Concepts, Stereotypes, Concepts, Stereotypes, and the Totalitarian Egoand the Totalitarian Ego

The Hot-Dog Vendors:The Hot-Dog Vendors:Darrell WorthyDarrell Worthy

Tyler DavisTyler DavisAnushka PaiAnushka Pai

Cindy StappenbeckCindy Stappenbeck

Concepts: The building blocks of Concepts: The building blocks of cognitioncognition

A concept is:A concept is: A mental representation of a category. Things that A mental representation of a category. Things that

belong together.belong together. Concepts can be about objects, people, or Concepts can be about objects, people, or

behaviorbehavior Can be accurate or inaccurate. They aren’t Can be accurate or inaccurate. They aren’t

necessarily what the world is like, they’re what necessarily what the world is like, they’re what we think its like.we think its like.

Other than concepts about people, can you think Other than concepts about people, can you think of some concepts that you have, or individuals in of some concepts that you have, or individuals in American culture hold that are inaccurate?American culture hold that are inaccurate?

What concepts do:What concepts do:

Help us make sense of the worldHelp us make sense of the world Facilitate communicationFacilitate communication ClassificationClassification InferenceInference Guide attentionGuide attention Promote reasoningPromote reasoning

Have you ever been in a situation where you Have you ever been in a situation where you were conceptless, as in Kunda’s example of were conceptless, as in Kunda’s example of being baffled by another cultures’ practices? being baffled by another cultures’ practices?

How you activate a conceptHow you activate a concept

Activation depends on stimulus properties, Activation depends on stimulus properties, the context, and the observerthe context, and the observer

Stimulus features. Stimulus features. Salience- what stands outSalience- what stands out What goals you haveWhat goals you have What has been primed.What has been primed.

Priming- a general term for activating a Priming- a general term for activating a concept used to explain how a concept is concept used to explain how a concept is activated. Comes in several varieties.activated. Comes in several varieties.

More about primingMore about priming If a concept is primed, it is likely that it will be If a concept is primed, it is likely that it will be

used to interpret subsequent events.used to interpret subsequent events. Example- Hearing a talk on a certain phenomenon Example- Hearing a talk on a certain phenomenon

and then seeing nothing but that phenomenon in your and then seeing nothing but that phenomenon in your own research. Do you have any of your own?own research. Do you have any of your own?

Priming can be subliminalPriming can be subliminal Attitudes and feelings can be primedAttitudes and feelings can be primed Chronic accessibility (always primed)Chronic accessibility (always primed)

Character traits. Example- Chronic paranoia that Character traits. Example- Chronic paranoia that leads to classifying strangers’ behavior as suspicious.leads to classifying strangers’ behavior as suspicious.

Chronic way of classifying others. Example- Chronic way of classifying others. Example- Psychiatrists who see ADHD everywhere they turn. Psychiatrists who see ADHD everywhere they turn.

Basic level categoriesBasic level categories Natural level to talk about objectsNatural level to talk about objects Highest level that someone can create an image Highest level that someone can create an image

of the category as a wholeof the category as a whole Can be different depending on:Can be different depending on:

ExpertiseExpertise GoalsGoals

Not as clear in social psychologyNot as clear in social psychology Very flexibleVery flexible Context dependantContext dependant Impossible to create hierarchiesImpossible to create hierarchies More like a tangled webMore like a tangled web

Models of representationModels of representation Social psychologists are not as interested in Social psychologists are not as interested in

mapping the architecture as describing its mapping the architecture as describing its implicationsimplications

Associative network ModelsAssociative network Models Made up of links and nodesMade up of links and nodes Activation spreads to nodes via linksActivation spreads to nodes via links Activation gradually decays in activated nodesActivation gradually decays in activated nodes Activation can only spread so far. It either just peters Activation can only spread so far. It either just peters

out or runs into some sort of barrierout or runs into some sort of barrier Our interpretation of events is determined which Our interpretation of events is determined which

nodes have been activated.nodes have been activated. Explains priming phenomenaExplains priming phenomena

Parallel constraint satisfaction Parallel constraint satisfaction modelsmodels

Connectionist modelsConnectionist models Involve excitatory and inhibitory links. A node can be Involve excitatory and inhibitory links. A node can be

activated as well as deactivated.activated as well as deactivated. Constrains spreading activationConstrains spreading activation Higher-level concepts are spread outHigher-level concepts are spread out In addition to the phenomena that associative In addition to the phenomena that associative

networks can explain, parallel constraint satisfaction networks can explain, parallel constraint satisfaction models can explain higher level reasoning within the models can explain higher level reasoning within the same models as mental representation.same models as mental representation.

Can you think of any phenomena where Can you think of any phenomena where architecture might be important for social architecture might be important for social psychologists to think about?psychologists to think about?

StereotypesStereotypes

StereotypesStereotypes

DefinitionDefinition ““cognitive structures that contain our cognitive structures that contain our

knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about a knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about a social group”social group”

These stereotypes guide our expectations These stereotypes guide our expectations about group members and can color our about group members and can color our interpretations of their behavior and traits.interpretations of their behavior and traits.

Stereotype ActivationStereotype Activation

We may activate a group’s stereotype We may activate a group’s stereotype automatically, with little awareness and automatically, with little awareness and intention.intention.

Study by Patricia Devine (1989)Study by Patricia Devine (1989) Do White Americans activate the stereotype Do White Americans activate the stereotype

“aggressive” for African Americans “aggressive” for African Americans automatically?automatically?

