Constitutional Accountability Center Amicus Brief
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Transcript of Constitutional Accountability Center Amicus Brief
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8/9/2019 Constitutional Accountability Center Amicus Brief
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`EJLXEBEFI WLXF HIcFWBI LY SEUFXBe/ :"" 9&$#", :#6#"(
?- R$&,(%'- >MM %/ 2B/ ?N^G- ?NQ> O?@>MP (“[s]tate lawsZFYEJEJK HJZ XFKDSHBEJK `HXXEHKF- LY WLDXIF- `DIB
respect the constitutional rights of persons”); :C6D ?-
*"&%- G@Q :/%/ NM@ O>QQMP OIH`F XFKHXZEJK SFKEISHBE0F
XFZEIBXEWBEJKPo .$#E %2 .0">/'&" ?- .0">/'&" F$?$&B.#'-- ]^M :/%/ ]M? O>QAGP OIH`F XFKHXZEJK SHJZ DIF
XFKDSHBELJIPo 7"#'%- F$2" 8&(- .%- ?- R6',- ]^@ :/%/ANQ O>QAGP OIH`F XFKHXZEJK BH_HBELJPo K$'5C>"'B ?-
=""&(#'6- ]G@ :/%/ ]GG O>QA>P OIH`F XFKHXZEJK `HXER
BHS cXLcFXBe XEKCBIPo J'' ?- J''- ]]@ :/%/ ?NA O>Q^QPOIH`F XFKHXZEJK ZE0LXWF SHkPo T6>0%5A$ ?- *",C6$0-
]M] :/%/ M^] O>Q^AP OIH`F XFKHXZEJK `HXXEHKFPo *"",
?- *"",- ]@] :/%/ ^> O>Q^>P OIH`F XFKHXZEJK FIBHBFISHkPo F"?E ?- F%/$($6&6- MQ> :/%/ NA O>QNAP OIH`F XFR
KHXZEJK YH`ESe SHkPo F%?$&B ?- Q$'B$&$6- MAA :/%/ >
O>QN^P OIH`F XFKHXZEJK `HXXEHKFPo @'%D& ?- @,- %2;,/5-- M]^ :/%/ ]AM O>QG]P OIH`F XFKHXZEJK FZDWHR
BELJP/
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There is no “marriage exception” to the Four-
teenth Amendment’s guarantee of equality under theSHk/ 'J BCF WLJBXHXe- HI BCEI 2LDXB CHI IBHBFZ- BCF
right to marry is “one of the vital personal rights es-IFJBEHS BL BCF LXZFXSe cDXsuit of happiness,” F%?$&B -
388 U.S. at 12, and is “sheltered by the Fourteenth
Amendment against the State’s unwarranted usurpa-tion, disregard, or disrespect.” 7-F-@- ?- :-F-M-- G>Q
:/%/ >@?- >>N O>QQNP/
$lDHS XEKCBI DJZFX SHk EI JLB H cLSEWe cXFYFXFJWFBL UF kFEKCFZ Ue BCF 0LBFXIo EB EI H WLJIBEBDBELJHS
`HJZHBF EJIWXEUFZ EJ BCF BF_B LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB. By deferring to the “democratic pro-cess” and empowering the people of H IBHBF BL E`cLIF
H WSHIIRUHIFZ UHZKF LY EJYFXELXEBe LJ SL0EJK- WL``EBR
BFZ IH`FRIF_ WLDcSFI HJZ BCFEX WCESZXFJ- BCF WLDXB LYHccFHSI `EIHccXFCFJZFZ BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZR
ment’s guarantee of equal protection— kCEWC cXLBFWBI
HSS cFXILJI YXL` IBHBFRIcLJILXFZ ZEIWXE`EJHBELJ- EJRWSDZEJK BCF cFBEBELJFXI EJ BCFIF WHIFI HJZ HSS LBCFX
KHe `FJ HJZ SFIUEHJI kCL kEIC BL F_FXWEIF BCFEX XEKCB
BL `HXXe — HJZ ZEIXFKHXZFZ 0EBHS cXEJWEcSFI LY WLJIBER
BDBELJHS IDcXF`HWe/
=CQ9PE!G
D$ GLE GERG =!O LD;G.CI .F GLE ;9(JCEP=5I 5H=9;E QDSE 5.9CG; GLE
O9GI G. E!F.C5E GLE 5.!;GDG9(
TION’S SUPREMACY .SEC =HH F.CP;.F ;G=GE H=0 =!O JC.LDBDG ;G=GE
P=T.CDGDE; FC.P SD.H=GD!Q 5.!;GD(
G9GD.!=H Q9=C=!GEE;$
$0FJ kEBC H 0EUXHJB YFZFXHSEI` HB EBI CFHXB- BCF2LJIBEBDBELJ kHI kXEBBFJ HKHEJIB BCF UHWaZXLc LY
HUDIF LY BCF ZF`LWXHBEW cXLWFII EJ BCF IBHBFI/ .CFXHBEYEWHBELJ LY BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ- HI *LXZLJ 7LLZ CHI
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observed, was “more than a response to the obvious
kFHaJFIIFI LY BCF "XBEWSFI LY 2LJYFZFXHBELJ/ 1B UFRWH`F HI kFSS HJ HJIkFX BL BCF cXLUSF`I LY BCF IBHBF
governments.” Gordon S. Wood, OC" .'"6#$%& %2 #C" 34"'$56& *"+/>0$5) UVV[PUVWV - HB ]N^ O>QNQP/
.CF ZXHYBFXI LY LDX 2LJIBEBDBELJ kFXF HWDBFSe
HkHXF LY SFKHS kXLJKI Ue IBHBF KL0FXJ`FJBI DJZFXBCF "XBEWSFI LY 2LJYFZFXHBELJ- kCEWC FIBHUSEICFZ H
loose confederacy built on a “firm league of friend-
ship” UFBkFFJ BCEXBFFJ EJZFcFJZFJB IBHBFI O("" "XBERWSFI LY 2LJYFZFXHBELJ LY >^A>- HXB/ 111P- HJZ kXLBF BCF
2LJIBEBDBELJ BL E`cLIF WCFWaI LJ BCF cLkFX LY KL0FXJREJK `HbLXEBEFI EJ BCF IBHBFI/ .CF +XH`FXI ZFSEUFXHBFRSe made the Constitution “the supreme Law of the
,and,” superior in force BL “any Thing in the Consti-
BDBELJ LX ,HkI LY HJe %BHBF BL BCF 2ontrary.” U.S.2LJIB/ HXB/ 51- WS/ ?/ (e EJWSDZEJK EJ BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ
H IkFFcEJK ZFWSHXHBELJ LY WLJIBEBDBELJHS IDcXF`HWe-
BCF +XH`FXI YEX`Se XFbFWBFZ BCF JLBELJ BCHB YFZFXHSWLJIBEBDBELJHS KDHXHJBFFI ICLDSZ UF SFYB BL BCF ZF`LR
WXHBEW cXLWFII HJZ ZFWEZFZ Ue BCF cFLcSF LY BCF IBHBFI/
.CF +XH`FXI CHZ kEBJFIIFZ JD`FXLDI HUDIFI LY
IBHBF HDBCLXEBe DJZFX BCF "XBEWSFI LY 2LJYFZFXHBELJ-kCEWC FIBHUSEICFZ H IEJKSF UXHJWC LY BCF YFZFXHS KL0R
