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CONSUMER RESPONSE TO SEX ROLE PORTR Y LS IN DVERTISEMENTS

Effects of Incongruity and Prejudices on Emotions and Attitudes

Ulrich R, Orth and Denisa Holancova

ABSTRACT: This study investigates how male and female consumers in the Czech R epublic respondcosex role portrayals

in advertisements for a fictional cell phone service. Special emphasis is placed on integrating consumer prejudices and

emotions into an incongruity-resolution framework. Prejudices were found to moderate effects ofsexrole incongruity on

the emotional dimensions approval and disapproval. Surprise, the chird emotional dimension, was directly affected by role

incongruity. Downstream effects included positive (approval) and negative (disapproval, surprise) influences on attitude

toward the ad. Extensions into other cultural settings and more in-depth examinations of the elaboration and processing

paths, including effects on memory, are suggested for future research.

Congruity theory (Osgood and Tannenbaum 1955) has been

successfully applied in social psychology for explaining atti-

tude formation. According to the underlying principle of cog-

nitive consistency, people value harmony am ong their thou ghts ,

feelings, and behaviors, and they are motivated to maintain

uniformity among these elements (Solomon 1996). Advertis-

ing researchers have applied schema congruity to a variety of

contexts, including pictorial and verbal ad components (H ous-

ton, Ch ildets, and Heck ler 1987), brand names (Meyers-Levy,

Louie, and Curren 1994), and message appeals (Hong and

Zinkhan 1995). While much theory and research have been

directed at understanding the role of reason, or systematic

ptocessing, in the central route to persuasion (Kirmani and

Shiv 1998; Petty et al. 1988), prior research also provides

evidence that executional cues in advertising, such as pictures,

may influence high-involvement consumers' evaluations as

well, in the form of peripheral-route ptocessing via emotions

(Ma clnnisand jawors ki 1989)- In addition, congruity research-

ers suggest th at em otions may arise from consumer ca tegori-

zation and processing activities (Garbarino and Edell 1997),

and Alden, Mukherjee, and Hoyer (2000) empirically dem-

onstrated that reactions to stimulus-schema incongruity in-

volve surprise as an emotio nal dim ension . The role of emotions

in shaping attitudes, in turn, is well established (Brown and

Stayman 1992).

Within the large number of studies on sex role portrayals,

researchers have tended to emphasize cognitive influences and

processes in their examinations ofsex role portrayal effects on

Ul rich R, O rth (Prof Dr. hahil., Munich University of Technology,

Germany) is a professor of agribusiness and food marketing, Or-

egon State University.

Denisa Holancovais

Ph.D.

candidate at Mendel University Brno,

Czech Republic.

consumer attitudes (Debevec and Iyer 1988; Leigh, Rethans,

and Reichenbach Whitney 1987). Sex role portrayal herein

refers to the characterization of females and males in advertis-

ing, as well as their sett ing relative to other characters (W ortze

and Frisbie 1974). No study could be found examining con-

sum er response to sex role portrayals with in a congruity frame-

work. For instance, i t is unclear whether advertisements

featuring sex role portrayals that are congruent w ith consum -

ers' self-concepts and beliefs are likely to be more effective

than ones featuring incongruent portrayals. Although it has

been suggested that sex role portrayals evoke emotions (Batra

and Ray 1986; Schmitt, Leclerc, and Dub e-Rioux 1988), there

appears to be no prior research integrating consumer emo-

tions and their relationship with the cold cognitive pro-

cessing of sex role portrayals. For example, will sex role

portrayals that are congruent with consumer schema elicit

more approving emotions than portrayals thar are perceived

as incongruent? Does incongruity correlate with viewer feel-

ings of surprise? And how do the emotions evoked affect con-

sumer at t i tudes?

