The sash window could span large apertures and beopened easily using counterweights.

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Project: Kirche am Steinhof Title: View of the stained glasswindows in the nave Location: Vienna, AustriaArchitect: Otto WagnerDate: 1907

The Kirche am Steinhof (also calledthe Church of St Leopold) in Vienna is one of the most famous artnouveau churches in the world. Its mosaics and stained glass weredesigned by Koloman Moser.

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Project: Seagram BuildingLocation: New York, USAArchitect: Ludwig Mies van der RoheDate: 1958

The Seagram Building is 157 metres high and has 38 storeys.Its framework is steel from which non-structural glass walls are hung. Mies van der Rohe would havepreferred for the steel frame to be left exposed; however, Americanbuilding codes required that allstructural steel be covered in afireproof material. Concrete wouldhave hidden the building’s frame so Mies van der Rohe used non-structural bronze-toned I-beams to suggest structure instead. Thesebeams are visible from the outside of the building and run vertically,surrounding the large glass windows.

Protection and industry

During the Victorian era glass was used experimentally inhorticulture to provide protection from harsh climates forplants, fruits and vegetables. This led to innovative designsfor orangeries (glazed structures designed specifically toprotect oranges) and greenhouses across northern Europe.

A pivotal point in contemporary architectural design andglass and steel construction technology was the realisation of Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace. It was erected inLondon’s Hyde Park to house the Great Exhibition of 1851and brought together innovation in materials, constructionand manufacturing. Paxton’s Crystal Palace represents one of the earliest examples of a temporary, prefabricatedstructure and it was to influence and inform the design of many more vast industrial buildings, from market halls torailway stations, which needed to shelter large, open spacesand simultaneously allow lots of daylight to flood in. Cast ironcolumns and modular glazing systems created a new,functionally driven architectural language.

Further experimentation in the use of glass in architecture is evident in Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s Barcelona Pavilion(1929). In this structure all walls, the floor and roof becomeplanes and all standard conventions, such as the distinctionbetween the horizontal and vertical or the inside and outside,are questioned. The pavilion’s structural frame liberated the wall plane from its primarily load-bearing purpose. In Mies van der Rohe’s vision the wall panel could be usedprimarily to separate interior and exterior spaces. Specifyingglass for the purpose of building a wall thus became a real possibility.

In contemporary architecture, new buildings in our cities areever taller and frequently approach the inconceivable. FromChicago’s Home Insurance Building (which was completed in 1885 and is widely believed to be the world’s first‘skyscraper’), to Taiwan’s 509-metre high Taipei 101 building,all have been made possible by the technological advancesmade in steel and glass production.

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When architects respond to a building brief, context is a primary consideration. This may describe a building’ssite, or it may refer to the cultural context of thesurrounding environment. Steel and glass architecturehas evolved dramatically from its 19th-century origins tothe incredible heights of today’s skyscraping possibilities,but throughout it has always been considered anarchitecture of the future.

The zeitgeist

Metals can be worked in many ways and this responds totheir various industrial production processes, from castingand pressing to forging and extruding. Historically, architectsand engineers who understood the potential of theseprocesses (and the materials they produced) used this tocreate ideas and concepts that were strongly connected to a particular cultural idea. Art Nouveau architecture, forexample, related to ideas of organic form and expression.Championed by Victor Horta and others, this expression wasconnected to artistic and cultural ideals that were popular inBelgium and France during the late 19th century (an exampleof these can be found in the designs for the Paris Metroentrances).

As an understanding of the potential of industrial materialsdeveloped, so too did the architecture that utilised them. Iron structures challenged architectural convention in the mid 19th century and liberated space, facilitating the largestbuildings of their time.

Designed by Ferdinand Dutert and engineered by VictorContamin, the Palais des Machines in Paris is perhaps themost important metal and glass building of the 19th century.It was an iron frame structure and, along with the Eiffel Tower,dominated the city’s Exposition Universelle in 1889. ThePalais des Machines had a span of 115 metres and length of 240 metres, but was dismantled in 1910. (The Eiffel Tower,however, used the same construction techniques and that itstill exists is a testimony to that period of industrialisation ofmaterials and structure.)

Project: L’Institut du Monde ArabeLocation: Paris, FranceArchitect: Jean Nouvel ArchitectsDate: 1987

For the façade design of the L’Institutdu Monde Arabe, Jean Nouvel tookthe design of a traditional Islamicscreen and used this as a means tomodify the light entering the building.The glass and steel screen opensand closes depending on thesurrounding light levels, whichmoderates the interior and exterior of the building. Nouvel’s screeninnovatively combines traditionaldesign and contemporary technologyto create a dynamic building thatresponds to its surrounding climaticconditions.

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Project: The British Museum Great CourtLocation: London, UKArchitect: Foster + PartnersDate: 2000

To allow the British Museum’s GreatCourt to be used by visitors in allweather conditions it was coveredwith an undulating glazed roof. The roof has no visible supports and instead it spans the court area as a self-supporting structure. Theundulating, minimal steel latticeworksupports 3312 triangular glasspanels, each one different in size andshape.

Material association

Glass (and steel) can be used to create impressive,functional and highly engineered architectural forms, andthese forms can also suggest ideological issues via theconstruction materials used.

Glass offers the architect the potential to create buildingforms that can be immediately associated with the properties of the material itself, producing structures that aretransparent, light, open and clear. For example, The FederalParliament in Bonn, Germany (designed by Behnisch andPartners and completed in 1991) is one the first designs to use this powerful association in a contemporary parliamentbuilding (and was followed by Enric Miralles’ HolyroodBuilding in Edinburgh, and Sir Norman Foster’s ReichstagDome in Berlin and Senedd building in Cardiff). Theconnection between these buildings’ materiality and theopenness of the democratic processes they house is no coincidence.

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Application

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As part of the modernist aesthetic, glass and steel havecommonly been associated with one another. Thecombination of both materials brings both strength anddelicacy to architecture; a steel frame can appear quite‘light’ and slender when combined with the transparencyof a glass wall. Initially, glass and steel were used inparticular for large, open-plan, industrial architecturalapplications, but advances in material technology havegenerated a greater range of possibilities for the use of both materials.

Structure and finishes

For the architect, one of the most important properties and key advantages of specifying the use of glass is itstransparency: it allows light into a space. The limiting factorswill be the weight and size of the glass pieces, as these couldrestrict both manufacture and transport to site.

The use of glass in building design need no longer berestricted to windows – it can also be used structurally too.Reinforced glazed pieces can be used as floor panels or stairtreads and glazed structural columns (or fins) can be used to support glass walls. For example, the Apple store in NewYork, designed by Bohlin Cywinski Jackson, uses glass wallsand structural elements to create a completely transparentarchitecture. Glass is also frequently used to constructcurtain walls – non-load-bearing façades that are drawnacross a building (much like a curtain) and attached to thefront of the structure using specialist fixtures.

As well as structural uses, glass can be treated so that it canbe applied as a finish, perhaps to create a decorative panelinside a building or to produce exterior cladding. A range ofprocesses can alter the properties and appearance of glass.For example, it can be sandblasted, screen-printed or havematerials applied to its surface to modify its opacity, or it may have layers of timber or metal applied to it to alter theway in which light interacts with the glass. Glass has becomean important layer in the design process and manipulating it can change the experience of how light enters (or exits) a building or space, which can dramatically affect the wholearchitectural scheme.

Project: Selfridges store Location: Birmingham, UKArchitect: Future SystemsDate: 2003

The organic form of this departmentstore houses an enormous retailspace and produces a completelyinward-looking building. Thebuilding’s outer skin is covered inthousands of aluminium discs, whichcreate an impressive and distinctivearchitectural statement.

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Surface treatments

Architects are increasingly exploring the ambiguities thatdifferent glass surface treatments can bring. Screen-printingdots or patterns on to the surface can suggest reflectionswhen viewed from a distance and at close range allowshadows of the interior to be seen. Jean Nouvel, for example,has been experimenting with glass for over 20 years. He usesglass as a screen and prints on to its surface to provideseparation from the substance of the building behind. In hisarchitecture, glass surfaces act much like a veil.

Glass can also be treated with chemicals so that it is self-cleaning. This means it can be used in areas that may bedifficult to access for maintenance. There are also surfacetreatments available that will reduce heat loss through theglass in the winter and control solar gain in the summer,allowing better temperature regulation.

Project: The Kunsthaus Bregenz Location: Bregenz, AustriaArchitect: Peter ZumthorDate: 1997

From the exterior, this buildingresembles a glass cube and at nightit appears to glow. The KunsthausBregenz is in fact a concretestructure that is encased in a glassfaçade. The glass panels are heldwithin a steel frame, which iscompletely independent of the heavy,solid inner building. The glass is usedto create impressive effects bothinternally and externally.

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Steel frames and finishes

The advantage that steel brings to architecture is its strength;a relatively slender steel structure can support numerousfloor levels and, when combined with reinforced concrete,steel frames make ever taller structures achievable. The proposed super-tall Al Burj Dubai tower, for example, is intended to be over 1200 metres high and this prospect is only achievable by the structure’s framework. Steel framesare often now visible on both the inside and outside ofbuildings as part of the expression of the architectural idea or concept.

Steel and other metal finishes are now an importantconsideration for the architect. William Van Alen’s ChryslerBuilding (1928–1930), for example, is a classic example of how metal cladding can be used in construction to great effect.