FXJ`FJB- UDB WLJBHEJFZ JL `FWCHJEI` YLX FJIDXEJKYFZFXHS IDcXF`HWe/ "I !H`FI #HZEILJ ZFIWXEUFZ EB-
the “vices” of government under the Articles were
many: “[f]ailure of the States to comply with the Con-stitutional requisitions”; “[e]ncroachments Ue BCF
%BHBFI LJ BCF federal authority”; “[v]iolations of the
laws of nations and of treaties”; “[t]respasses of theStates on the rights of each other”; “mEnJbDIBEWF LY BCF
laws of States.” James Madison, Q$5"( %2 #C" !%0$#$560
:E(#"4 %2 #C" 9&$#", :#6#"( O"cX/ >^A^P- $& Q OC" !6P +"'( %2 M64"( 76,$(%& M]G- M]A- M]Q- MG] O)LUFXB "/
)DBSHJZ d 7ESSEH` #/ $/ )HWCHS FZI/- >Q^GP/ .CF
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^
+XH`FXI KHBCFXFZ BLKFBCFX EJ 8CESHZFScCEH EJ >^A^ BL
correct these “vices” resulting from the lack of “effec-BDHS WLJBXLDS EJ BCF whole over its parts.” 1 OC" *"5P
%',( %2 #C" =","'60 .%&?"$%& %2 UVWV - HB >N^ O#H_+HXXHJZ FZ/- >Q>>P mCFXFEJHYBFX Farrand’s Recordsn/
.CF HWBELJI LY IBHBF KL0FXJ`FJBI DJZFX BCF "XR
BEWSFI ESSDIBXHBFZ BL BCF +XH`FXI BCF ZHJKFXI LY YHWRBELJI HJZ BCF JFFZ YLX WLJIBEBDBELJHS WCFWaI BL SE`EB
BCF cLkFX LY `HbLXEBEFI EJ BCF IBHBFI/ "I #HZEILJ F_R
plained in Federalist 10, “measures are too often de-WEZFZ- JLB HWWLXZEJK BL BCF XDSFI LY bDIBEWF HJZ BCF
XEKCBI LY BCF `EJLX cHXBe- UDB Ue BCF IDcFXELX YLXWF LYHJ EJBFXFIBed and overbearing majority.” OC" =","'60P$(# L%- U_ - (/+'6- HB ]G O!H`FI #HZEILJP/ #HZEILJ
observed that “[w]hen a majority is included in a fac-
BELJ- BCF YLX` LY cLcDSHX KL0FXJ`FJB / / / FJHUSFI EB BLIHWXEYEWF BL EBI XDSEJK cHIIELJ LX EJBFXFIB ULBC BCF cDUR
lic good and the rights of other citizens.” 8,- HB ]A/
What Madison had seen in the states called “intolDFIBELJ BCF YDJZH`FJBHS cXEJWEcSF LY XFcDUSEWHJ
*L0FXJ`FJB- BCHB BCF `HbLXEBe kCL XDSF EJ IDWC *L0R
FXJ`FJBI- HXF BCF IHYFIB *DHXZEHJI ULBC LY cDUSEW
Good and of private rights.” !H`FI #HZEILJ- Q$5"( %2#C" !%0$#$560 :E(#"4 %2 #C" 9&$#", :#6#"(- $& Q OC" !6P
+"'( %2 M64"( 76,$(%&- (/+'6- HB MG]/
2LJWFXJFZ BCHB `HbLXEBEFI EJ BCF IBHBFI kLDSZ
trample on the rights of “the minor party in the com-
munity,” OC" =","'60$(# L%- VW - (/+'6- HB ]M^ O"SF_RHJZFX 3H`ESBLJP, and that “additional fences” were
needed to protect “personal security and private
rights,” OC" =","'60$(# L%- `` - (/+'6- HB ?G@ O!H`FI#HZEILJP- BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ kFJB BL KXFHB SFJKBCI BL
WCFWa HUDIFI LY cLkFX Ue IBHBF HDBCLXEBe/ .L BCHB
FJZ- "XBEWSF 1- %FWBELJ >@ LY BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ YLXUEZIIBHBFI YXL` FJHWBEJK UESSI LY HBBHEJZFX LX F_ cLIB YHWBL
SHkI- LX E`cHEXEJK BCF LUSEKHBELJI LY WLJBXHWBI EJ LXR
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der “to prevent state legislatures from exploiting ciBER
zens of sister states and foreigners” and “to preventIBHBF SHk`HaFXI YXL` KHJKEJK Dc LJ H `EJLXEBe LY
BCFEX LkJ WEBETFJI — EJRstate creditors, to be specific.” "aCES )FFZ "`HX- America’s Constitution: A Biog-
'6+CE >?M O?@@GPo ("" 60(% %BF0FJ */ 2HSHUXFIE- 6LBF-
3 76,$(%&$6& 8"'+'"#6#$%& %2 #C" ;^/60 !'%#"5#$%& G%5#'$&"- Q> 9HSF ,/!/ >]@M- >]?M O>QA?P OF_cSHEJEJK
that the Contracts Clause “served to protect a minori-
ty from majoritarian politics at the state level”). Here, “the federal Constitution would iJ IL`F WHIFI
insinuate itself between a state and its own citizens.”
"`HX- America’s ConstitutionX 3 @$%B'6+CE- (/+'6- HB>?]/
Along similar lines, Article IV’s Privileges HJZ
1``DJEBEFI 2SHDIF cXLCEUEBFZ IBHBFI YXL` ZEIWXE`ERJHBEJK HKHEJIB XFIEZFJBI LY LBCFX IBHBFI/ +HWBELJI EJ H
IBHBF WLDSZ JLB DIF IBHBF HDBCLXEBe BL ZEIHZ0HJBHKF
LDBIEZFXI/ 4FIWXEUFZ Ue "SF_HJZFX 3H`ESBLJ HI BCF“basis of the Union,” the Clause was designed to en-
sure the “inviolable maintenance of that equality of
cXE0ESFKFI HJZ E``DJEBEFI BL kCEWC BCF WEBETFJI LY BCF
:JELJ kEll be entitled.” OC" =","'60$(# L%- W_ - (/+'6-HB ]]N O"SF_HJZFX 3H`ESBLJP/ :"" !6/0 ?- Q$'B$&$6-
^G :/%/ OA 7HSS/P >NA- >A@ O>ANA) (“[WnEBCLDB IL`FcXL0EIELJ LY BCF aEJZ XF`L0EJK YXL` BCF WEBETFJI LY
FHWC %BHBF BCF ZEIHUESEBEFI LY HSEFJHKF EJ BCF LBCFX
%BHBFI- HJZ KE0EJK BCF` FlDHSEBe LY cXE0ESFKF kEBC WEBRETFJI LY BCLIF %BHBFI- BCF )FcDUSEW kLDSZ CH0F WLJIBER
BDBFZ SEBBSF `LXF BCHJ H SFHKDF LY %BHBFIo EB kLDSZ JLB
CH0F WLJIBEBDBFZ BCF :JELJ kCEWC JLk F_EIBI/”).