One problem in interpreting the results of studies within

both streams of research on incongruity and sex tole portray-

als is that the conceptual bases of cognition and affect are not

clearly identified. Although cognition has been clearly dis-

tinguished from affect, researchers have been less than spe-

cific in defining affect and distinguishing it from the closely

related, although not identical, concepts of attitu de and em o-

tion. Eagly and Chaiken (1993) define affect as experientia

The authors thank BorisW Becker, Oregon State University, for his

comments on previous draft.s of the manuscript. They also thank Ronald

Faber and three dnonym ousJourt/al vj AJvertising reviewers for their

insightful comments and guidance, which helped improve the

presentation of this research. Financial support from Eurotel and Metra

for parts of the research is gratefully acknow ledged.

ourn lof Adi ertiiing, vol 32. no, 4 (Winter 2 003-4). pp. 77-

2004 A merican Academy ot Atlverrising. All rights reserve

ISSN OOyi-3367 / 3004 $9-50 - 0.00


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The Journal of dvertising

feelings directed toward attitude objects. Yet emotions are

un iqu e vis-a-vis affect in th at they are valenced, and can the re-

fore be classified as positive or negative (Vanden Abeele and

MacLachlan 1994); they are spontaneous, temporary states

(Murry, Lastovicka, and Singh 1992); and they can be classi-

fied by individuals according to a number of directions or

orientation s, such as happy, sad, angry, or mad (Oliver 1992).

In contrast, attitudes have been defmed as relatively stable

Opinions containing a cognitive element and an emotional

element (Wade and Tavris 1996). More important, attitudes

include a cognitive and behavioral compo nent not present in

the conceptual definition of emotion (Fishbein and Ajzen

1975).

In a related stream of

research.

Haddock and Zanna (199.^)

applied this concept of attitude to the domain of intergroup

attitudes and found that evaluations of advertising stimuli

could be biased by neglecting differences in consumer preju-

dices. Lysonski and PoUay (1990) report that both female and

male sex role stereotyping occuts, and may lead to the devel-

opment of prejudices. And consumer prejudices, in turn, have

been found to affect consumer evaluation of advertisements,

particularly emo tions (Bhat, Leigh, and W ardlow 199H). Given

further evidence that incongruity does not perfectly correlate

with consumer emotional response butratherdepends on con-

sumer predisposit ions (Meyer, Rudolph, and Schutzwohl

1991), it seems reasonable to assume that sex role portrayals

in advertisements may elicit different responses depending

not only on stimulus-schema incongruity, but also on con-

sumer prejudice.

Building on these studies, this paper extends tesearch on

consumer response to sex role portrayals in advertising in at

least three ways: First, it demonstrates how congruity theory

is useful theoretically for explaining both women's and men's

response to sex role portrayals in advertising . Second, it in te-

grates consumer emotional responses, and hence develops the

linkages between cognition and emotions as key variables in

an incongruity-resolution framework. Third, it incorporates

consumer prejudices as an individual difference variable and

moderator of incongruity effects. The choice of the country

sett ingthe Czech Republicwas primarily motivated by

the researchers' academic and national affiliation.

CONCE PT U L FR M E WORK

Perceived Sex Role Incongruity

To examine individual responses of both females and males to

sex role portrayals in advertising, this study ad opts a cong ru-

ity perspective. Congruity theory predicts both the degree

and direction of attitude change, postulating that this change

occurs in the ditection of increased congruity within the

subject's cognitive schema (Meyers-Levy, Louie, and Curren

1994). Results of congruity research demonstrate that whe

information

is

somehow incongruent w ith prior expectations

effects occur on consumer attitudes (Alden, Mukherjee, and

Hoyer 2 00 0; Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989), and also on the

processing of information (Kirmani and Shiv 1998; Stayman,

Alde n, and Smith 1992). Researchers used a variety of term i-

nologies interchangeably, such as congruent/incongruent, ex-

pected/ unexpected, and consistent/inconsistent (Heckler and

Childers 1992).

In the current con text of magazine advertising, (in)cong ruity,

as the term is used here, refers to the extent to which (no)

structural correspondence is achieved between the entire con-

figuration of sex role portrayal and the configuration speci-

fied by a person's schema or beliefs. Adop ting an incong ruity

perspective entails recognizing that individuals' understand-

ing of nonverbal cues varies (Burgoon 1994), and consumers

may thus perceive pictorial role portrayals differently. More

specifically, one part of an audience may perceive portrayals

of a female boss and a male secretary as congruent with theit

schema and beliefs, whereas another part of the audience m ay

perceive this portrayal as incongruent. According to congru-

ity theory, sex role portrayals that are congruent with con-

sumer self-schema and beliefs are then likely to generate more

favorable attitudes toward the brand than portrayals that are

incongruent with consumer schema.