Stainless steel has become a popular cladding materialbecause it is durable, strong and can offer a variety ofaesthetic effects, from highly reflective to ‘flatter’ surfaces.Aluminium cladding panels are lightweight and available in numerous colours, providing a variety of finishingpossibilities for the architect. Core Ten is a type of steel thatis intentionally weathered to produce a rusted appearanceand is almost terracotta in colour. It is a popular claddingmaterial because it provides a softer finish than stainlesssteel. Zinc is another cladding option and it can be coveredin titanium to give a strong protective finish.

Metal can have different colours applied during itsmanufacturing process to produce decorative panels thatmay be used for cladding. A natural material that can achievea similar effect is copper. Cladding panels made from copperor bronze will change from their original colour to anincredible green over time as the finish becomes patinated.

PatinaPatina is a coating of variouschemical compounds such asoxides or carbonates that formon the surface of metal duringexposure to weathering. Thegreen patina that forms naturallyon copper and bronze is knownas verdigris and consists ofcopper carbonate. Artists andmetalworkers often deliberatelyadd patinas as a part of theoriginal design and decoration ofart and furniture, or to simulateantiquity in newly made objects.

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Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

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Grand master

German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969)transformed building design by challenging conventionand embracing modern materials. Mies van der Rohewas a pioneer of 20th-century architecture and has had a profound effect on much contemporary architecturaldesign and material application.

Mies van der Rohe was both an architect and an educator(he was architect director of the Bauhaus between 1930 and1933). His holistic approach to design was not only evident in his building schemes, but also in his furniture designs(such as the Brno and Barcelona chairs). His architecturesynthesised function, space, materials and structure and was characterised by the use of modern materials to defineaustere but elegant spaces. He developed the use ofexposed steel frames and used glass to enclose and definespace, striving for an architecture with a minimal frameworkof structural order.

Mies van der Rohe was interested in architecture of structural integrity and material honesty. His famousaphorism ‘less is more’ connects with the concept ofarchitectural necessity; anything superfluous simply couldn’tbe justified. This concept developed into a rational approachthat was reflected in the organisation, planning and detailingof his buildings.

The success of this reductive form of architecture wasdependent on the material details: their aesthetics, propertiesand how they fitted together. Careful consideration of these created both the subtlety and the elegance of hisarchitectural solutions.


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An exterior view of Mies van deRohe’s Barcelona Pavilion

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The Barcelona Pavilion

In 1929 Mies van der Rohe designed the Barcelona Pavilion.It was designed to showcase German innovation and wasthe country’s entry for the 1929 International Exposition(which was held in Barcelona, hence the building’s name).

The building represents an important milestone in the historyof modern architecture as it used materials such as glass,marble and travertine to great effect. The pavilion stands on a large podium and the structure consists of eight steel poststhat are cruciform in section and left exposed as part of thearchitectural language of the building. The steel postssupport a flat roof (which is a plane of reinforced concrete),and the wall planes are either curtain glass or partition forms.

Central to the pavilion is an internal core slab of polishedonyx, the dimensions of which affect the proportion and sizeof the building (the pavilion is twice the width and twice thelength of the slab). The floor material is made from Romantravertine, and this is also used for the enclosing wall of thebuilding’s pool and office. The pavilion’s sculpture pool issurrounded by green marble, and different coloured glassis used for the building’s various screens.

The pavilion’s interior frames theviews to the outside

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eThe Barcelona Pavilion’s floor plan The Barcelona Pavilion is an experiment in materialapplication, structure and finish. It used materials andexplored structure in ways that (prior to 1929) had not beenimagined. It also challenged preconceived ideas ofarchitectural form and posed questions about what definesthe outside from the inside and what distinguishes a wall,roof or floor plane. In the Barcelona Pavilion, the floor planesand roof plane were horizontal surfaces and the walls werevertical slabs of glass or marble.

Mies van der Rohe used a limited palette of materials in his pavilion scheme, but each was carefully placed andconsidered to create an architecture that was both minimaland distinctive. His most famous pieces of furniture, theBarcelona chair and stool, were designed to complement thebuilding. The pavilion was dismantled after the exhibition, buta replica was reconstructed in Barcelona in 1983.

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The pavilion’s columns areexpressed separately from the walls

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1907 Riehl House,Potsdam, Germany

1911 Peris House,Zehlendorf, Germany

1913 Werner House,Zehlendorf, Germany

1917 Urbig House,Potsdam, Germany

1922 Kempner House,Charlottenburg, Germany

1922 Eichstaedt House, Wannsee, Germany

1922 Feldmann House,Wilmersdorf, Germany

1929 Barcelona Pavilion,Barcelona, Spain

1930 Tugendhat House, Brno, Germany

1951 Lake Shore Drive Apartments, Chicago, USA

1951 Farnsworth House,Plano, USA

1956 Crown Hall (College of Architecture at Illinois Institute of Technology),Illinois, USA

1958 Seagram Building, New York City, USA

1963 Lafayette Park,Detroit, USA

1968 New National Gallery,Berlin, Germany

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Case study

Foster+Partners | The McLaren Technology Centre

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The McLaren Technology Centre is the corporate and manufacturingheadquarters for the McLaren Group.Designed by Foster+Partners, the group’sstate-of-the-art centre is located inSurrey, England. Foster+Partners arerenowned internationally for theirapproach, which combines functionalarchitectural design with an elegance inengineering. This combination producesexpressive buildings that envelop andcontain function, but challengepreconceptions of space via theinnovative use of building materials.

The design brief

The McLaren headquarters fits the paradigmof a Foster + Partners building. McLarendepends on the continued development ofhigh technology in order to produce some of the fastest Formula One cars in the world.The architecture that would become thecompany’s headquarters needed to reflectthis technological sophistication and serve as a ‘laboratory’ for McLaren’s innovation.

McLaren came to the architects with anumber of preconceptions, not about whatthe architecture should look like, but whatthe spirit of the building, its aspirations andits social generators should be.

‘As architects, my colleagues and I had been engaged for many years in meeting thechallenge of social, technological and lifestyle change, the way they interlock and looking at the re-evaluation of the workplace as a good place to be. This inspiration has permeateddown into the building itself.’ Sir Norman Foster

An exterior view of the McLarenheadquarters

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The building’s site plan shows the scheme within its context,surrounded by a lake and carefullyorganised planting

Foster + Partners were asked to ensure that the headquarters would house themajority of the McLaren Group’s employees(who had been previously scattered across 18 locations in Surrey). The architectsworked with the client to respond to theirworking methodology and processes toensure that the building could accommodatetheir experimental, developmental andmanufacturing needs.

There was a natural synergy betweenMcLaren and Foster+ Partners and indetermining what the architect and client,both of whom came from very differentdesign disciplines, wanted to achieve.

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Foster+ Partners | The McLaren Technology Centre

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The design solution

The McLaren Technology Centre uses high-specification steel and glass to suggesta ‘future’ architecture in terms of materialdevelopment and design.

The centre’s semi-circular plan is completedby a formal lake, which forms an integral part of the building’s cooling system. Theprincipal lakeside façade is a continuouscurved glass wall that looks out across the landscape and is shaded by acantilevered roof.

The centre is constructed on an in-situconcrete slab that was cut into thelandscape to keep the height of the buildingbelow a set restriction of 11 metres aboveground level. The deep-plan building wassunk into the landscape and shielded fromview by the planting of 100,000 speciallyselected new trees and ornamental shrubs.

The centre’s interior offers viewsacross the landscape

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The building’s framework is a steel skeletonwrapped in a skin of glass and aluminiumcladding, which creates a strong characterfor both the interior and exterior shells.The main body of the centre is broken into18-metre-wide ‘fingers’, with six-metre widestrips (or ‘streets’) between them. The streetsallow daylight into the building, give thoseworking inside it an awareness of the outsideand form a central part of the centre’sventilation system. In cross section, 18-metre-wide mezzanine floors areincorporated from ground to roof level.

The design of the centre’s interior respondsdirectly to the building’s highly detailed andfinished exterior. All the interior furnishingsspecified complement the clean and efficientworking environment. Floor-to-ceiling glazedpanels ensure a strong visual connectionbetween the interior of building and itssurrounding landscape and ecosystem andthis theme is enforced by the incorporation of eye-level, abstract art works that arehoused in glazed panels and placed aroundindividual workstations.

There are five lakes at the McLarenTechnology Centre: the formal lake at thefront of the building and a further series ofinterconnected ecology lakes. The lakes arefunctional as well as aesthetically pleasingand their 50,000 cubic metres of water forma vital part of the building’s coolinginfrastructure. Water is pumped – one thirddirectly and two thirds via a natural filtrationsystem of reed beds and a cleansing biotope– through a series of heat exchangers thatextract heat from the chiller plant.

The water is recirculated via a 160-metre-long cascade that extends around the faredge of the lake. The water’s temperaturereduces as it cascades down a series ofshallow steps and its fast-flowing movementcauses it to aerate, thereby helping tooxygenate the system.

The creation of this functionally designedworking environment has been given thesame careful consideration as a beautifullyengineered machine might; materials havebeen tested and specified and constructiondetails executed with precision. The result is the creation of a ‘complete’ environment,both inside and out.

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One of the centre’s ‘streets’

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Case study

Grimshaw Architects | Fundación Caixa Galicia

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Founded in 1980 by Sir NicholasGrimshaw, Grimshaw Architects isresponsible for a number of criticallyacclaimed projects. The architecture of this practice has long been defined by originality, in terms of its design,material application and engineering. The architecture of the practicecharacteristically responds to thepotential of the construction materialspecified, whether this is glass, steel or a composite material.