$0FJ `LXF E`cLXBHJB BCHJ BCFIF IcFWEYEW cXLBFWR
BELJI HKHEJIB IBHBF 0ELSHBELJ LY cFXILJHS- EJZE0EZDHS
XEKCBI- BCF %DcXF`HWe 2SHDIF ZFWSHXFZ BCF 2LJIBEBDRtion to be the “supreme Law of the Land,” rendering
“any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State
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to the Contrary” null and void. Simply put, the peo-
cSF LY H IBHBF WLDSZ JLB WCLLIF BL HZLcB H IBHBF 2LJIBERBDBELJ- LX IBHBF SHkI- BCHB BXHJIKXFIIFZ BCF YFZFXHS
2LJIBEBDBELJ- YFZFXHS SHkI- LX BXFHBEFI/ 7EBCLDB H IDRcXF`F YFZFXHS cLkFX L0FXIFFEJK BCF IBHBFI- !H`FI
#HZEILJ HXKDFZ- LDX IeIBF` LY KL0FXJ`FJB kLDSZ UF
a “monster, in which the head was under the direc-tion of the members.” OC" =","'60$(# L%- `` - (/+'6- HB
?GG O!H`FI #HZEILJP/
.CF +XH`FXI WCLIF BL `HaF BCEI ZFWSHXHBELJ LYthe Constitution’s supremacy exceptionally broad in
IWLcF- XFJZFXEJK JDSS HJZ 0LEZ HSS YLX`I LY IBHBF HWRBELJ EJWLJIEIBFJB kEBC BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ- YFZFXHS SHkI-HJZ BXFHBEFI/ "I EJEBEHSSe EJBXLZDWFZ Ue "JBER
+FZFXHSEIB ,DBCFX #HXBEJ- BCF %DcXF`HWe 2SHDIF kHI
HJF`EWf Martin’s proposal did not establish the Con-IBEBDBELJ HI BCF IDcXF`F SHk LY BCF SHJZ HJZ kLDSZ
CH0F HSSLkFZ BCF cFLcSF LY H IBHBF BL HZLcB H IBHBF
WLJIBEBDBELJ BCHB WLJYSEWBFZ kEBC BCF YFZFXHS 2LJIBEBDRBELJ/ :"" ? Farrand’s Records- (/+'6- HB ?AR?Qo "aCES
)FFZ "`HX- J2 :%?"'"$BE 6&, =","'60$(4- QN 9HSF
L.J. 1425, 1458 (1987) (noting that “when the su-
cXF`HWe WSHDIF kHI YEXIB EJBXLZDWFZ HB 8CESHZFScCREH / / / EB cLEJBFZSe YHESFZ BL IcFWEYe BCF IDcXF`HWe LY
BCF YFZFral Constitution over its state counterparts”).+LXBDJHBFSe- BCF +XH`FXI XFWLKJETFZ BCHB IDWC H IeIR
tem of government would have “inver[ted] . . . the
YDJZH`FJBHS cXEJWEcSFI LY HSS KL0FXJ`FJBo EB kLDSZCH0F IFFJ BCF HDBCLXEBe LY BCF kCLSF ILWEFBe F0FXeR
kCFre subordinate to the authority of the parts,” OC"
=","'60$(# L%- `` - (/+'6- HB ?GG O!H`FI #HZEILJP-HJZ BCFe ZFWEIE0FSe XFbFWBFZ EB/ 1J WLJBXHIB BL #HXR
tin’s initial proposal- BCF YEJHS YLX` LY BCF %DcXF`HWe
Clause written into our Founding charter “[i]I WLJBERnental: one Constitution, one land, one People.” Am-
HX- J2 :%?"'"$BE 6&, =","'60$(4- (/+'6- HB >]GA/
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To ensure the Constitution’s supremacy not
`FXFSe LJ cHcFX UDB EJ YHWB- BCF +XH`FXI KH0F YFZFXHScourts the duty to enforce the Constitution’s com-
`HJZI HJZ `HEJBHEJ BCF XDSF LY SHk EJ bDIBEWEHUSFWHIFI UFYLXF BCF`/ .CF +XH`FXI DJZFXIBLLZ BCHB
constitutional “[l]imitations . . . can be preserved in
cXHWBEWF JL LBCFX kHe BCHJ BCXLDKC BCF `FZED` LYWLDXBI LY bDIBEWF- kCLIF ZDBe EB `DIB UF BL ZFWSHXF HSS
HWBI WLJBXHXe BL BCF `HJEYFIB BFJLX LY BCF 2LJIBEBDR
BELJ 0LEZ/ 7EBCLDB BCEI- HSS BCF XFIFX0HBELJI LY cHXBEWRular rights or privileges would amount to nothing.”
OC" =","'60$(# L%- VW - (/+'6- HB ]M] O"SF_HJZFX 3H`R
ESBLJP/ “[C]ourts of justice” would function as “bul-warks of a limited Constitution,” HJZ “guard the Con-
stitution and the rights of individuals” from “design-
ing men” who have a “tendency . . . to occasion dan-KFXLDI EJJL0HBELJI EJ BCF KL0FXJ`FJB- HJZ IFXELDI
LccXFIIELJI LY BCF `EJLX cHXBe EJ BCF WL``unity.”