Schema Incongruity and Consumer Emotions

Researchers have argued that focusing on cognitive ptocesses

and failing to understand the role of emotions impedes un-

derstanding of various consumer behaviors (Allen, Machleit

and Kleine 1992). Past research in social psychology (see, e.g.,

Fiske 1982) and advertising (see, e.g., Alden, Muk herjee, and

Hoyet 2000) indicates that congruity theory may be a par-

ticularly useful framework for understanding the process of

the generation of emotions. Fiske (1982) suggested that if an

item is cong ruent with an existing schem a, it will receive the

feelings linked to that schema.

More recent research provides evidence tha t emo tions may

arise not only as a result of che evaluation ot information, but

also from consumer categorization and processing activities

(Garbarino and Edell 1997). Whether the stimulus is evalu

ated more positively or more negatively depends on how m uch

effort is involved in resolving the incongruity. Alternatives

that

require m ore effortful processin g are less preferred than

alternativ es tha t teq uire less effortful processing because of

the ptocess-induced negative feelings generated (Garbarino

and Edell 1997).

Cohen and Basu (1987, p. 470) add another perspective:

Since catego tization p roduces a reduction in u ncertainty

positive affect may result from a successful fit and negative

affect from an inab ility to catego rize an item. As a resu lt


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Winter

2003^ 7

researchers have begun building a theory that incorporates

both the cognit ive and the emotional components that help

explain how in cong ruity of advertising cues affects attit ud e

toward the ad and brand attitude (Alden, Mukherjee, and

Hoy er 20 00 ). Exam ining effects of different levels of perceived

humorousness in advertising, the authors reported that ad

content incongruity generates surprise. Although this find-

ing confirms the existence of

l ink between incongruity and

consumer emotion, the study focuses on a single emotion and

does not examine the linkages with a broader range of emo-

tions tor an important social issue.

Generally, the role of emotions as affective responses to

advertisements, as well as their impact on attitudes, are well

established {Brown and Stayman 1992). Emotions have been

found to influence the evaluation of both attitude toward an

ad and toward rhe adverrised brand (Edell and Burke 1987;

Holbroo k and Batra 19H7). Con sidering further evidence thar

emo tions are evoked by means of execution al cues in ads (Barra

and Ray 1986 ), such as role portrayals, it is surprising that no

study could be found ex amining con sumer emotional response

to sex role portrayals in advertising. Instead, prior research on

the processing of ads featuring sex role portrayals focused on

how content and imagery affect cognitive responses and atti-

tude toward the ad, which in turn affect attitude toward the

brand and purchase intention (Jaffe 1994; Whipple and

Courtney 1985).

The studies cited reflect a diversity of theoretical domains

and research contexts. Com mon through out them , thoug h, is

a fundamental result : st imulus-schema incongruity appears

to be a particularly useful framework for und erstan ding the

linkages between cold cogn itive processing and emo tions.

This raises the question of how to measure emo tional response

to advertisements featuring sex role portrayals.

Emotional responses to advertising are complex and mul-

tidimensional in their scope. Typologies have been created

including numerous feelings, such as Holbrook and Batra's

(1987) Standard Emotional Profile. A variety of empirical stud-

ies, however, indicates that those batteries of emotions could

be pared down to two or three core emotional dimensions.

Eot example, in their study on the effect of consumer preju-

dices on ad processing, Bhat, Leigh, and Wardlow (1998) re-

duced Holbrook and Batra's 29-item emotional battery by

means of principal component analysis to three general emo-

tional dimensions: approval, disapproval, and surprise.

Given rhe findings of the literature review, it is assumed

that sex role portrayals that are incongruent with consumer

self-schema are likely to arouse strong emotional responses.

Assuming several dimensions of emotional response, such as

approval, disapproval, and surprise, leads to the hypothesis

that the presence of sex role portrayals in ads that are incon-

gruent with consumer self-schema will result in less approv-

ing and more disapproving emotional response. Building on

the results of Alden , Mukherjee, and Hoyer's 20 00 study, it is

further hypothesized that sex role portrayals that are incon-

gruent with consumer self-concept and beliefs will generate

surprise.