The practice is also renowned for its designprocess, in particular its unique modellingapproach. This approach has allowedGrimshaw Architects to design environmentsthat are both sensitive and sustainable. The tubular steel-frame and thermoplasticETFE-clad biomes of Cornwall’s EdenProject are one such example of this. Here,Grimshaw’s architectural response usesinnovative materials and design approachesto create a completely enclosed andcontrolled environment. Another example isthe Fundación Caixa Galicia, in the provinceof Galicia, Spain.

The design brief

Grimshaw’s first design scheme for an art and cultural centre is dedicated to thecollection of Spanish financial institutionFundación Caixa Galicia. As well asproviding suitable space to house its pieces,the client sought an inviting civic buildingthat would draw public visitors inside andalso offer exclusive facilities for privatefunctions. Another key aspect of the designbrief was to ensure that the response wassensitive to the site, which is located in thehistoric city of A Coruña, north-west Spain.

The building’s curved roof sweeps the façade down onto the street

The glass cladding incorporates a thin veneer of marble, which lends a translucent quality to thegallery’s façade

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Case study

Grimshaw Architects | Fundación Caixa Galicia

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‘I am strongly of the belief that one always ought to try todesign in the age you live in with the materials of the age you live in... Up to the early part of this [the twentieth]century, there were no controls on fitting in, people justsimply did the best thing they could with the materials of theirage and that’s why I think the buildings have a certain kind ofcredibility and people accept them for being good buildings.’Sir Nicholas Grimshaw

The building’s floor plan

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The design solution

The 5500m2 Fundación Caixa Galicia artscentre is located in the historic quarter of A Coruña and occupies the last ‘gap’ on a street of glazed balconies, which havebecome emblematic of the old town.Grimshaw’s designs for both the existing and new buildings needed to be sensitive tothe distinctive architecture of its neighboursand conform to the dictates of the existingbuilding regulations (particularly in regard to building height).

It required an imaginative response toprovide a smooth graduation from thebuilding’s soaring front elevation (overlookingthe port), to the lower-lying administrativebuilding that adjoins the site at the rear. As well as making this transition, the newbuilding had to establish a dialogue betweenhistorical and contemporary design.

The solution that emerged is a tiltedparaboloid. The form’s apex peaks at thefront elevation, before falling steeply downthe street façade on an inverse incline andplunging below ground level. The gallery’sstreet-facing elevation is clad with glasspanelling that incorporates a slender marble interlayer. This translucent skinprovides the building with a rich luminosityand allows daylight to permeate the gallery.In darkness, it allows the building to appearsoftly illuminated.

The building comprises seven floors ofsuperstructure and four basement levels, and features a glazed internal ‘street’, glass bridges, inclined panoramic elevators,column-free exhibition galleries and a 300-seat auditorium.

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The gallery has been described as a buildingof contradictions: open yet closed;connected yet clearly divided; and public butwith carefully secluded private spaces. It isperhaps the full-height atrium that createsthese tensions. It spans the longitudinalsection of the building and forms thebackbone of the gallery’s circulation. The glazed atrium visually and physically‘slices’ the building in section and allowsdaylight to flood the visitor's verticalcirculation path (which is a prominentstaircase that creates a sculptural presencein the central atrium void). The use of glassthroughout ensures that daylight is optimisedwherever possible. Where artificial lighting is relied upon, it is set into the fabric of thebuilding to create unobtrusive illumination.

The building’s below-ground levels arehoused in a granite base and this heavy,timeless material anchors the structure. The paving slabs used on the ground floorare also granite, echoing the street pavingand providing a connection between thearchitecture and its external surroundings.

The specification and use of materials on thisbuild, from the glass wall on the exterior formto the interior’s white plaster finish, suggestsa lightness and openness, imbuing a senseof both transparency and accessibility.

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Project: MK Forty TowerLocation: Milton Keynes, UKArchitects: dRMMDate: 2007

In 2007 Milton Keynes Gallery (MKG) invited dRMM to design a temporary pavilion to mark the 40th anniversary of the city of MiltonKeynes. dRMM proposed a tower to conceptually contrast with thepredominant horizontality of the city.The freestanding pavilion is made of cross-laminated prefabricatedsections of MDF timber. The MKForty tower is 19 metres high; visitors can climb 101 wooden steps to reach a platform withpanoramic views of the city and the landscape beyond.

Composite materials

Materials can be classified in many different ways. Some are found or extracted from the earth (such asstone or timber) and some are manufactured fromnatural components (such as glass and steel). Compositematerials are those that are designed and produced froma range of other resources (natural, synthetic or man-made) to perform a particular function.

The properties of composite materials can be engineeredto respond to particular design conditions; for examplethey may be especially durable, strong or waterproofdepending on the requirements of the build. The keyadvantage of using composite materials in architecturaldesign is that they are hugely flexible: by varying theircomposition and constituent parts different solutions fordifferent projects can be found.

Importantly the range of materials in this category cangrow from an understanding of material application inother areas of industry. This sort of innovation occurs asscientists, engineers, architects and designers respondto one another’s work, begin to think outside the realmsof their specialist fields and creatively apply compositematerials across different disciplines.

The possibilities for this material group are ever growing. Our natural resources are in limited supply andcomposite materials will become increasingly importantin order to reduce the amount of ‘raw’ materials that areused in architectural design.

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Timeline: composite materials

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1997Guggenheim MuseumFrank Gehry

Located in Bilbao, Spain, the mostdistinctive and remarkable aspects of this building are its shape and itsmaterial application. Its sculpturaldynamic shape is only possiblebecause titanium, the material usedfor the building’s cladding panels, isincredibly flexible.

2003Selfridges storeFuture Systems

The skin of this Birminghamdepartment store is clothed inthousands of aluminium discs. These cover the entire surface of thebuilding, creating a ‘chain-mail’aesthetic and producing an organic,light-reflecting effect.

2003Lagotronics Headquarters

Located in Venlo, The Netherlands,the façade of the Lagotronicsheadquarters incorporates 72 acrylicpanels that light up a surface area ofnearly 165 square metres. Amazinglytransparent, the whole constructionallows light to enter the buildingduring the day but reveals a chase ofdifferently coloured squares at night.

1986Lloyds BuildingRichard Rogers Partnership

This building has a machine-likeappearance and is made ofprefabricated elements that ‘lock’together. The Lloyds buildingreinvented the idea of construction;its service areas (such as stairs, liftsand toilets) are located at the edge ofthe building freeing the central spacefor office use.

2003KunsthausPeter Cook and Colin Fournier

This art museum has become anarchitectural landmark in Graz,Austria. An example of ‘blob’architecture, it is distinctive in formand colour. Its formwork is areinforced concrete box that iscovered in blue plastic, creating anorganic shape. At night the museumis carefully illuminated to exaggeratethe unusual shape.

1997Eberswalde Technical Library Herzog & de Meuron

The Eberswalde library was designedin collaboration with artist ThomasRuff. The building’s form is a simplecube sheathed in glass and cast-concrete panels that are arranged inhorizontal bands. Each band shows a single image, which is repeated 66 times, producing a static film strip.

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2000The 02 Arena Richard Rogers Partnership

London’s O2 Arena (the ‘Dome’) iscovered by a polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE) plastic roof. The space withinit is 50 metres high and the roof issupported by a series of masts andcables. The building has taken itspopular name from its definingfeature, its roof structure.

2004Galleria shopping centreUNStudio

Located in Seoul, Korea, the façadeof the Galleria shopping centreprojects an ever-changing surface. In total, 4330 glass discs aremounted on the concrete skin of thebuilding. The discs include specialdichroic foil, generating a mother-of-pearl effect during the day. At nighteach glass disc is lit by LED lights,which are programmed to create a multitude of aesthetic effects.

2006Water CubeArup and PTW Architects

Beijing’s National Aquatics Centrewas constructed to house waterevents for the 2008 Olympic Games.The ‘Cube’s’ main structure is madeof concrete and steel and the form is clad with ETFE plastic, which ismoulded to resemble bubbles. Thematerial is transparent and fills thespace with light.

2006Stripe TheatreDesign Engine Architects

This building is clad withProdema. Prodema is made fromheat-hardened synthetic-resin-bonded cellulose fibre. It has a neutral wood surface and a protective lining. Prodemaappears to have a natural finish,but it is much more durable thannaturally sourced materials.

2001Eden ProjectGrimshaw Architects

The Eden Project features a series of glazed biomes (climaticallycontrolled environments containingecosystems). The biomes are madefrom a tubular steel frame thatcontains hexagonal panels ofethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), a type of plastic that is designed to have high strength and thermalresistance.

2000Japanese Pavilion Shigeru Ban

Shigeru Ban is famous for hisinnovative structures created frompaper, particularly recycledcardboard tubes. Ban created theJapanese Pavilion at Expo 2000 inHanover, Germany. The 72-metre-long gridshell structure was madewith paper tubes. After the exhibitionthe structure was recycled andreturned to paper pulp.

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Composite materials are not classified as ‘pure’ in eithertheir composition or application. These materials havebeen adapted from their original form to createengineered hybrids that can serve multiple functions in building design. For example, materials that combinethe aesthetic qualities of wood with the durability ofplastic are now available thanks to advances in materialscience and technology.

If they are to inform architecture, understanding theproperties of these materials is essential and requiresarchitects, engineers and designers to collaborate withproduct manufacturers. Doing so will allow designers torespond to the range of possibilities that such materials canbring to architectural design and the construction process.