8,- HB ]M^/ "I !LCJ #HXICHSS LUIFX0FZ- “[t]o whatlDHXBFX kESS eLD SLLa YLX cXLBFWBELJ YXL` HJ EJYXEJKFR
`FJB LJ BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ- EY eLD kESS JLB KE0F BCF
cLkFX BL BCF bDZEWEHXeh .CFXF EI JL LBCFX ULZe BCHBcan afford such a protection.” M OC" G">6#"( $& #C"
:"?"'60 :#6#" .%&?"$%&( %& #C" 3,%+#$%& %2 #C" =",P
"'60 .%&(#$#/#$%& GG] O!LJHBCHJ $SSELB FZ/- >AMNP/ .CFConstitution’s Framers concluded that judicial review
Ue EJZFcFJZFJB bDZKFI kHI FIIFJBEHS BL cXFIFX0F YXFFR
ZL` HJZ cXF0FJB `HbLXEBEFI YXL` HUDIEJK BCFEX cLkRFX/
1J >^AQ- ZDXEJK BCF ZFUHBFI L0FX BCF (ESS LY
Rights, the Founders reaffirmed the judiciary’s criti-WHS XLSF EJ FJIDXEJK WLJIBEBDBELJHS IDcXF`HWe HJZ
0EJZEWHBEJK EJZE0EZDHS XEKCBI/ "I !H`FI #HZEILJ F_R
plained, “[i]f mBCF (ESS LY )EKCBIn HXF EJWLXcLXHBFZ EJBLBCF WLJIBEBDBELJ- EJZFcFJZFJB BXEUDJHSI LY bDIBEWF kESS
WLJIEZFX BCF`IFS0FI EJ H cFWDSEHX `HJJFX BCF KDHXZER
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HJI LY BCLIF XEKCBIo BCFe kESS UF HJ E`cFJFBXHUSF UDSR
kHXa HKHEJIB F0FXe HIID`cBELJ LY cLkFX EJ BCF SFKEIRSHBE0F LX F_FWDBE0Fo BCFe kESS UF JHBDXHSSe SFZ BL XFIEIB
F0FXe FJWXLHWC`FJB DcLJ XEKCBI F_cXFIISe IBEcDSHBFZfor in the constitution by the declaration of rights.” >
"JJHSI LY 2LJK/ ]G^ O>^AQP/ !DZEWEHS XF0EFk kHI BCF
aFe BL FJIDXEJK BCHB BCF KDHXHJBFFI WLJBHEJFZ EJ BCF(ESS of Rights were not “paper UHXXEFXI / / / BLL kFHa BL
be worthy of attention,” $,- HB ]GG- UDB XHBCFX BCHB
BCFe FIBHUSEICFZ XFHS- FJYLXWFHUSF SE`EBI LJ BCF cLkFXof government that would operate “against the major-
ity in favor of the minority.” 8,- HB ]G]/
$0FX IEJWF 76'>/'E ?- 76,$(%&- G :/%/ >M^O>A@MP- EB CHI UFFJ XFWLKJETFZ BCHB EB EI BCF XLSF LY
WLDXBI BL SE`EB BCF cLkFX LY `HbLXEBEFI BL 0ELSHBF WLJR
IBEBDBELJHS cXLBFWBELJI ZFIEKJFZ BL KDHXHJBFF BCFXEKCBI LY HSS/ "I 76'>/'E HYYEX`FZ- FJYLXWEJK BCF
2LJIBitution’s guarantees is “the very essence of judi-
cial duty” and necessary to ensure the Constitution’sstatus as “the fundamental and paramount law of the
nation.” 8,- HB >^^R^A/ .CF WLDXB LY HccFHSI CFXF HUR
ZEWHBFZ EBI WLJIBEBDBELJHS XFIcLJIEUESEBe BL FJYLXWF BCF
Constitution’s supremacy over all forms of state law. DD$ GLE GERG =!O LD;G.CI .F GLE EU9=H
JC.GE5GD.! 5H=9;E Q9=C=!GEEEU9=HDGI 9!OEC GLE H=0 =!O HDPDG
GLE J.0EC .F P=T.CDGDE; D! GLE
;G=GE; G. OE!I EU9=H CDQLG; G. PD(!.CDGDE;$
.CF LXEKEJHS 2LJIBEBDBEon’s limits on state gov-
FXJ`FJBI cXL0FZ EJIDYYEWEFJB BL IFWDXF SEUFXBe HJZFlDHSEBe/ "WWLXZEJKSe- Jearly 70 years later, “[t]he
WLJIBEBDBELJHS "`FJZ`FJBI HZLcBFZ EJ BCF HYBFX`HBCof the Civil War fundamentally altered our country’sfederal system,” 75G%&60, ?- .$#E %2 .C$56B%- GN>
:/%/ ^]?- ^G] O?@>@P/ .CFIF "`FJZ`FJBI HZZFZ BL
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BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ IkFFcEJK JFk SE`EBI LJ IBHBF KL0R
ernments designed to secure “the civil rights andprivileges of all citizens in all parts of the republic,”
("" *"+%'# %2 #C" M%$ .%44$##"" %& *"5%&(#'/5#$%& -MQBC 2LJK/- >IB %FII/- HB __E O>ANNP- HJZ aFFc “what-
F0FX IL0FXFEKJBe mH %BHBFn `He CH0F EJ CHX`LJe kEBC
H XFcDUSEWHJ YLX` LY KL0FXJ`FJB HJZ BCF 2LJIBEBDRtion of the country.” Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st
%FII/ >@AA O>ANNP/ +LX BCF YEXIB BE`F EJ CEIBLXe- BCF
2LJIBEBDBELJ KDHXHJBFFZ BCF FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ LY BCFSHkI BL HSS cFXILJI- YLXUEZZEJK SFKEISHBE0F LX cLcDSHX
`HbLXEBEFI EJ BCF IBHBFI YXL` ZEIWXE`EJHBEJK HKHEJIB
ZEIYH0LXFZ `EJLXEBEFI/ 7EBC BCF XHBEYEWHBELJ LY BCF+LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB- FlDHS XEKCBI DJZFX (#6#" SHk
kFXF WLJIBEBDBELJHSSe KDHXHJBFFZ HJZ JLB IDUbFWB BL H
cLcDSHX 0LBF/
.CF WLDXB LY HccFHSI SLIB IEKCB LY BCFIF YLDJZHR
BELJHS FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ cXEJWEcSFI- F`cLkFXEJK BCF
cFLcSF LY H IBHBF to “disparage and to injure” loving,WL``EBBFZ IH`FRsex couples, “whose moral and sexu-
al choices the Constitution protects.” R$&,(%'- >MM %/
2B/ HB ?NQN- ?NQ]/ .CHB EI H `HbLXEBHXEHJ UXEZKF BLL
YHX/ 7CESF BCF cFLcSF LY H IBHBF `He- LY WLDXIF- WXFHBFSHkI EJ BCF `EJF XDJ LY WHIFI — kCFBCFX BCXLDKC SFKR
EISHBELJ LX UHSSLB `FHIDXFI — BCFe WHJJLB WLJBXH0FJFthe Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of eqDHSEBe LY
XEKCBI DJZFX BCF SHk/
.CF cSHEJ BF_B LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB-kCEWC cXLCEUEBI a state from denying to “any person”
the “equal protection of the laws-” establishes a broad