HI: The incongruity of an ac/pertisernent s sex ro/e portrayal

will affect the strength and type of

consumer

emotional

response.

(In)congruent sex role portrayals will result in ap proving

(disapprm ing) responses. Higher levelsof incongruity will result

in stronger surprise.

T h e M o de r a t ing Role o f Con sum e r P r e jud i c e s

As mentioned before, stimulusschema incongruity is a use-

ful framework for examing consumer response to sex role por-

trayals in advertising. However, incongruity is unlikely to

perfectly correlate with consumer emotional response. A strong

correlation may occur, for exam ple, when the em otion evoked

is surprise {Meyer, Rudolph, and Schutzwohl 1991). In such

cases, consumers may have no well-formed a priori attitudes

toward the sex role portrayal issue due to lack of awareness

Alternatively, an advertisement might elicit strong emotiona

reactions of approval or disapproval when co nsumers are m ore

aware and prejudiced toward the sex role portrayal issue. Eor

example, consumers with a strong negative attitude toward

stereotyped role portrayals in advertising may exhibit strong

emo tions of disapproval when show n a portrayal incong ruenr

with their self-schema and beliefs. Thus, an advertisemen

might generate different emotions depending on consumers

prior exposure and prejudices. The effect of incongruity is

likely to be magnified as prejudices increase.

Strong support for this proposition is provided by past re-

search indicating that neglecting differences in consumer

prejudices could bias consumer evaluarions (Haddock and

Zan na 19 93 ; Lysonski and PoUay 199{)) and th at a priori a tti -

tudes correlate with diminished effectiveness of a particular

ad {Bhat, Leigh, and W ardlow 1998). A series of studies ex

amined consumer general perception of sex role portrayals in

advertising and reported stereotypes being reflected. Women

were found to be primarily depicted in conformity with tra-

ditional gender roles, relationships, and situations {Ferguson

Kreshel, and Tinkham 1990; Wiles, Wiles, and Tjernlund

1995).

Similarly, stereotypes were reported for the portrayal

of men. Most male models were shown in conformity with

traditional gender roles {e.g., as businessmen, sportsmen, au-

thority and father f igures) (Kolber and Albanese 1996

Wolheter and Lammers 1980).

In their landmark study, Lundstrom and Sciglimpaglia

{1977) introduced a scale for measuring respondents' genera

attitudes toward sex role portrayals in advertising. The in-

strum ent was employed in subsequen t studies and generally

was found to be useful for assessing overall issue awareness


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The Journal nf Advertising

(Ford, LaTour, and Lundstrom 199 1; Lundstrom, W hite , and

Chopoorian 1999)- Lundstrom and Sciglimpaglia (1977) fur-

ther reported thar some groups of female consumers, usually

defined by demographic variables (i.e., income, education),

were more aware of stereotyped role portrayals in advertising

than others and that corresponding prejudices influenced

women s attitude s toward firms and produ cts. Their findings

were complemented by more recent research demonstrating

that females who were more prejudiced toward stereotyped

sex role portrayals in advertising were more likely to exhibit

negative attitudes toward firms or products associated with

stereotyped role portrayals (Lysonski and Pollay 1990). At

this point, it is importatit to note that whereas this stream of

research examined primarily female consumer perceptions and

attitudes at an aggregated level, the Lundstrom and Sciglim-

paglia (1977) scale is getierally considered a useful tool for

assessing consumer prejudices on the issue of sex role portray-

als in advertising.

Given the results of these studies, it is expected that con-

sumers vary considerably in their self-reported prejudices

toward sex role portrayals because of differences due to ex-

perience, family values, or education. It also seems reason-

a b l e to e xpe c t c onsum e r p r e jud i c e s , as a n i nd iv idu a l

difference variable, to interact with sex role incongruity to

strongly inf luence emotio nal responses, with subseq uent

effects on consumer attitudes. In other words, it is proposed

that consumers emotional and att i tudinal responses to an

ad incorporating sex role imagery will be moderated by their

prejudices:

H2:

Effects of sex role portrayal incongruity on consume r

emotionswill emoderated hy an individual s prejudtce towa rd

sexroleportrayals. The more (less) prejudiced an individual

is, the stronger (weaker) his or her emotional response to an

incongruent sexroleportrayal will be.