Plastics

The 20th century saw new industrial and chemical processesused to create a range of composite materials. The earliest ofthese were plastics (created in 1885).

Plastic materials are collectively known as polymers. A polymer has a molecular structure that is built up from a number of similar units, which are all bonded together. The term refers to a range of materials including plastic andsynthetic resin. ‘Plastic’ is also a generic term that describesa material quality, something that can transform to take onnew shapes and be moulded into different forms.

One of the earliest and most influential synthetic materialswas Bakelite. Invented in 1907 by Leo Hendrik Baekeland,Bakelite was used extensively for all sorts of products fromtelephones to light switches.

In 1938 Roy Plunkett developed polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE) or Teflon for use as a protective coating (it was usedin the manufacture of the atomic bomb). A contemporaryexample of PTFE’s architectural application can be found inthe structural fabric roof of London’s O2 Arena.

Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) uses glass fibre as a structuralelement and this is bonded with epoxy resins. GRP is astrong, lightweight material that has low thermal conductivity.It was first used in aircraft manufacturing in the 1940s and inboat building in the 1950s.

Project: Serpentine Gallery PavilionLocation: London, UKArchitect: Frank GehryDate: 2008

Frank Gehry’s Serpentine GalleryPavilion is anchored by four hugesteel columns that support largetimber planks and a complexnetwork of overlapping glass planes, which create a dramatic,multi-dimensional space.

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Teflon

Teflon (or polytetrafluoroethylene)is a non-stick coating that iscommonly found in a range of different applications, fromsaucepans and clothing to body armour and computercomponents. Its use wasdeveloped and popularised byAmerican chemical company,DuPont. In architecture andconstruction, PTFE coatings areoften applied to materials tomake them more durable.

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Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) is a type of plastic that islightweight and transparent and is commonly used in large-span structures that require lots of natural light. Recently,ETFE has been used in the construction of the Eden Projectin Cornwall, England, and the National Aquatics Centre inBeijing, China.

Carbon fibre

Carbon fibre is the basis of most carbon structures. It wasfirst manufactured in 1958 and is made from thousands ofthin carbon strands that are tightly twisted together. Carbonfibre was commonly used as a manufacturing material in the aircraft industry as it is both strong and lightweight. In construction it is often used to create structural frames as it is stronger than steel, but a great deal lighter.

The future of composite materials in construction is bright. As material technology allows us to better understand theirpotential, the application of composite materials in newcontexts is growing. Many of these materials find their origins in areas outside of architecture and construction, but inventive thinking and cross-discipline collaboration isbringing them into the world of building design.

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Project: The Beijing NationalStadiumLocation: Beijing, ChinaArchitect: Herzog & de Meuron(and Ai Weiwei)Date: 2008

Also known as the ‘bird’s nest’,Beijing’s National Stadium is thelargest steel structure in the world.The steel structure is clearly visibleon the outside of the building andalso provides a distinctive framefor the stadium. Its woven-likestructure is suggestive of a bird’snest, hence the name.

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Synthetic materials are a modern phenomenon. Informedby the changing nature of manufacture, the 20th centurysaw great innovation in material science. In particular,this period saw the automobile, aeronautical and spaceindustries develop complex materials that would later beused in the construction industry.

Appropriation and substitution

For example, in the 1930s, DuPont created Neoprene.Neoprene (originally called Duprene) was the first mass-produced synthetic rubber compound. It was (and still is)used in a wide variety of products, such as wetsuits,electrical insulation and fan belts for cars. Neoprene is both waterproof and fire-resistant and, as such, it wasappropriated by architecture for use as window and doorseals and for gaskets in cladding systems.

As well as the sophisticated, multiple functionality they can offer, composite materials are often specified byarchitects as a substitute for costly natural materials.Polycarbonates, for example, are thermoplastic polymersthat can be easily worked and moulded; they aretemperature- and impact-resistant and can create a lightweight and transparent material. The properties ofpolycarbonates make them a lighter, easier to instal andcheaper alternative to the use of glass in architectural design.

Project: East Beach CaféLocation: West Sussex, UKArchitect: Thomas HeatherwickDate: 2007

The East Beach Café is a south-facing single-storey building locatedon the Sussex coast. Its exposedseaside location will subject thebuilding to heavy weathering, with the high salt content of the airspeeding the natural degradation of all materials. With this in mind,Thomas Heatherwick opted fornaturally finished materials thatrespond well to the localenvironment. The steel shell thatforms the building’s outer skin will rust and gain character as it ages, while an oil-based coatingapplied after the surface has‘weathered’ will help to prolong thelife of the building.

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A sustainable future?

A key consideration for the use of composite materials inarchitecture today is that synthetic polymers are composed of (mostly) non-renewable resources (such as crude oil). In contrast, natural polymers are made from plants andrenewable resources. Looking to the future, syntheticmaterials must evolve so that they respond to new contextsand consumer demands. With limited natural resources, oursynthetic materials need to be incorporated in architecturaldesigns in such a way that they can be removed and reusedfor alternative applications on other projects. They also needto be increasingly durable so as to reduce waste over longerperiods of time.

The evolution of composite materials is a critical part of the design palette for our future buildings. With foresight, we can engineer these materials so that their properties and functionality suits contemporary lifestyles and livingenvironments. Crucially, architects and designers mustensure a continued understanding of material application inother design industries so that they can continue to innovate.

Project: The Eden ProjectLocation: Cornwall, EnglandArchitect: Grimshaw ArchitectsDate: 2001

The Eden project comprises a seriesof managed climatic environments(or biomes) that are housedunderneath a dome-like structure.These domes are made from atubular steel space frame that allowsflexibility in both form and structure.This is clad in ethylenetetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), which canrespond to high temperature rangesand allow light into the spaces.

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Application

The application of composite materials in architecturemay range from small-scale use in window and doorseals to vast cladding systems or prefabricated buildingpanels. The very nature of composite materials meansthey can be manufactured to suit the conditions andrequirements of the site or building context. Thelimitations for these materials are not related to theirnatural condition or found state (as would be the casewith timber or stone), but instead are the methods ofmanufacture, transportation and installation.

Synthetic materials in architectural design tend to be usedmore for interior finishes and fixtures (for example, electrical,plumbing or lighting systems) than for structural purposes.They can also be used for exterior cladding systems, whichcan lend an interesting aesthetic to a building’s exterior form.For example, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-coated polyester fabricor polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-coated glass fibre fabricsare commonly used to create tensile roofs on airport,warehouse and exhibition spaces because their propertiesmake them very appropriate for covering large, open spaces.

A wide range of emerging materials have been specificallyproduced to deal with some of the issues facingcontemporary architecture, including efficiency ofconstruction and sustainable use of resources. Thedevelopment of these materials will provide the architect with ever increasing possibilities.

Polycarbonate materials

Polycarbonate materials are used extensively in buildings(often where glass may have otherwise been used). They have exceptional transparency, high strength, resistultraviolet radiation and can also cope with extremely hightemperatures. Additionally they are lightweight, and sorequire much less structural support than glass (which if used in a similar context would be much heavier).

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The ‘appropriateness’ of materials is a key consideration forarchitects in the design process. For example, the surface of polycarbonate materials can become scratched and overtime this will reduce its transparency. As such, polycarbonatematerials should only be used as a substitute for glass inconditions that are not exposed to extreme scratching.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

PTFE (also known as Teflon) is very tough and commonlyused to surface coat other materials in order to strengthenor protect them. PTFE is dirt-resistant because its propertiesprevent other particles from sticking to its surface, so isuseful in areas where maintenance or cleaning access to a building may be limited.

Polymethyl methylacrylate (PMMA)

PMMA (also known as acrylic) is a very hard material that isused to toughen various surfaces and also as an additive tofinishes and paints. It is also used in place of glass for bothinterior and exterior conditions.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Often used as an alternative to timber or stone, PVC isutilised extensively in buildings to make drainpipes, plumbingfixings, doors or window frames and cladding systems. It isflexible, durable, requires little or no maintenance and can beeasily fixed and replaced. It can also be incorporated in manyinterior applications and can offer prefabricated solutions forbathrooms, kitchens and furniture elements.

Tensile structures

A tensile structure is aconstruction element that only carries tension and nocompression or bending. Most tensile structures need to be supported by some formof compression or bendingcomponent, such as masts (as is evident in the O2 Arena in London), compression ringsor beams. Tensile membranestructures are most often used as roofs as they caneconomically and attractivelyspan large distances.

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Charles Eames

Grand master

American designers Charles and Ray Eames exploredideas in film, three-dimensional design, product design,furniture design, exhibition design and architecture. In 1929, Charles travelled across Europe and was heavilyinfluenced by the aesthetics and principles of the modernmovement. On his return, he and his wife, Ray, began to experiment with materials and were commissioned to design plywood leg splints for the US Navy. Theknowledge they acquired during this process was laterapplied to their furniture design; the specifications for theiconic Eames chair (1956) incorporated a plywood shell.

The knowledge that Charles and Ray acquired from each of their projects was applied to successive design conceptsand realisations. Once they had specified the use offibreglass and aluminium in their furniture designs, forexample, they transferred the same application to theirarchitectural designs, appropriating the same material usefrom small-scale three-dimensional forms to the ultimatethree-dimensional product.

Their approach to design was challenging, demanding andground-breaking. It questioned, explored and deconstructedprevious preconceptions and established schools of thoughtin order to identify new ways to apply materials and createboth products and the spaces that they occupy.