KDHXHJBFF LY FlDHSEBe YLX HSS cFXILJI/ 1B IFWDXFI BCFIH`F XEKCBI HJZ IH`F cXLBFWBELJ DJZFX BCF SHk YLX HSS
`FJ HJZ kL`FJ- LY HJe XHWF- kCFBCFX eLDJK LX LSZ-
WEBETFJ LX HSEFJ- KHe LX IBXHEKCB/ :"" S$5A R%- ?- H%+PA$&(, 118 U.S. 356, 369 (1886) (“These provisions are
DJE0FXIHS EJ BCFEX HccSEWHBELJ- BL HSS cFXILJI kEBCEJ
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>M
BCF BFXXEBLXEHS bDXEIZEWBELJ- kEBCLDB XFKHXZ BL HJe ZEYR
YFXFJWFI LY XHWF- LY WLSLX- LX LY JHBELJHSEBe / / / .”); .$?$0*$BC#( .6("(, 109 U.S. 3, 24 (1883) (“The Fourteenth
"`FJZ`FJB F_BFJZI EBI cXLBFWBELJ BL XHWFI HJZ WSHIRIFI- HJZ cXLCEUEBI HJe %BHBF SFKEISHBELJ kCEWC CHI BCF
FYYFWB LY ZFJeEJK BL HJe XHWF LX WSHII- LX BL HJe EJZER
vidual, the equal protection of the laws.”). As CEIBLXeICLkI- BCF LXEKEJHS `FHJEJK LY BCF FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ
guarantee “establishes equality before the law,”
Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 2766 (1866), “abol-EICFI HSS WSHII SFKEISHBELJ EJ BCF %BHBFIm-n HJZ ZLFI
HkHe kEBC BCF EJbDIBEWF LY IDUbFWBEJK LJF WHIBF LY cFXR
ILJI BL H WLZF JLB HccSEWHUSF BL HJLBCFX.” 8,- .CF`FHJEJK LY FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ- HI BCF ZFUHBFI L0FX BCF
Fourteenth Amendment show, was that the “law
kCEWC LcFXHBFZ DcLJ LJF `HJ ICHSS LcFXHBF "^/600E upon all,” $,- HB ?]GQ OF`cCHIEI EJ LXEKEJHSP- BCFXFUe
“securing an equality of rights to all citizens of the
:JEBFZ %BHBFI- HJZ LY HSS cFXILJI kEBCEJ BCFEX bDXEIRdiction.” 8,- HB ?G@?/
No person, under the Fourteenth Amendment’s
text, may be consigned to the status of a pariah, “a
IBXHJKFX BL mBCF State’s] laws.” *%4"' ?- ;?6&(- G>^:/%/ N?@- NMG O>QQNP/ :JZFX BCF $lDHS 8XLBFWBELJ
2SHDIF- IBHBFI `He JLB ZFJe BL KHe `FJ LX SFIUEHJIrights basic to “ordinary civic life in a free society,” $,-
at 631, “to make them unequal to everyone else.” 8,-
HB NMG/ \DEBF cSHEJSe- BCF $lDHS 8XLBFWBELJ 2SHDIFcXLBFWBI `EJLXEBEFI YXL` IBHBFRIcLJILXFZ ZEIWXE`EJHR
tion at the hands of majorities, “withdraw[ing] from
Government the power to degrade or demean,” R$&,P(%'- >MM %/ 2B/ HB ?NQG- BCXLDKC BCF ZF`LWXHBEW cXLR
WFII/ :"" 60(% .$?$0 *$BC#( .6("(- >@Q :/%/ HB ?]
(“[C]lass legislation . . . [is] obnoxious to the prohibi-tions of the Fourteenth Amendment . . . .”); H% 3C
K%D ?- L/&6&- >? +/ 2HI/ ?G?- ?GN O2/2/4/ 2HS/ >A^QP
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>]
O6L/ N-]GNP O+EFSZ- 2/J.) (“[H]ostile and discrE`EJHBEJK
SFKEISHBELJ Ue H IBHBF HKHEJIB cFXILJI LY HJe WSHII-IFWB- WXFFZ LX JHBELJ- EJ kCHBF0FX YLX` / / / EI YLXUEZR
den by the fourteenth amendment . . . .”).
)HBCFX BCHJ EJBFXcXFB BCF BF_B EJ SEKCB LY EBI
LXEKEJHS `FHJEJK- BCF WLDXB LY HccFHSI F`cCHIETFZ
kCHB EB BCLDKCB kHI BCF F_cFWBHBELJ LY BCF "`FXEWHJcFLcSF EJ >ANA- HIIFXBEJK BCHB “the people who adopt-
FZ BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB mJF0FXn DJZFXIBLLZ EB
BL XFlDEXF BCF %BHBFI BL WCHJKF BCF ZFYEJEBELJ LY `HXRriage.” G"@%"'- ^^? +/MZ HB ]@M/ .CEI UHIEW `LZF LY
HJHSeIEI EI YSHkFZ/ "I H kXEBBFJ WCHXBFX FIBHUSEICEJKYDJZH`FJBHS cXEJWEcSFI LY KL0FXJ`FJB- BCF cXLcFXEJBFXcXFBHBELJ LY BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ BDXJI LJ BCF `FHJR
EJK LY BCF BF_B- I"") "-B-- I$>>%&( ?- JB,"&- ?? :/%/ >-
>AA O>A?]Po G$(#'$5# %2 .%0/4>$6 ?- H"00"'- GG] :/%/G^@- G^NR^^ O?@@AP- JLB BCF cHXBEWDSHX IDUbFWBE0F F_R
cFWBHBELJI LY BCF SHk`HaFXI EJ 2LJKXFII LX BCF cFLR
cSF EJ BCF IBHBFI kCL XHBEYEFZ BCF ZLWD`FJB/ :"") "-B-- @'%D&- M]^ :/%/ ]AMo F%?$&B - MAA :/%/ >o M-;-@- ?-
306>646 "N '"0- O-@-- G>> :/%/ >?^ O>QQ]Po F6D'"&5"
?- O"N6(- GMQ :/%/ GGA O?@@MP/ .CEI- DSBE`HBFSe- EI
kCHB FJIDXFI BCHB kF HXF H JHBELJ LY SHkI- JLB `FJ/“7CHB bDZKFI `DIB UF YHEBCYDS BL EI BCF FJHWBFZ SHk-
JLB BCF F_cFWBHBELJI LY BCF cHXBEFI kCL kXLBF BCFSHk/ / / / m1nB EI BCF BF_B LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB
BCHB kHI XHBEYEFZ EJ >ANA/” Steven G. Calabresi d
,E0EH +EJF- OD% .C""'( 2%' !'%2"((%' Balkin’sJ'$B$&60$(4) >@M 6k/ :/ ,/ )F0/ NNM- NNQ O?@@QP/
.CHB BF_B kHI kXEBBFJ EJ BCF UXLHZFIB cLIIEUSF
BFX`I/ "I BCEI 2LDXB LUIFX0FZ EJ LJF LY EBI YEXIB ZFWERsions interpreting the Amendment, “[t]he Fourteenth
"`FJZ`FJB `HaFI JL HBBF`cB BL FJD`FXHBF BCF
XEKCBI EB mEIn ZFIEKJFZ BL cXLBFWB/ 1B IcFHaI EJ KFJFXHSBFX`I- HJZ BCLIF HXF HI WL`cXFCFJIE0F HI cLIIEUSF/
1BI SHJKDHKF EI cXLCEUEBLXeo UDB F0FXe cXLCEUEBELJ E`R
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>G
cSEFI BCF F_EIBFJWF LY XEKCBI HJZ E``DJEBEFI- cXL`ER
JFJB H`LJK kCEWC EI HJ E``DJEBe YXL` EJFlDHSEBe LYlegal protection, either for life, liberty, or property.”