Given the range of prejudices among consumers and in the

light of earlier findings of direct effect ofsex role portrayals

on brand att i tude (Leigh, Rethans, and Reichenbach W hitney

1987),

it is further hypothesized that sex role incongruity, as

moderated by consumer prejudices, influences brand a ttitu de.

Consid ering the f indings of previous mediational m odels

(Burns, Biswas, and Babin 1993), emotional response and at-

titude toward the ad are expected to mediate the effect of sex

role incongruity on brand att i tude. Given the f indings of

Holb rook and B atra s (1987 ) research on th e role of emo tions

in shaping attitudes, it is hypothesized that role incongruity

influences attitude toward the ad, with the effect moderated

by consumer prejudices. Moreover, the effect of role incon-

gruity on attitude toward the ad is expected to be attenuated

when em otional response is included in the m odel as an addi-

tional predictor (Batra and Ray 1986; Holbrook and Batra

1987):

H3: Effects of the incongruity of an advertisement s sex role

portrayal on consume r emotional

response

are moderated by

consum ers prejudices and, in turn, m ediateeffects on attitude

toward the advertisement.

Figure I summarizes the postulated relationships.

M E T H O D

Subje c t s a nd D e s ign

The data was collected at two mall and two city center loca-

tions in Brno, Czech Republic. To obtain a balanced gender

quota, the selection process combined quota sampling with a

systematic approach in which every third person who passed

the interviewer was asked to participate. Three hundred and

twenty adults (1 61 females and 159 m ales) were selected ran-

domly within a narrow age bracket (18 to 35 years) to ex-

clude as many potential ly distor t ing effects of personal

variables as possible. Respondent profiles at the sampling lo-

cations showed no significant differences.

Consumers were assigned randomly to one of eight stimu-

lus schemes. Each individual was given an envelope contain-

ing the relevant experimental ad treatm ent and a questionnaire

measuring emotional responses, at t i tudes, prejudices, and

demographic characteristics.

Translation and back-translation techniques were used in

the development of the instrument to ensure cultural equiva-

lence. The questionnaire was written in English, translated

into Czech by a bilingual graduate student, back-translated

into English by a bilingual faculty member, and then com-

pared with the original questionnaire to check for congruence.

Some rewording of questions was necessary to accommodate

phraseology commonly used in Czech, and after minor revi-

sion, the questionnaire was printed in Czech.

S t im ul i

To classify and choose the specific ads used in the experiment,

established procedures were followed (Bhat, Leigh, and

Wardlow

1998;

Jaffe 199 4). A cell phon e service was selected

as an item popular with the target group; it appealed to both

female and male consumers and there was frequent use of sex

role portrayals in recent advertisements. The cell phone ser-

vice was given a fictional brand name to remove influences of

prior brand evaluation and knowledge.

A focus group of ad practitioners in the Czech Republic

was asked to suggest types of images that could plausibly be

used in advertising to portray sex roles. Based on the focus

group recommendations, a portfolio of storyboards (settings

and role portrayals) was developed. Colored magazine-style

advertisements were created as the experimental stimuli be-


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Winter 2005^ 8

FIGURE 1

Study Variables and Expected Linkages

Role In

(

icongruity

Rl

HI

H3

Attitude

Toward the Ad

^aa

Consumer

Prejudices

iPREJ

H2

w

^

Emotions

Disappn

tval

Approval

Surprise

H 3

Attitude

Toward the Brand

cause magazine ads were commonly used to promote the se-

lected service.

Past research (Linville and Carlston 1994) suggests that a

person's self-concept is accessed through the social situation,

which is defmed as the (1) physical aspects of the situation

(e.g., places) and (2) social surroutidings (e.g., other people

present in the situation, their traits, and their roles). In addi-

tion, sex role portrayal researchers frequently employed the

setting as a nonverbal cue for conveying sex roles (Belkaoui

and Belkaoui 1976; Wagner and Banos 1973). This praxis

acknowledges tha t nonverbal cues are fundamental in under-

standing interpersonal interactions and are frequently being

used in the information processing of social interaction be-

tween men and women (Burgoon 1994). Accordingly, role

portrayal was manipulated in this study by modifying the

characterization and setting of the models relative to each

other.