The Eames House offers an innovative approach toarchitectural design

Charles Eames

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The distinctive façade of theEames House

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Charles Eames

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Section drawing of the Eames House

Case Study House No. 8 (The Eames House)

In the period following the Second World War, California Artsand Architecture magazine launched an initiative to see howmodern manufacturing techniques might provide a solutionto America’s post-war housing problems. The magazine’sCase Study House Program was designed to producearchitectural schemes that would accommodate the needsand functions of a modern household, using contemporarymaterials and construction processes. The magazine trackedthe progress of a number of case study homes, before,during and after their construction. Charles and Ray Eamesdesigned Case Study House No.8 (1945–1949). The houseremains on its site today in the Pacific Palisades, California.

In an attempt to re-employ workers and factories that hadsupported the production of wartime armaments and aircraft,the design of the Eames House responded to ideas of massproduction, composite parts and rapid assembly. Its designscheme incorporated a steel-frame structure andprefabricated windows and stairs, and proposed a sense of material and structural economy; of maximising internalspace and creating an open living area. This was a revolutionin house design; traditionally a domestic abode wassegregated into spaces for living, food preparation andsleeping. The Eames’ design challenged this norm andsuggested a new way of living in and occupying a home.

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Significant events

1929 Charles Eames spends time in Europe and discovers the buildings of Ludwig Mies van der Roheand Le Corbusier

1930 Opens an architectural office in St Louis, Missouri,with Charles Gray

1936 Designs the modern-style Meyer House in collaboration withEliel Saarinen

1940 Collaborates with Eero Saarinen on cabinets and chairs for an Organic Design competition at MoMA, New York

1941 Marries Ray Kaiser

1942 The Eames open a design studio

1946 Designs the Eames Molded Plywood Lounge Chair

1948 Designs the La Chaise Chair with Eero Saarinen for MoMA, New York’s Low-Cost Furniture Competition

1949 Designs the Case Study House No 8, Pacific Palisades, California

1950 Designs the (unbuilt) Billy Wilder House

1951 Designs the Wire Mesh Chair

1956 Designs the Lounge Chair, (which is manufactured by Herman Miller)

1964 Designs the IBM Pavilion at the New York World’s Fair.

1968 Power of Ten, one of the Eames’ most influential films, is produced

1978 Charles Eames dies

The design of the Eames House was heavily influenced bythe work of European modernists such as Mies van der Roheand Le Corbusier. However, the pavilion structures designedby Mies van der Rohe (such as his Barcelona Pavilion, seepages 112–117) were minimal and abstract forms, but theCase Study homes were designed to be commercial andhave broad appeal. To resolve this conflict, the building frameand materials of the Eames House were simple (in keepingwith the modernist ideals), but its interior was designed insuch a way that the American public could immediatelyconnect with it.

This house was designed to work as a set of manufacturedcomponents. The main support for the house was a steelframe, which was fixed onto a concrete base. The walls wereeither glazed panels or timber panels (for the interior) andsliding screens provided separation and privacy for thesleeping areas as the main living space was double height.

The house was made available as a frame and panel systemfor the Herman Miller company (which remains an importantfurniture and design company today), and was sold as an off-the-shelf, ready-made design solution that promised a modern lifestyle in an easy-to-assemble, affordable kit.

Charles and Ray Eames were visionary in their ability tocombine industrial technology and manufacturing processeswith architectural design. Their scheme’s simple exposedframe, plentiful open-plan space and modesty in its designhave become significant influences on future generations of architects.

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Case study

Stanton Williams Architects | House of Fraser, Bristol

The exterior of the House of Fraserstore in Bristol, UK

‘The practice’s core aim is to inspire users through their experience of space, light and materials.’Taken from the Stanton Williams website

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Stanton Williams Architects have areputation for sensitively engaging withmaterials and space. The practice hasworked on a range of prestigious projectsin a number of historic sites including theTower of London, Compton Verney Housein Warwickshire and Whitby Abbey in Yorkshire.

The latest projects in Stanton Williams’portfolio respond to many of the issuesfacing architecture today, such assustainable, energy-efficient buildings and sensitivity to context, whether historic or urban.

The design brief

The project to design a flagship store in Bristol city centre (south-west England)offered Stanton Williams Architects a chanceto consider the idea that a department storemight form an important urban landmark.The design brief created an opportunity forSWA to produce a window across the city;the prominence of this site meant that thebuilding’s façade would have a greatpresence in the city centre. As such thedesign needed to be distinctive and offersomething different to the city.

The design solution

SWA’s design for the House of Fraser store in Bristol (2008) is not only distinctivebecause of its scale (the store is 15,800square metres over four floors), but alsobecause of the way in which it responds tothe site and its position within the context ofBristol’s city centre. Occupying a high-profileposition at the eastern tip of the site, it is thevery first building visible on approachingBristol’s city centre. Section drawing that shows how

light can penetrate the store’s highfront windows

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Stanton Williams Architects | House of Fraser, Bristol

Stanton Williams have created a building of powerful visual interest. The building’sfaçade was designed with the help of arange of artists and craftsmen, mixingtraditional craft skills and new productiontechniques to produce an impressive anddramatic elevation.

This building challenges convention andchampions architectural innovation. It hasone of the largest display windows in Europe(a single-glazed 6 x 30-metre panel), whichprovides views into the building and allowsthe store to emanate a ‘glow’ at night. An important design consideration for anyretail store is to provide adequate light levels:natural light floods this building via theenormous display window and also a centralglazed atrium.

This building uses materials in an innovativeway. The standard front-of-store large glass windows commonly associated withdepartment stores were reinvented usingspecialised techniques; transforming theordinary into the extraordinary.

The building’s main elevation is clad with a combination of Portland stone (that isembedded with real fossils), bronze andglass panels. The stone was honed (ratherthan polished) to remove any visible surfacesaw marks made from cutting it.

Artist Susanna Heron transformed the façadeinto a work of art. Heron produced abstractinterpretations of natural forms and used thetextured surface of the Portland stone asinspiration for her glazed surface design. Her artwork was then transferred on to avinyl mask, which was then applied to theglass panels. The panels were sandblastedand acid-etched to create a relief andprovide texture to the surface area. Whenfinished, the panels were attached to verticalsteel fins using bolt fixings. The façade used stone (top)

and bronze (above) panels

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At the building’s ground level the façade isclad with bronze panels. Each one is castindividually, producing a unique surface thathas both smooth and highly textured areas.The bronze panels were cut with industrialdrilling machines, which worked to add more texture to the surface and give it depth.

The House of Fraser store in Bristolrepresents a series of collaborations,between client, architect, artist andmanufacturer. All parties were united by a vision to work creatively and apply anabstract idea of material and surface to a realised architectural form. This buildingsucceeds, in large part, because of itsfaçade, which has been beautifully crafted to create a showcase in contemporarydesign and innovation.

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The stone and bronze panelstechnically and aestheticallycomplement one another

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Case study

dRMM | The Kingsdale School

An interior shot of the geodesicdome auditorium

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Alex de Rijke, Philip Marsh and SadieMorgan founded dRMM, a London-basedstudio of international architects anddesigners, in 1995. The practice embracesprojects that are innovative, high qualityand socially useful. dRMM’s projects arecharacteristically led by site and clientneeds, concept and construction. Eachpartner brings a range of skills to thepractice, working from interior design to master planning and challengingconventional approaches to application of materials in practice and design.

The design brief

Originally built in the 1950s, the KingsdaleSchool suffered from narrow corridors,inadequate staff rooms and classrooms thatwere too hot in summer and too cold inwinter. In 2004 dRMM was commissioned to remodel the Kingsdale School in Dulwich,London. The practice was asked to usearchitectural design to redefine the identity ofthis secondary state school and reinvent theway in which Kingsdale’s staff and studentscould work and learn in the school’s existingbuildings. Specific requirements were thatthe building was phased to work withexisting functions and that a large gatheringspace was created for performance,meetings and public community use.

The design solution

This design scheme challenges theconventions of what’s expected of schoolbuildings, seeking to positively inspireacademic standards and the pride of aschool community with radical architecture.The building itself is seen as a catalyst toinspire the school’s children and teachersthrough their use of the building.

dRMM’s redevelopment of the school ismarked by the world’s largest variable-skinETFE roof, which covers an internalcourtyard space. The roof is supported bythe existing building, which means that nocolumns were needed, freeing up the spacebelow. The roof’s multi-layered skin acts as a ‘pillowed’ membrane that can be pumpedwith air on cool days to provide insulationand deflated on hot days to allow thecourtyard to cool down.

The variable-skin ETFE enclosure creates a new kind of socially oriented educationspace. This flexible, mixed-use spaceprovides new entry, circulation, dining, libraryand assembly areas under one roof. Aerialwalkways connect stairs and reducecorridors. There is also a new staircase, lift and bridge within this space.

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dRMM | The Kingsdale School

A section drawing of the school

The courtyard is animated by a geodesicdome that houses an auditorium and library. The form of this three-dimensional,engineered-timber, prefabricated structurewas made possible by the use of computer-controlled cutting machines. The dome’sform consists of an asymmetrical geodesicsoftwood primary structure, with a sandwichpanel acoustic secondary structure as finish.The auditorium can seat more than 300people and is used for performances,presentations and meetings.

This scheme successfully achieves its goal of improving the school environment by means of a simple and bold strategy:covering the existing courtyard with a wide-span, translucent roof and replacing the old assembly hall with a new state-of-the-art auditorium. Modern materials andconstruction techniques have been utilisedsuccessfully to create a cutting-edgelearning environment.