:#'6/,"' ?- R"(# Q$'B$&$6- >@@ :/%/ M@M- M>@ O>AA@P/
.CEI UXLHZ kLXZEJK kHI JL HWWEZFJB/ 7CFJ BCF
MQBC 2LJKXFII ZFIEKJFZ BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB-
EB WCLIF DJE0FXIHS SHJKDHKF IcFWEYEWHSSe EJBFJZFZ BLIFWDXF FlDHS XEKCBI YLX 600/ 7CESF BCF "`FJZ`FJB
kHI kXEBBFJ HJZ XHBEYEFZ EJ BCF HYBFX`HBC LY BCF 2E0ES
7HX HJZ BCF FJZ LY ISH0FXe- EB cXLBFWBI HSS cFXILJI/“[S]ection 1 pointedly spoke not of race but of more
general liberty and equality.” Akhil Reed Amar, OC" @$00 %2 *$BC#(X .'"6#$%& 6&, *"5%&(#'/5#$%& ?N@RN> J/=O>QQAP/ 1JZFFZ- BCF )FWLJIBXDWBELJR$XH +XH`FXI IcFR
WEYEWHSSe WLJIEZFXFZ HJZ XFbFWBFZ cXLcLIFZ WLJIBEBDR
BELJHS SHJKDHKF BCHB kLDSZ CH0F LDBSHkFZ XHWEHS ZEIRWXE`EJHBELJ HJZ JLBCEJK FSIF/ :"" (FJbH`EJ (/
;FJZXEWa- OC" M%/'&60 %2 #C" M%$ .%44$##"" %2 =$2P
#""& %& *"5%&(#'/5#$%&) YZ#C .%&B'"(() UW[\PUW[V - HB]N- G@- AM O>Q>]P- cXFYFXXEJK H DJE0FXIHS KDHXHJBFF LY
FlDHSEBe BCHB IFWDXFZ FlDHS XEKCBI BL HSS cFXILJI/
7CFBCFX BCF cXLcLIHSI kFXF UXLHZ EJ IWLcF LX kFXF
JHXXLkSe ZXHYBFZ BL cXLCEUEB XHWEHS ZEIWXE`EJHBELJ EJWE0ES XEKCBI- BCF +XH`FXI LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZR
`FJB WLJIEstently rejected limiting the Amendment’sFlDHSEBe KDHXHJBFF BL XHWEHS ZEIWXE`EJHBELJ/ :""
M-;-@-- G>> :/%/ HB >G> O;FJJFZe- !/- WLJWDXXEJKP
(“Though in some initial drafts the Fourteenth "`FJZ`FJB kHI kXEBBFJ BL cXLCEUEB ZEIWXE ÈJHBELJ
against ‘persons bFWHDIF LY XHWF- WLSLX LX cXF0ELDI
condition of servitude,’ the Amendment submitted forWLJIEZFXHBELJ HJZ SHBFX XHBEYEFZ WLJBHEJFZ `LXF WL`R
cXFCFJIE0F BFX`I / / / .”). The Fourteenth Amend-
ment’s “neutral phrasing,” “extending its guaranteeto ‘any person,’’’ $,- HB >G? O;FJJFZe- !/- WLJWDXXEJKP-
kHI EJBFJZFZ BL IFWDXF FlDHS XEKCBI YLX HSS/
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>N
1J KDHXHJBFFEJK BCF FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ LY BCF SHkI
BL HSS cFXILJI- BCF +XH`FXI LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC Amendment wrote into our nation’s charter a princi-
cSF kEBC ZFFc XLLBI EJ LDX WLJIBEBDBELJHS CFXEBHKF/.CF EZFH LY FlDHSEBe DJZFX BCF SHk kHI XFYSFWBFZ EJ
BCF >^BC WFJBDXe kXEBEJKI LY !LCJ ,LWaF BCHB cXLR
YLDJZSe EJYSDFJWFZ BCF +LDJZEJK KFJFXHBELJ- IFF !LCJ,LWaF- :"5%&, O'"6#$(" %2 I%?"'&4"- p >]?- HB ^G
O2/ (/ #HWcCFXILJ FZ/- 3HWaFBB 8DUSEICEJK >QA@P
(1690) (“They are to govern by promulgated estab-SEICFZ SHkI- JLB BL UF 0HXEFZ EJ cHXBEWDSHX WHIFI- UDB
BL CH0F LJF XDSF YLX XEWC HJZ cLLX- YLX BCF YH0LDXEBF HB
WLDXB- HJZ BCF WLDJBXe `HJ HB cSLDKC/”) 1B YLX`FZ BCFWFJBFXcEFWF LY BCF 4FWSHXHBELJ LY 1JZFcFJZFJWF (“We
CLSZ BCFIF BXDBCI BL UF IFSYRF0EZFJB- BCHB HSS `FJ HXF
WXFHBFZ FlDHS- BCHB BCFe HXF FJZLkFZ Ue BCFEX 2XFHBLXkEBC WFXBHEJ DJHSEFJHUSF )EKCBI- BCHB H`LJK BCFIF
HXF ,EYF- ,EUFXBe HJZ BCF cursuit of Happiness.”), and
kHI EJWSDZFZ EJ JD`FXLDI +LDJZEJKRFXH IBHBF WLJIBERBDBELJI/ :"" %BF0FJ */ 2HSHUXFIE d 3HJJHC (FKSFe-
J'$B$&60$(4 6&, :64"P:"N 76''$6B"- HB GRQ O?@>]P-
6?6$06>0" 6# CBBcfggcHcFXI/IIXJ/WL`gILSMgcHcFXI/WY`hHUIBXHWBiEZj?G@Q]]M OWLSSFWBEJK IBHBF WLJIBEBDBELJHS
cXL0EIELJIP/
.CF Fourteenth Amendment’s Framers crafted aUXLHZ KDHXHJBFF LY FlDHSEBe YLX HSS cFXILJI BL UXEJK
BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ UHWa EJBL SEJF kEBC BCFIF YDJZH`FJR
BHS cXEJWEcSFI LY "`FXEWHJ FlDHSEBe- kCEWC CHZ UFFJUFBXHeFZ HJZ IBDJBFZ Ue BCF EJIBEBDBELJ LY ISH0FXe/
:"" 75G%&60,- GN> :/%/ HB A@^ O.CL`HI- !/- WLJWDXR
ring) (“[S]lavery, and the measures designed to pro-BFWB EB- kFXF EXXFWLJWESHUSF kEBC BCF cXEJWEcSFI LY
FlDHSEBe / / / HJZ EJHSEFJHUSF XEKCBI cXLWSHE`FZ Ue BCF
4FWSHXHBELJ LY 1JZFcFJZFJWF HJZ F`UFZZFZ EJ LDXconstitutional structure.”). After nearly a century in
kCEWC BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ IHJWBELJFZ XHWEHS ISH0FXe HJZ