Following the guidelines on selecting pictorial ad elem ents

(Phillips 1997), a total of six storyboards were created, three

in an occupational settin g and three in a nonoccupational set-

ting, with four different sex role schemes each. A panel of

local independent judges (marketing faculty, ad profession-

als,

target audience members) then rated the pretest ads on

their ability to capture a range of responses to sex role por-

trayals. Eight advertisements within the two storyboards that

generated a wide range of responses were used as the ad stim uli

in this study (see Appendix). In the occupational setting, the

two models were placed in an office with the boss sitti ng to

the left at his or her desk while talking on a cell phone an

the secretary serving coffee from th e right. In the nonoccu

pational setting, the two models were in a house that wa

being renovated. W hile the leader was talking on the ce

pho ne, the follower was sweep ing the floor. Th e ad cop

size,

and layout were made identical to control for potenti

confounds. Text was limited to the brand's logo and a singl

catchphrase to enhance realism and minimize text as a con

found. For the occup ational settin g the catchph rase was Yo

wan t reliable employees- You definitely w ant our service

and for the nonoccupa tional setti ng it was Your partn er ma

dump youOur signal will stay with you.

Measu r e s

Attitudes

The attitudes examined were consumer prejudices, attitud

toward the ad, and brand attitude. The survey instrument fo

consumer prejudice was identical to the one used in th

Lundstrom and Sciglimpaglia (1977) study and follow-u

research (Ford, LaTour, and Honeycutt 1997; Lundstrom

White, and Chopoorian 1999; Lysonski and Pollay 1990

Response to ten attitude statements pertaining to the gener

perception of advertising role portrayals was measured usin

a seven-point Likert-style scale tanging from 1 = strong

disagree to 7 ^ strongly agree. To avoid response set pro

lems, some items were reversed in the actual questionnair


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82 The Journal of Advertising

TABLE I

CFA Results for the Emotions Scale: Revised Mode

Exogenous construct

Variable

Standard factorial loading

t values

Disapproval

Approval

Surprise

Correlations among latent

cons tructs t values)

isapproval

Approval

urprise

Note CFA = confirmatory t^accor analysis.

Angry

Contemptuous

Disgusted

Distrustful

Irri tated

Revolted

Scornful

Skeptical

Uneasy

Wor r i ed

Curious

Envious

Excited

Interested

Involved

Stimulated

Wishfu l

Surprised

Astonished

isapproval

1.000

-.661 -5.94)

.233 2.43)

.66

.75

.65

.60

.66

.60

.79

.66

.79

.63

.64

.70

.66

.68

.59

.73

.75

.75

.64

Approval

1.000

- .129 -1.83)

8.90

10.43

9.34

9.44

9.86

6.43

12.69

8.46

11.43

8.45

9.54

10.64

8.92

9.14

6.24

12.64

10.05

9.91

9.69

Surprise

LOOO

In this study, a prejudice toward sex role portrayal would be

indicated through consistently low values. Six corresponding

items that exceeded the threshold factor loading of .5 were

assigned to a single common factor by factor anaiysis

{KMO

[Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin} = .881, explained percentage of vari-

ance ^ .597). Reliability of the scale of selected items was

sufficient (Cronbach s a

=

.791 ). A single measure for con-

sumer prejudice was calculated for each respondent as the av-

erage score on six items of the scale.

The measures for attitude toward the ad and brand atti-

tude were two three-item, seven-point semantic differential

scales adapted from previous operationalizations (MacKenzie

and Lutz 1989). Corresponding items were assigned to com-

mon factors by a confirmatory factor analysis (Hair eta l. 1998).

Factor loadings and / values for attitude toward the ad were

both significant and positive (bad/good

=

.7 51 , / ^ 12..37,

[un}favorable - .65 7, r - 9 .19 , tdisjlik ed - . 6 5 5 , / - 10.18),

as were the parameters for brand attitude (bad/good ^ .702,

/ = 12.17,[un}favorable = .637,?