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The new courtyard space thathouses the school’s auditorium

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Title: Detail of the Guggenheim MuseumLocation: Bilbao, SpainArchitect: Frank Gehry Date: 1997

Like much of Gehry’s other works,the steel-frame structure of theGuggenheim Museum consists ofradically sculpted, organic contours.Its reflective titanium panels resemblefish scales or undulating waves,echoing the other organic life formsthat recur commonly in Gehry’sdesigns. Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Interactive Application(CATIA) and visualisations were usedheavily in the structure’s design.

Innovation, sustainability and the future

Architects have a responsibility to use materialsintelligently and our future buildings will need to bedesigned using resources that are, as far as is possible,both efficient and renewable. In addition to consideringthe source of a material it is also increasingly necessaryfor the architect to explore the way in which materialscan be innovatively utilised so as to make the resultingarchitecture sustainable. This could mean incorporatingmaterials that make a building more thermally efficient(so that less non-sustainable fuel is required to heat it) ormay require thinking about the ways in which materials,or even building structures, might be recycled or reusedin a range of different contexts. The emergence anddevelopment of ‘smart’ materials, which respond todifferent stimuli, are also changing design possibilities for the architect.

The examples and concepts in this section are varied.Some are the result of the experimentation withdevelopment and appropriation of existing ideas andpractices, while others are visionary, offering a glimpse atthe potential for our buildings and spaces of the future.

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Innovative formsIt’s not just materials and concepts that can be innovative;a building’s form can be too. For example, Frank Gehryuses materials that produce complex structures, allowingfor a dynamic architecture (see pages 152 and 155).

Moulded formsMaterials that can be poured and shaped in moulds (suchas concrete or plastic), taken to site and pieced togetherallow the architect to realise complex, dynamic andinnovative forms and structures.

Material advancesAdvances in material science can produce new andinnovative possibilities. For example, Litracon is a buildingmaterial that is composed of fine concrete and opticalglass fibres. This creates a ‘translucent’ concrete, offeringthe architect an array of new application options.

Photomechanical materialsIn architecture, photomechanical materials can be used to adjust ventilation systems or allow a building’s skin toadopt a different shape or behaviour when exposed todifferent lighting conditions.

Touch-sensitive technologyThis technology can be used in architectural design toallow interactivity between the user and their environment.

Adaptable environmentsThe future will see the creation of buildings and spacesthat can adapt to the various needs of their users. Spacesthat can be used flexibly, either by moving walls or alteringthe spatial configuration, offer an innovative approach.

Remote controlBuildings of the near future could be controlled via mobilephone technology, allowing devices such as heatingsystems to be switched on and off remotely. There is alsolikely to be an increasingly strong relationship betweencommunication technology and building environments.

MicroarchitectureDesigns for ‘micro’ spaces that can be used for living,working or studying in over-crowded cities offer aninnovative, inexpensive and effective use of materials and techniques.

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Natural materialsA sustainable approach to construction includes the useof locally sourced, natural materials that can be easilyreplenished (for example, using reed for roof thatching).

Green structuresA green roof or wall is one that uses sedum matting andlow-growing, drought-resistant plants. The plants areplaced on a drained base that is affixed to a growing mat,and the mat then is attached to a roof or wall structure.Incorporating a ‘green’ roof or walls in design schemesprovides impact to the architecture’s aesthetic and willalso contribute to a cleaner urban environment.

OrientationThe most considered architectural designs use aspects of site orientation to capitalise on natural lighting, solarpower and passive heat gain to ensure that the buildingnaturally warms up and that heat is dissipated through itover the course of the day.

New uses for old materialsRecycling materials is now an important consideration.It is possible to create contemporary architecture thatincorporates reconstituted, reclaimed or reused materials,from steel frameworks to brick walls.

Energy efficiencyArchitects should consider the way in which their buildingdesign may source, harness, consume and conserveenergy. Ideally, buildings should source and harnessrenewable energy and consume and conserve energy as efficiently as possible.

Traditional techniquesUsing locally sourced materials and traditionalconstruction techniques offers an effective andsustainable approach to architecture.

Local infrastructureThe infrastructures (such as transport systems and localamenities) that surround a building may also contributetowards its potential to be a sustainable architecture.

Innovation Sustainability

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The future

Smart materialsThe properties of smart materials alter in response to changes in external stimuli. For example, they may alter their shape or colour in response to changes intemperature or exposure to light.

Light-emitting materialsWhen stimulated electronically these materials can emitdifferent coloured lights, which are preprogrammed torespond to sound or other criteria.

Shape-memory materialsShape-memory materials can change shape and thenreconfigure back to their original form.

Virtual realityCAD technology can produce realistic impressions of anunrealised architecture. This means that virtual spacescan be created, understood, explored and evaluatedbefore being developed as real environments.

Biomimetic materialsThese materials are developed for use in buildings, butmimic aspects of organic or plant life. An example mightbe a material that changes colour (as a chameleon might)to adapt to its surrounding environment.

Living structuresLiving structures offer both an innovative and sustainablefuture building option. For example, a ‘living wall’ is multi-layered: as well as providing the usual functions (such asbearing the load of the structure), one of its layers will beable to support vegetation and plant life; this means thatthe structure can ‘live’ and grow over time.

Nano materialsThese man-made materials exist at a microscopic scaleand are engineered to change in response to certainsituations. For example, a wall could appear to reflect light through the use of thousands of embedded electricalcircuits.

Project: Ray and Maria Stata CenterLocation: MIT, Massachusetts, USAArchitect: Frank Gehry Date: 2004

The Ray and Maria Stata Center’svariegated façades of brick, paintedaluminium, and stainless steel areGehry's own brand of contextual design.

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Innovation

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In architecture, innovation in material use tends to stemfrom the migration and adaptation of application in otherindustries (such as aircraft construction or space travel).Some of the earliest innovations in architectural materialapplication came from unrelated areas. In the early 20th century, for example, a laminated, plastic sheetmaterial called Formica was invented. Now widely usedin interior applications, Formica had originally beenconceived as an electrical insulator. Innovation in thearchitectural application of materials is often the result of lateral thinking.

In architecture, innovation can describe advances in theproperties of materials and the functionality that this canprovide the architect. It can also describe the inventive and ingenious ways in which these new materials are used. To find new methods of material function andapplication, a creative approach is often necessary.Architects and designers need to discover innovativepossibilities through experimentation.

Interdisciplinary

The appropriation of scientific and technological advancescan also inform architectural innovation. One such examplecan be found in the advances made in telecommunicationstechnologies, which have produced a new family of touch-sensitive materials.

For example, screens originally designed for computers andmobile phones are now being specified in architecturaldesigns to create interactive walls and bespoke networkingsystems. Advances in telecommunications technologieshave also allowed the architect to create spaces that can becontrolled remotely; devices and systems can be activated(or deactivated) via a mobile phone and this is affecting theway we use our buildings. Perhaps Le Corbusier’s vision of a home as a machine for living has advanced a step further.

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Reinvention and reinterpretation

In this context, architectural innovation is not just limited to advances in material science and the application ofincreasingly sophisticated materials. The term can alsodescribe the use of a known material in a new or differentway. For example, glass is now being used in architecture in previously unimaginable ways. Historically, it was not used structurally due to its fragility. Today, the use oflaminated layers using tempered or toughened glass hasincreased the potential of the material and allowed it to servea load-bearing function. Similarly, glass tubes provide astable structural form and so can be used to realise glassskeleton buildings.

Innovative forms

Innovation can also be evident in architectural forms. Should the architect choose to do so, buildings can nowassume incredibly fluid and dynamic forms. The specificationof certain materials may (inaccurately) indicate a certainstructural form, but traditional materials such as concrete andsteel can be used in increasingly innovative ways and soallow buildings to be sculptural and almost organic in shape.Architects such as Frank Gehry and Zaha Hadid use theirunderstanding of materials to achieve innovative forms.Gehry’s architecture is often clad with titanium plates thatserve almost as a form of armour covering the steel-framestructure underneath, offering the opportunity to producestructures that have even greater impact.

Innovative forms are also seen in those buildings that easilyadapt to suit the changing needs of their users. For example,interior spaces that can be reconfigured to accommodatedifferent functions and demands such as a family-friendlyspace, a home-working area or the needs of a disabled user.Such designs display the architect’s innovative conceptualthinking, as well as an innovative realised form. To producean environment that is adaptable is also a sustainablesolution to architecture.

Architectural design should have the capacity for reuse whenit has fulfilled its intended function; in doing so, future needsare being considered, possibly the most innovative aspect of architectural design.

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Project: Universiteitsbibliotheek Location: Utrecht, The NetherlandsArchitect: Wiel AretsDates: 2001–2004

Dutch architect Wiel Arets usedconcrete in a new way in his librarydesign for the University of Utrecht.Described as ‘an elegant box’ thelibrary’s façade consists of printedglass alternating with blacktexturised concrete. The glass facehas an image of bamboo treesprinted on it, which filters theincoming light. The texturisedconcrete panels add a sense of reliefto an otherwise flat wall, creatingtexture and depth. Arets’ design usesconcrete and glass in new ways,exploring surface changes that canbe made to both materials.

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Sustainability

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Sustainability has become a necessary consideration in architecture. For the architect, this consideration startswith the conceptual thinking and continues to be at theforefront throughout the design process. Factors such as how the building will respond to its site, the efficiency of its energy-harnessing and consumption, the materialspecification for the building’s construction, theconstruction techniques and more many more will affecthow sustainable a building is.