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HSSLkFZ HSS `HJJFX LY IBHBFRIcLJILXFZ ZEIWXE`EJHBELJ-
BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB WLZEYEFZ LDX YLDJZEJKcXL`EIF LY FlDHSEBe BCXLDKC BCF BF_B LY BCF $lDHS 8XLR
BFWBELJ 2SHDIF/ As the Amendment’s +XH`FXI F_RcSHEJFZ BE`F HJZ HKHEJ- BCF KDHXHJBFF LY BCF FlDHS
protection of the laws was “essentially declared in the
Declaration of Independence,” Cong. Globe, 39BC2LJK/- >IB %FII/ ?QN> O>ANNP- HJZ kHI JFWFIIHXe BL
secure the promise of liberty for all persons. “How
can he have and enjoy equal rights of ‘life, liberty,and the pursuit of happiness’ without ‘equal protec-
tion of the laws?’ This is so self RF0EZFJB HJZ bDIB BCHB
JL `HJ / / / can fail to see and appreciate it.” 8,- HB?GMQ/
.CF +XH`FXI LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB HWBR
FZ YXL` F_cFXEFJWF HI kFSS/ .CFe CHZ IFFJ YEXIBCHJZBCHB IBHBFI WLDSZ JLB UF BXDIBFZ BL XFIcFWB YDJZH`FJR
BHS SEUFXBEFI LX UHIEW JLBELJI LY FlDHSEBe DJZFX BCF SHk
YLX HSS cFXILJI/ :"" *"+%'# %2 #C" M%$ .%44$##"" %&*"5%&(#'/5#$%&- (/+'6- HB _0EE OZFBHESEJK YEJZEJKI BCHB-
EJ BCF HYBFX`HBC LY BCF kHX- %LDBCFXJ cFLcSF XFYDIFZ
“to place the colored race . . . upon terms even of civil
equality” or “tolerat[e] . . . any WSHII LY cFLcSF YXEFJZSeto the Union, be they white or black”)/ 7CEBF :JELJR
EIBI- JL SFII BCHJ BCF JFkSe YXFFZ ISH0FI- JFFZFZ BCFFlDHS cXLBFWBELJ LY BCF SHkI BL FJIDXF BCHB %LDBCFXJ
IBHBF KL0FXJ`FJBI XFIcFWBFZ BCFEX YDJZH`FJBHS
XEKCBI/ :"" 75G%&60,- GN> :/%/ HB ^^Q OZEIWDIIEJKthe “plight of whites in the SoutC kCL LccLIFZ BCF
Black Codes”); 2LJK/ *SLUF- MQBC 2LJK/- >IB %FII/
1093 (1866) (“The adoption of this amendment is es-sential to the protection of the Union men” who “will
CH0F JL IFWDXEBe EJ BCF YDBDXF F_WFcB Ue YLXWF LY JHR
BELJHS SHkI KE0EJK BCF` cXLBFWBELJ HKHEJIB BCLIF kCLhave been in arms against them.”); $,- HB >?NM
(“[W]hite men . . . have been driven from their homes,
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HJZ CH0F CHZ BCFEX SHJZI WLJYEIWHBFZ EJ %BHBF WLDXBI-
DJZFX %BHBF SHkI- YLX BCF WXE`F LY SLeHSBe BL BCFEXcountry . . . .”).
1J HZZEBELJ- BCF +XH`FXI XFWLKJETFZ BCHB E``ERKXHJBI- kCL YHWFZ cFX0HIE0F ZEIWXE`EJHBELJ EJ BCF
7FIBFXJ :JEBFZ %BHBFI- JFFZFZ BCF cXLBFWBELJ LY
FlDHS SHkI HI kFSS/ 2LJKXFII`HJ !LCJ (EJKCH`- LJFLY BCLIF XFIcLJIEUSF YLX ZXHYBEJK BCF +LDXBFFJBC
Amendment, demanded that “all persons, whether
WEBETFJI LX IBXHJKFXI- kEBCEJ BCEI SHJZ / / / CH0F FlDHScXLBFWBELJ EJ F0FXe %BHBF EJ BCEI :JELJ EJ BCF XEKCBI LY
SEYF HJZ SEUFXBe HJZ cXLcFXBem/n” Cong. Globe, 39BC2LJK/- >IB %FII/ >@Q@ O>ANNP/ 1JZFFZ- EJ >A^@- BkLyears after the Fourteenth Amendment’s ratification,
2LJKXFII DIFZ EBI F_cXFII WLJIBEBDBELJHS cLkFX BL FJR
force the Amendment’s guarantee of equality underBCF SHk BL HSS cFXILJI Ue cHIIEJK BCF $JYLXWF`FJB "WB
of 1870. This Act secured to “all persons within the
jurisdiction of the United States” the “sameXEKCB / / / BL `HaF HJZ FJYLXWF WLJBXHWBI- BL IDF- UF
cHXBEFI- KE0F F0EZFJWF- HJZ BL BCF YDSS HJZ FlDHS UFJFR
YEB LY HSS SHkI HJZ cXLWFFZEJKI YLX BCF IFWDXEBe LY cFXR
son and property as is enjoyed by white citizens,” andprotected against the “deprivation of any right se-
WDXFZ LX cXLBFWBFZ Ue BCF SHIB cXFWFZEJK IFWBELJ LYBCEI HWB- LX BL ZEYYFXFJB cDJEIC`FJB- cHEJI- LX cFJHSR
BEFI LJ HWWLDJB LY IDWC cFXILJ UFEJK HJ alien.” $JR
YLXWF`FJB "WB LY >A^@- >N %BHB/ >]@- >]] O>A^@Po 2LJK/*SLUF- ]>IB 2LJK/- ?JZ Sess. 3658 (1870) (“[W]e will
cXLBFWB 2CEJFIF HSEFJI LX HJe LBCFX HSEFJI kCL` kF
HSSLk BL WL`F CFXF- / / /o SFB BCF` UF cXLBFWBFZ Ue HSSBCF SHkI HJZ BCF IH`F SHkI BCat other men are.”); $,-
at 3871 (observing that “immigrants” were “persons
within the express words” of the Fourteenth Amend-ment “entitled to the equal protection of the laws”).