=

10.44, [dislliked

=

.660,

/ ^ 11.57). Both constructs were highly correlated (/? = 720,

t

= 14.17), indicating an

A^ ^

effect consistent with prior re-

search (Brown and Stayman 1992). With fit statistics indi-

cating an acceptable fit of the structural equation model to

the data (x [7] - 13.15,

p

- .110,

GFI

[goodness-of-fit in-

dex] = .994,

AGFI

[adjusted goodness-of-fit index} = .9 68 ,

NFI

tnormed fit index] = .970,

RMSR

[root mean square re-

sidual] ^ .081), the mean scores of the ratings were used as

aggregated measures for attitude toward the ad and brand

attitude in the further analysis.

Emotions

The disapproval/approval/surprise scale (Bhat, Leigh, and

Wardlow 1998) was employed for measuring consumer emo-

tional response. To ensure construct equivalence in the se-

lected cultural con text, the validity of the m easurement model

was examined through confirmatory factor analysis. Since the

initial model fit statistics indicated that the model proposed

by Bhat, Leigh, and Wardlow (1998) could be improved, the

loadings (consistency within and across constructs) and cor-

relations were examined to determine which exogenous vari-

ables should be dropped (Hair et al. 1998). In the revised

model, the variables happy and loving were removed, with

19 remaining variables loading on three constructs (Table 1).


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8

FIGURE 2

Alternative Models

Model 1

Incongruity

Emotions

Model 2

Consumer

Prejudices

Incongruity

Emotions

Model 3

Incongruity

Consumer

Prejudices

Emotions

The fit statistics for the revised model were considered satis-

factory: X'(149) -

215,p

.057,GFI

.9\d,AGFl

.898,

NFl =. 8 9 1 , RMSR =.07 3. Accordingly, the revised model

was accepted for use of the constructs disapproval, approval,

and surprise in the subsequent analysis.

RE SU L T S

M a n i p u l a t i o n C h e c k

To check the role incongruity manipulation, respondents were

asked the extent to which they either agreed or disagreed w ith

the following statem ent: The sex roles portrayed in the ad-

vertisement are congruent with what I believe are appropriate

roles for men and wo men in society (scale from 1

strongly

disagree to 7 - strongly agree). To test the effectiveness of the

man ipula tion, d ata was analyzed by using an analysis of vari-

ance (ANOVA) model in which incongruity was the depen-

dent variable and the setting and scheme treatments were the

independe nt variables. Results indicate that incongruity scores

were significantly affected by the selected sex role portrayals

F ^ 14.843;/J .001; X^= .275). Across genders, consumers

exposed to ads portraying women in roles superior to men

(stimuli 3 and 5) reported h igher inc ongru ity, whereas con-

sumers exposed to ads featuring men in superior roles (stimuli

4 and 8) reported lower incongruity.

Test of H I an d H2 : Ef fec ts of Role Inco ngr ui ty

o n E m o t i o n s

Before examining effects of role incongruity on respondent

attitudes, it first appeared to be necessary to determine ho

consumer prejudice, a presumably moderating variable, i

teracts with sex role incongruity in influencing emotion

response. An adequate model for the interaction of the var

ables had to be identified. Th ree alternative m odels were eval

ated (see Figure 2): Model (1): Role incongruity is the on

variable affecting consumer emotional response; Model (2

Both role incongruity and consumer prejudices jointly affe

emotions; and Model (3): Consumer prejudices moderate t

effect of role incongruity on emotions.

To identify the most likely constellation, three regressi

analyses were cond ucted. Since the m odels hold different d

grees of freedom, the most appropriate model could be ide

tified considering (high) R^^^and (low) Akaike Informati

Criterion (AIC; Akaike 1987). Approval, disapproval, a

surpr ise were regressed separa te ly aga ins t incongrui

incongruity + prejudice, and incongruity + incongruity pre

dice (see Table 2).