As well as the sustainability of the design and construction,the sustainability of the building’s operation is another keyconsideration. Where possible, buildings should be carefullydesigned so that they respond to local climate conditions,use renewable energy resources and are well insulated sothat they operate using as little additional energy as possible.

Recycling and reuse

The most sustainable way to build is to reduce the quantity of raw materials used, so specifying the use of recycledmaterials in a build is a sound option. Recycled glass, steel and concrete all offer the architect viable alternatives to the consumption of raw materials, and innovation inmaterial application can also offer yet more sustainableoptions. Japanese architect Shigeru Ban, for example, hasdesigned a gridshell structure using cardboard tubes for thestructural support.

Using reclaimed materials will also contribute to asustainable architecture. Perhaps a long-term, sustainableapproach can be achieved if we begin to think of thematerials we use as component parts that, once used in onestructure, can be dismantled (once the structure has servedits purpose) and reused in other building schemes.

The need to consider the source of our building materials has become increasingly important. There is a growingdemand for materials to be sourced close to their site (inorder to reduce the fuel use in transportation). This demandinadvertently echoes the most fundamental requirement of allarchitecture: to create shelter using materials that come fromthe locality, which historically created an architecture thatwas of the place it came from.

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Sustainable resources

Key to sustainable architecture is that the building materialsthemselves are, as far as is possible, sustainable. Usingtimber from sustainable forests is one often-cited example,another is straw, which has been used in construction forcenturies. Straw offers a high quality of insulation, can betreated with fire retardant to make it less flammable andplastered or rendered to make it waterproof. Reed and othermaterials have also been used for thatch roofing.

The basic components of materials such as biopolymers and biodegradable plastics are derived from natural,renewable materials. All of these, and more, present thearchitect with functional, efficient and viable alternatives tothe use of non-renewable materials.

Green walls and roofs

The demand for more sustainable environments has fuelledan innovative application of materials and technology that is changing the way our cities look. An example of this is the concept of ‘green’ walls and roofs. These are vegetatedlayers that sit on top of the conventional roof or wall surfacesof a building. Roof and wall surfaces have previously beenconsidered as ‘hard’ however, the green option presents thepossibility of incorporating living, growing and textured roofsand walls in buildings, creating a new architectural aestheticand a new ecological habitat for the city.

There are ideas to extend the concept of green walls or roofs.By applying the same principle of structural vegetation to atower block or skyscraper form, it is argued that a ‘verticalfarm’ can be created and used as an indoor growingenvironment in the city. The crops can be grown all yearround using a fraction of land space for cultivation. Similarly,the concept of the ‘living skyscraper’ describes a residentialmicro-environment that can offer the necessary functionalityfor the occupants to grow their own food and harness theirown energy – a sort of urban form of self-sufficiency.

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Projects: Hotel du Département (left),Emporium Shopping Mall (right)Locations: Hauts-du-Seine, France(left), Bangkok, Thailand (right)Architect: Patrick BlancDates: 2005 (both projects)

Patrick Blanc’s Vertical Gardens areliving installations. The lush wallplantings, which are often severalstoreys tall, require no soil and comeequipped with a self-sufficient wateringsystem. Using a system that allowsplants to grow without any soil allows for natural living beauty in otherwise arid places, producingdynamic, growing building façades.

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The future

The future of material application in buildings is exciting.Architects have at their disposal a range of hi-tech,intelligent and enhanced materials that are responsive to all sorts of conditions. Materials are crossing from onearea of industrial use to another: a material used in spacetechnology today, for example, may be tomorrow’ssuper-insulating material for the home.

The future for materials in architecture includes innovation in material application and consideration of virtual materialsand environments. Virtual environments allow all sorts of possibilities to be considered in terms of construction,materiality and form. CAD environments are becoming moreand more sophisticated and allow simulation of rooms,buildings and complete environments to be virtually testedbefore they become real.

Prefabrication

Prefabrication is an important aspect of construction todayand will continue to be so in the future. Techniques previouslyused in furniture and product manufacture are nowcommonly used to realise building designs. This has requireda conceptual shift from the perspective of considering abuilding as an object to thinking of it as a machine that iscreated from pre-cut, ready-to-assemble component parts.

The key advantages of prefabricated building designs is thepredictability (and reliability) of the construction and site timethey offer and that it is possible for the architect to control the quality of the pieces as they are manufactured andassembled in a factory (disadvantages may include thetransportation required to get the pieces to site and the sizeof the component parts).

Prefabricated architecture has an important place in currentand future construction systems. Prefabricated pieces can be quickly assembled and dismantled, so as well as offeringsolutions to current architectural problems they have thepotential for future reuse in different locations or projects.

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Smart materials

A smart material is one that is not static, and throughtechnological support (such as motors or sensors) it canreact to changing environments and respond to themaccordingly. These materials are highly engineered, changingcolour, reacting to temperature changes or even altering theirshape in order to adapt to their surrounding environment.

In the context of architectural application the specification of smart materials could include photochromic windows.These change from transparent to a colour when exposed to light, and revert to transparency when the light is dimmedor blocked. Another example could be the incorporation of photovoltaic materials, which transform energy from onesource to another and are often used for solar cells or panels.

Other examples include biomimetic materials, which aredesigned to mimic aspects of natural organisms. So a plant’sability to collect water or filter sunlight can be translated intobuildings through biomimetic materials that are developed and specifically engineered to mimic the same function.Microscopic nanomaterials are man-made and engineered to respond to specific situations; for example, a wall couldappear to reflect light through the use of thousands ofembedded electrical circuits.

To use smart materials in buildings effectively we need tounderstand the properties and capabilities of the materialrather than the aesthetic they provide. When conventionalmaterials are used in a building they will have a fixedappearance (although they may age and slightly changecolour), but smart materials need to be considered in anever-changing environment.

Using smart materials can produce an architecture that isfluid and responsive to changing conditions. The designerneeds to understand the enormous potential for theapplication of these materials and experiment with them to develop a new paradigm for architecture.

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The future

Project: The Royal ObservatoryLocation: Greenwich, London, UKArchitects: Allies and MorrisonDate: 2007

Allies and Morrison werecommissioned to restore the existing South Building at the RoyalObservatory in Grenwich and tocreate a new structure to house a planetarium. The 118-seatplanetarium is set within a distinctivetruncated cone structure, which ismade from concrete and clad in acarapace of pre-patinated phosphorbronze. The exacting geometric formrequired precise construction. Thetilted cone aligns with the North Starand the glass roof is parallel with theequator, thus reflecting the northernhemisphere of the night sky.

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Conclusion

This book serves as a starting point in the exploration of material application in architecture. It has also begunto unravel architecture into its constituent parts andemphasise that the materiality of a building is everything.It creates the form, structure and texture of a space, andaffects light, temperature and a user’s entire experienceof the architecture. To reinforce this, an understanding ofconstruction techniques and how material componentscome together to ‘make’ a building is invaluable.

New building materials are being introduced to themarketplace all the time and it is the architect’s responsibilityto be aware of them and understand their potential so that we can continue to expand the possibilities of theirapplication. I hope that the case studies presented here havedemonstrated the many ways in which architects can createinspirational environments through their interpretation andapplication of construction and materials.

All designers have a responsibility to consider the use of materials so that those specified for a new build or therefurbishment of an existing one are carefully chosen fromsustainable sources, and that this is matched by an equallycareful consideration of the way in which they are applied to the architecture.

It is important to establish what materials and techniques are available and the potential of these within the context of a design. Beyond this, however, the key to greatapplication of materials in architecture is to be inventive –remember the only ‘real’ creative limits are the boundaries of your imagination.

Project: Burraworrin HouseLocation: Melbourne, AustraliaArchitect: Gregory BurgessArchitects

Burraworrin (‘Magpie’) House, on the coastline of the MorningtonPeninsula, houses threegenerations of one family. It is a building which celebrates andsupports the activities that occurin the home. The exterior is clad in Victorian hardwood stringy bark and the building’s paraboliccurves, projecting roof lines andbow-shaped hulls, are clad inradially sawn timber.

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Samples panel

Limestone Marble Dressed stone

Running bond Flemish bond

Stone

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Dry stone wall Rubble stone wall

Stone wall cladding Slate wall cladding Grey granite

Stretcher bond

Roman brick wall

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Concrete block Surface-treated concrete

European Beech Maple Cork

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Light-emitting concrete

Red Beech Douglas Fir European Oak

Polished concrete Transferred-surface concrete Coloured concrete

Timber

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Cast glass Fused glass Coloured glass

Foam glass Glass fin Glass fibre

Stainless steel Steel fabric Perforated steel

Steel cable Weathered steel

Glass

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Translucent concrete Shock-absorbing foam LED mesh

Titanium cladding

Corrugated plastic Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) Moulded plastic

Rubber flooring Kalzip AluPlusSolar solar panels

Innovative materials

Composite materials

Ceramic foam Concrete fabric Optical fibres

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Glossary and picture credits

AlloysA term that is used to describe thecombination of metal with at leastone other element. An alloy isstronger than its constituent metal.Most engineering applications formetals are alloys.

BiopolymerA polymer is a molecule made of many parts. While the term‘polymer’ (in popular usage) is oftenused to describe plastic, the termactually refers to a large class ofnatural and synthetic materials with a variety of properties and functions.A biopolymer is a class of polymersmade from natural rather thansynthetic materials.