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The Framers’ F_cFXEFJWF kEBC BCFIF `HJe YLX`I
LY IBHBFRIcLJILXFZ ZEIWXE`EJHBELJ WLJYEX`FZ kCHB!H`FI #HZEILJ CHZ IL FSFKHJBSe ZFIWXEUFZ EJ +FZFXR
HSEIB >@f XDSF Ue YHWBELJI EJ BCF IBHBFI kHI EJWL`cHBERUSF kEBC WLJIBEBDBELJHS cXLBFWBELJI LY SEUFXBe HJZ
FlDHSEBe YLX HSS/ 1J LXZFX BL cXF0FJB BCFIF ILXBI LY
cHIB HUDIFI- HJZ JFk LJFI HXEIEJK HYBFX BCF 2E0ESWar, the Fourteenth Amendment “put in the funda-
`FJBHS SHk BCF ZFWSHXHBELJ BCHB HSS WEBETFJI kFXF FJBER
tled to equal rights in this Republic,” Chi. Trib., Aug.?- >ANN- HB 2, placing all “throughout the land upon
BCF IH`F YLLBEJK LY FlDHSEBe UFYLXF BCF SHk- EJ LXZFX
to prevent unequal legislation.” Cincinnati Com., "DK/ ?@- >ANN- HB ?o “With this section engrafted upon
BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ- EB kESS UF E`cLIIEUSF YLX HJe ,FKEISHR
BDXF BL FJHWB IcFWEHS WLZFI YLX LJF WSHII LY EBI WEBERTFJI / / / .” 2EJWEJJHBE 2L`/- !DJF ?>- >ANN- HB ]o (""
2CHXSFI +HEX`HJ- G%"( #C" =%/'#""C 34"&,4"
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"`FJZ`FJBP/
1J ICLXB- EJ H `HJEYFIB ZFcHXBDXF YXL` HJBFUFSR
SD` WLJWFcBELJI LY YFZFXHSEI`- BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB FIBHUSEICFZ FlDHSEBe DJZFX BCF SHk HJZ
FlDHSEBe LY XEKCBI YLX HSS cFXILJI HI H WLJIBEBDBELJHS`HJZHBF- YLXUEZZEJK BCF cFLcSF LY H IBHBF YXL` DIEJK
BCF ZF`LWXHBEW cXLWFII BL IDUbFWB `EJLXEBEFI BL HZR
0FXIF- ZEIWXE`EJHBLXe BXFHB`FJB HJZ BHaF HkHe BCFEXYDJZH`FJBHS XEKCBI/ .CF SLkFX court’s WLJBXHXe WLJR
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Amendment’s text and history. Under the Amend-ment’s plain text and original meaning, this sweep-
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WCLEWF/ .CF $lDHS 8XLBFWBELJ 2SHDIF KDHXHJBFFI
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?@
FlDHSEBe DJZFX BCF SHk HJZ FlDHSEBe LY XEKCBI BL HSS
cFXILJI- EJWSDZEJK BCF XEKCB BL `HXXe- H XEKCB XFWLKRnized by the Framers as part of the “attributes of a
YXFF`HJ HWWLXZEJK BL BCF DJE0FXIHS DJZFXIBHJZEJK LYthe American people[.]” Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st
%FII/ G@] O>ANNPo ("" 60(% $,- HB M]M OF_cSHEJEJK BCHB
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protected by the laws of the land”).
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Consistent with the Constitution’s text and his-
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cXLWFII BL `HaF HJ FJZRrun around the Constitution’s
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UF IDU`EBBFZ BL 0LBFo BCFe ZFcFJZ LJ BCF LDBWL`F LYJL elections.” @6'&"##"- M>Q :/%/ HB NMA/ .CF +LDXR
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BE`FI/ 1J F/56( ?- =%'#EP=%/'#C I"&"'60 3(("4>0E-
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?>
M^^ :/%/ ^>M O>QN]P- BCF 2LDXB FHIESe ZEIcHBWCFZ BCF
HXKD`FJB BCHB H XFHccLXBELJ`FJB cSHJ BCHB 0ELSHBFZBCF WLJIBEBDBELJHS cXEJWEcSF LY LJF cFXILJRLJF 0LBF
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plaining that “[a] citizen’s constitutional rights can
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BCHB BCF YHWB BCHB BCF XFHccLXBELJ`FJB cSHJ kHI
HZLcBFZ Ue BCF 0LBFXI XHBCFX BCHJ FJHWBFZ Ue BCF SFKRislature was “without federal constitutional signifi-
cance.” 8,- HB ^M^/ 1J *%4"' ?- ;?6&(- BCF 2LDXB
IBXDWa ZLkJ H IBHBF WLJIBEBDBELJHS H`FJZ`FJB HZLcBRFZ Ue BCF 0LBFXI LY 2LSLXHZL HI H 0ELSHBELJ LY BCF
FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ KDHXHJBFF- WLJWSDZEJK BCHB BCF 0LBR
FXRHccXL0FZ WLJIBEBDBELJHS H`FJZ`FJB ZFJEFZ KHemen and lesbians rights basic to “ordinary civic life in
H YXFF ILWEFBe” in order “to make them unequal to eve-
ryone else.” 517 U.S. at 631, 635. This, Justice Ken-nedy explained, “Colorado cannot do. A State cannot
so deem a class of persons a stranger to its laws.” 8,-
HB NMG/
#LXF XFWFJBSe- EJ Arizona Free Enterprise’s='"",%4 .0/> !3. ?- @"&&"##- >M> %/ 2B/ ?A@N O?@>>P-
BCF 2LDXB IBXDWa ZLkJ HJ "XETLJH WH`cHEKJ YEJHJWFIBHBDBF HZLcBFZ Ue BCF 0LBFXI- WLJWSDZEJK BCHB BCF
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IDYYEWEFJB bDIBEYEWHBELJ/ "I 2CEFY !DIBEWF )LUFXBI F_Rclained, “the whole point of the First Amendment is
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XFIBXEWBELJI LJ IcFFWC- F0FJ kCFJ BCLIF XFIBXEWBELJIreflect the will of the majority.” 8,- HB ?A?A/ "I BCFIF
cases make clear, there is no “will of the majority”
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BCF WLDXB LY HccFHSI XFHZ BCEI Court’s recent decision
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EJ :5C/"##" ?- .%60$#$%& #% G"2"&, 322$'46#$?" 35#$%&-
>M] %/ 2B/ >N?M O?@>]P- BL IBHJZ YLX BCF cXLcLIEBELJBCHB H `HbLXEBe LY BCF cFLcSF LY H IBHBF WLDSZ DIF BCF
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peals concluded, “applies with equal vigor here.” 8,-.CEI EI HJ DJIDccLXBHUSF XFHZEJK LY :5C/"##"- ZER
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"`FJZ`FJB ZEZ JLB YLXUEZ BCF cFLcSF LY #EWCEKHJYXL` H`FJZEJK BCFEX IBHBF WLJIBEBDBELJ BL UHJ BCF DIFof race in admissions in the state’s public universi-
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state constitution “as a basic exercise of their demo-
cratic power,” rejecting the dissent’s argument thatBCF `HBBFX CHZ BL UF SFYB BL BCF university’s governing
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.CHB IH`F cXEJWEcSF HccSEFI FlDHSSe kCFXF- HI
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protection “withdraws from Government the power to
degrade or demean,” preventing states from acting to“disparage and to injure” gay and lesbian couples,
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tionships as “less respected than others.” >MM %/ 2B/HB ?NQG- ?NQN/
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These protections are the “supreme Law of the Land,”
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ly acceptable rationale justifies a state’s denial to gay`FJ HJZ SFIUEHJI BCF FlDHS XEKCB BL `HXXe kCL`F0FX
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tionships “whose moral and sexual choices the Con-
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sex couples” and “mak[ing] it even more difficult forBCF WCESZXFJ BL DJZFXIBHJZ BCF EJBFKXEBe HJZ WSLIFR
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