Significant effects were found for all emotional dimension

with relatively high values for the explained variance. Co

sidering

R\^

and AIC, Model 3, representing a moderati

role of consumer prejudices, proves to be the superior mod


8/14

84 The Journal of Advertising

TABLE 2

Results of the Regression Analyses on Effects of Role Incong ruity ft/)

and Consumer Prejudices

PREJ)

on Emo tional Dimensions

Independent variable

R/

Model I)

R/ + PRE/

Model 2)

R/ + fi/ PREy

Model 3)

Dependent variable

Parameters

2.435

.045

,079

N0.43

2.842

- .028

-.029

168.16

1 428

- . 1 1 3

.267

317.87

1.282***

.185***

253***

.137

102.15

1 596

- . 1 9 4

- .3 4 0

.179

162.15

1 953

- . 0 1 4

-. 116

,084

389.22

1 624

.188

.306

.288

82.55

1 588

- . 1 9 4

- . 4 6 1

,317

136.39

1.291***

- . 2 6 2

- ,1 9 4

,108

387.37

Approval

AIC

Disapproval

AiC

Surprise

AIC

p< .05 .

*** / - < .01 .

for effects on disapproval and approval (comparatively small-

est AIC and highest R\J. For surpris e, a different m echa-

nism was identified: According to the quality parameters, role

inco ngru ity has a direct effect on surprise. These findings su p-

port H1 and H2, and are consistent with prior research (Alden,

Mukherjee, and Hoyer 2000; Garbarino and Edell 1997).

Test of

H 3 :

Effec ts of Role Incongrui ty and

E m ot ions on A t t i t ude T ow a r d the A d

Direct and mediating effects of role incongruity were evalu-

ated by perfotming additional regression analyses. This proce-

dure follows Baron and Kenny (1986, p. 1177), who state,

There is no need for hierarchical or stepwise regression or the

com putatio n of any partial or semipartial correlations. Sub-

jects of the evaluation were as follows: the effect of the inde-

pendent variable (incongruity) on the dependent variable

A

(Model 1), the effect of the mediator variable (emotions) on the

dependent variable (Model 2), and effects of the independent

variable and the med iator on the depen dent v ariable (Model 3).

A significant, but weak, direct effect of role incongruity on

attitu de toward the ad was found (Model 1). In addition , the

emotional dimensions directly infiuenced consumer attitude

toward the ad, strongly in the case of disapproval and ap-

proval (Model 2). More detailed role incongruity and approval

affected attitude toward the ad positively, whereas disapproval

and surprise yielded negative effects. Again, these fmdings

are in line with previous research (Alden, Mukherjee, and

Hoyer 2000).

Mediating effects of emotions on A^^ could be proved by

demon strating th at ( l) incongruity, moderated by prejudices,

affects emo tions ; (2) the emo tional dim ensio ns affect a ttit ud e

toward the ad; and (3) the effect of incongruity on attitude

toward the ad is attenuated when att itud e is regressed on bo th

emotions and incongruity (Baron and Kenny 1986). The first

two conditions have already been established in the previous

section. In addition. Table 3 shows effects of incongruity on

attitude toward the ad with four independent variables (Model

3) and in combination with one emotional dimension at a

time (Models 3 a, b, c). The correspon ding parameters indi-

cate that the effect of incongruity on attitude toward the ad is

reduced when attitude is regressed on the emotional dimen-

sions and incongruity simultaneously, hence satisfying the

third condition. Since the infiuence of incongruity and sur-

prise on attitu de toward the ad appears to be relatively sm all,

two additional regression analyses were conducted to exam-

ine the predictive power of these variables m ore closely (Models

4 and 5). The results indicate that drop ping both variables

from the set of predictor variables in each case leads to a de-

crease in

R~^^ .

Hence, Model 3, which includes incongruity


9/14

int r

2005^

85

TABLE

3

Evaluation of Dire ct and Mediating Effects of Role Incongruity (R/) and Emotions on Att i tu de To wa rd the A d

Model

Parameter

Approval Disapproval

Surprise

lla:

A^^= f(approval)

lib:

A^ = f(disapp roval)

lie:

A^ = / (surp rise)

III:A^^

=

f{RI approval,

disapproval,

surprise)

Ilia:

A

=

f{Rl

approval )

Illb:

A = f (R/, disap prova l)

Illc: A = f(R/, surprise)

IV:

A =

f(approva l, disapproval, surprise)

= f(R/, app roval, disapproval)

* / - < . 1 0 .

**/ j < .05 .

* * * / >

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