Cladding This refers to the covering oroverlaying of one material withanother. In architectural terms itrefers to the outer layer of a building.Cladding needs to be weatherproofand will provide a building with its ‘skin’.

Composite materialA material that is composed ofseveral different raw ingredients. The composition of other basematerials can create a new productthat combines properties of theoriginal sources.

Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene(ETFE)Famously used to create the biomesat the Eden Project in Cornwall, ETFE is a lightweight plastic that canbe moulded to create many shapes. It is semi-opaque and is often used in roof applications.

FabricA building’s fabric refers to thearchitectural form and structure.

Green roof A roof of a building that is partially orcompletely covered with vegetationand soil. The soil and vegetation isplanted over a waterproofingmembrane. A green roof will not onlyaccommodate plants, but will alsoprovide a habitat for wildlife.

Green wallMuch like a green roof, a green wall is a wall that contains a purpose-designed irrigation system. It haswithin it a variety of plant species and

with careful maintenance creates a living environment. A green wallcan feature either on the inside oroutside of a building.

HybridA material that combines severalother materials is described ashybrid. A hybrid is a new derivativefrom several other material sources.

Mechanical propertiesRefers to characteristics of materialsthat are usually measured throughchanging or destroying the material,such as strength, hardness, elasticity.

Membrane

A membrane is a skin that is used toseparate one area from another. Mostfrequently a membrane is used toseparate wet spaces from dry ones.

PermeableA material that allows water or air topass through it can be described aspermeable. The permeability of thematerial is the measurement of thismovement through it.

Photochromic materialsA photochromic material is one that changes colour when exposedto light or ultraviolet radiation. In architectural terms, this may be a surface coating on a wall orwindow and is usually applied to altera building’s façade.

Physical propertiesCompared to mechanical properties,physical properties can be measuredwithout destroying or changing the material.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)PTFE is a manufactured material thatis commonly used as a coating ontextiles to make them more durableand waterproof. In architecture, PTFE is most often used for roofapplications, as is the case in theexample of the O2 Arena in London.

Photovoltaic materialsPhotovoltaic materials generatevoltage when they are exposed tovisible and invisible light. Thesematerials usually take the form ofsolar panels or screens that arecarefully organised and positioned to best absorb sunlight.

ReclaimedMaterials that are taken from anexisting building (for example, bricksor tiles) and incorporated into a newproject can be described asreclaimed. Reclaiming materials is an architectural form of recycling,appropriating their use from onecontext to another.

RenewableThis term can be applied to thoseenergy or material sources that areeasily replenished by naturalprocesses at a rate comparable orfaster than their rate of consumption.Example of renewable energysources include sunlight or windpower and renewable materialsinclude those made from woodor plant fibre.

Smart materialSmart materials are those thatrespond to stimuli such as light,temperature and electrical field by changing their form, colour or viscosity, etc. An example of a smart material in an architecturalapplication might be wallpaper that changes its colour or patterndepending on the levels of light or different temperatures that it isexposed to.

SustainableIf a material is sustainable, then its production is capable of beingcontinued with minimal long-termeffect on the environment.

SyntheticA synthetic material is one that is man-made and engineered from carefully selected componentsthat suit a particular functionalrequirement. Some of thesecomponents may be organic andothers derived form other syntheticsources.

Tensile strengthA measure of the amount of stress a material is able to withstand when it is stretched.

TranslucentA material that allows light to passthrough it can be described astranslucent. For example, glass is atranslucent material commonly usedin architecture and construction.

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Page 3: courtesy and copyright of David Lambert and Nissen Adams Architects

Page 6: courtesy and copyright of Nigel Young / Foster+Partners

Page 12: courtesy and copyright ofRIBA Library Photographs Collection

Page 21: courtesy and copyright of Stanton Williams Architects andPeter Cook

Pages 32–35: all photographscourtesy and copyright of Hélène Binet

Page 33: courtesy of Jonathan WoolfArchitects

Pages 36–39: all photographscourtesy and copyright of Hélène Binet

Page 37: courtesy of Eric ParryArchitects

Page 41: courtesy and copyright of Roland Halbe/RIBA LibraryPhotographs Collection



Page 48 and 51: courtesy andcopyright of The Concrete Centre

Page 53: courtesy and copyright of David Lambert and Nissen Adams Architects

Page 55: courtesy and copyright of Liao Yusheng

Pages 57–58: courtesy and copyrightof Liao Yusheng

Page 59: courtesy and copyright of Martin Pearce

Pages 60–63: courtesy and copyright of Hélène Binet and Zaha Hadid Architects

Page 64: courtesy and copyright of Reinhard Görner

Pages 66–67: courtesy andcopyright of Werner Hutmacher

Page 68: courtesy and copyright of Sean Godsell

Page 73: courtesy and copyright of NTPL/Derek Croucher

Page 77: courtesy and copyright of Robin Baker Architects

Pages 78–79: courtesy and copyrightof Studio KAP and Keith Hunter

Page 80: courtesy and copyright of Studio KAP and Kenneth Bane

Pages 85–89: all photographscourtesy and copyright of EdwardCullinan Architects; photographers:Gareth Mantle and Keegan Duigenan

Pages 90–93: all photographscourtesy and copyright of Sean Godsell

Pages 94–97: all photographscourtesy and copyright of Glen Howells Architects;photographer: Warwick Sweeney

Page 103: courtesy and copyright of Bernard Cox/RIBA LibraryPhotographs Collection

Page 104: courtesy and copyright of Danielle Tinero/RIBA LibraryPhotographs Collection

Page 110: courtesy and copyright of Vinesh Pomal

Page 114: courtesy and copyright of Martin Pearce

Pages 118–121: all photographscourtesy and copyright of NigelYoung / Foster + Partners

Pages 122–124: all photographscourtesy and copyright of Grimshaw Architects

Page 127: courtesy and copyright ofdRMM, Alex de Rijke/ Jonas Lencer/Michael Mack/ Philip Marsh/ SatoshiIsono/ Mirko Immendoerfer

Pages 139–141: all photographscourtesy and copyright of Liao Yusheng

Page 142: courtesy and copyright of Colin Tomsett

Pages 144–147 courtesy andcopyright of Stanton WilliamsArchitects

Page 148–151: all photographscourtesy and copyright of dRMM

Pages 162–163: photographscourtesy and copyright of Patrick Blanc

Pages 166–167: drawing courtesyand copyright of Allies and Morrison;photograph courtesy Dennis Gilbertand copyright of the NationalMaritime Museum

Page 168: courtesy and copyright of Trevor Mein and Gregory BurgessArchitects

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Acknowledgements

This book has benefited enormously from the input of teaching colleagues,practising architects and students alike.

I would like to thank all those architects,design practices and individual contributorswho have supplied images, specificationdetails, supplementary information andfound the time and desire to support theprocess of compiling this book.

Special thanks are due to Nicki Crowson,who researched a number of topics in thebook and provided a range of reference andresource material. Thanks are also due toColin Tomsett and Andrea Verenini whohelped with the book’s research.

Finally thank you to Brian Morris andCaroline Walmsley at AVA Publishing, whohave cajoled, encouraged and edited, and toJane Harper for the book’s wonderful design.

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02

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Lorraine Farrelly is deputy head ofthe University of Portsmouth’s Schoolof Architecture, where she teachesdegree and postgraduate courses inboth architecture and interior design. Also a qualified architect, Lorraine hasexperience of working on both large-scale and smaller-scale architecturalprojects, ranging from the interiormodelling of bars, restaurants and retail spaces, through to designingresidential and school buildings andpublic spaces. Lorraine lecturesextensively on representation inarchitecture and urban regeneration.

Featured topicsOrigins and chronologyCultural contextMaterial context ApplicationsKey directionsInnovationSustainability The futureMaterial samples

Featured contributorsBerthold LubetkinCharles and Ray EamesDaniel Libeskind de Rijke Marsh Morgan (dRMM)Eric Parry ArchitectsFosters + PartnersFrank Gehry Glen Howells ArchitectsGrimshaw ArchitectsPatrick BlancSchultes Frank ArchitektenSean Godsell ArchitectsStanton WilliamsStudio KAPWiel Arets ArchitectsWoolf ArchitectsZaha Hadid Architects

ava publishing sa [email protected]

BASICSARCHITECTURE

BASICS

nthe matter from whichsomething is or can be made

Lorraine FarrellyARCHITECTURE

nthe action or process of constructing a buildingor other structure

construction + materiality

02This second book in the BasicsArchitecture series explores theorigins, context and application ofbuilding materials such as stone,brick, concrete, timber, steel, glass and composite materials inarchitectural design. Construction + Materiality also takes a look at the future of construction andmateriality in architecture, payingparticular attention to issues ofsustainability and innovation.

Supported by examples fromboth classic and contemporaryarchitects who have championedthe use of the materials underdiscussion, and whose work is very much characterised by theapplication of its principles,Construction + Materiality providesan invaluable resource tool for students and architecturalprofessionals alike. It offers anaccessible introduction for anyoneinterested in architectural designand material application.

Other titles in AVA’s BasicsArchitecture series includeRepresentational Techniques,History and Precedent andSustainable Architecture.

For further details seewww.avabooks.ch

UK_TBSPINE=15mm UK Cover AAVVAA••BBaassiiccss AArrcchhiitteeccttuurree::CCoonnssttrruuccttiioonn++MMaatteerriiaalliittyyCD1108-61 / 4239 4th Proof

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