White participants exposed subliminally to White participants exposed subliminally to words related to African American stereotype, words related to African American stereotype, but that weren’t directly associated with but that weren’t directly associated with “aggressive”“aggressive”

Stereotype ActivationStereotype Activation

Either presented with 80% or 20% of Either presented with 80% or 20% of stereotype words out of 100stereotype words out of 100

Then asked to form an impression of a Then asked to form an impression of a person who performed a series of person who performed a series of ambiguously hostile behaviors (ethnicity ambiguously hostile behaviors (ethnicity not specified)not specified)

Those who received 80% of primed words Those who received 80% of primed words rated Donald as more hostile than those rated Donald as more hostile than those with 20% of primed words.with 20% of primed words.

Stereotype ActivationStereotype Activation

Devine’s finding is disturbing because if Devine’s finding is disturbing because if we are unaware of these associations, we we are unaware of these associations, we have no control over themhave no control over them

How might this influence our behavior How might this influence our behavior towards different groups of people?towards different groups of people?

Is there a way we can use this information Is there a way we can use this information to promote positive associations?to promote positive associations?

Fulfilling a StereotypeFulfilling a Stereotype

As we behave in keeping with a stereotype, we As we behave in keeping with a stereotype, we may cause the stereotyped individual to respond may cause the stereotyped individual to respond in kind, thereby fulfilling the stereotypein kind, thereby fulfilling the stereotype

StereotypeStereotype

Behavior Of Our BehaviorBehavior Of Our Behavior

Stereotyped Person Stereotyped Person

Fulfilling a StereotypeFulfilling a Stereotype

White participants exposed subliminally to White participants exposed subliminally to photos of either African American or white men. photos of either African American or white men.

Paired with partner to play a word-guessing Paired with partner to play a word-guessing gamegame

Individuals shown African American photos were Individuals shown African American photos were more aggressive.more aggressive.

Partners (not primed with photos) were also Partners (not primed with photos) were also more aggressivemore aggressive

The behavior of one individual influences the The behavior of one individual influences the behavior of another. behavior of another.

Inhibiting StereotypesInhibiting Stereotypes

When we want to, we can inhibit a stereotype When we want to, we can inhibit a stereotype that would otherwise be activated. that would otherwise be activated.

An African American man praised white An African American man praised white participant’s abilitiesparticipant’s abilities

These participants suppressed negative These participants suppressed negative stereotypes to maintain credibility.stereotypes to maintain credibility.

The opposite also true (negative feedback led to The opposite also true (negative feedback led to stereotype activation)stereotype activation)

Do you think we can only inhibit stereotypes Do you think we can only inhibit stereotypes when it’s for personal gain?when it’s for personal gain?

Stereotypes on the ReboundStereotypes on the Rebound

Suppressing a thought may make us Suppressing a thought may make us especially likely to entertain that thoughtespecially likely to entertain that thought White bear phenomenonWhite bear phenomenon

A series of studies in Britain focused on A series of studies in Britain focused on stereotypes of skinheadsstereotypes of skinheads Participants shown photo of skinhead and Participants shown photo of skinhead and

asked to write a brief description of his typical asked to write a brief description of his typical dayday• Half told to suppress stereotypical assumptionsHalf told to suppress stereotypical assumptions

Stereotypes on the ReboundStereotypes on the Rebound

Subsequent tasks revealed that initial Subsequent tasks revealed that initial suppression of stereotype led to increase suppression of stereotype led to increase in activation and use later on.in activation and use later on. Word recognition tasksWord recognition tasks Behavioral tasksBehavioral tasks

Is this really suppression of a stereotype Is this really suppression of a stereotype (could it be activation)?(could it be activation)?

Given this finding, should people try to Given this finding, should people try to suppress stereotypes?suppress stereotypes?

Differing InterpretationsDiffering Interpretations

The same ambiguous behavior will be The same ambiguous behavior will be interpreted differently for differently interpreted differently for differently stereotyped groups.stereotyped groups.

Does this necessarily reflect prejudice?Does this necessarily reflect prejudice? How might this lead to racial profiling?How might this lead to racial profiling? Is racial profiling useful?Is racial profiling useful?

Individuating InformationIndividuating Information

People can base their impressions on People can base their impressions on individuating information when it is there, and individuating information when it is there, and ignore stereotypes.ignore stereotypes. John the construction worker vs. John the accountantJohn the construction worker vs. John the accountant Who is more aggressive?Who is more aggressive?

Stereotypes may influence predictions about a Stereotypes may influence predictions about a person’s trait-related behavior even when person’s trait-related behavior even when individuating information impacts the trait.individuating information impacts the trait. Who is more likely to engage in working-class Who is more likely to engage in working-class

aggressive behavior in the future?aggressive behavior in the future?

Ambiguity vs. UnambiguityAmbiguity vs. Unambiguity

Stereotypes can determine the meaning we Stereotypes can determine the meaning we attach to the individuating information.attach to the individuating information.

A construction worker or a housewife hits A construction worker or a housewife hits someone who annoys him or her.someone who annoys him or her. A construction worker or a housewife A construction worker or a housewife

• decked a neighbordecked a neighbor• spanked his/her sonspanked his/her son

Most social behavior is ambiguous, how much Most social behavior is ambiguous, how much can individuating information influence can individuating information influence impressions?impressions?

Stereotype ApplicationStereotype Application

When our cognitive resources are When our cognitive resources are strained, our impressions of individuals strained, our impressions of individuals may be especially likely to be colored by may be especially likely to be colored by our stereotypes.our stereotypes.

Why do we become more likely to apply Why do we become more likely to apply our stereotypes to stereotyped individuals our stereotypes to stereotyped individuals when our cognitive capacity is taxed?when our cognitive capacity is taxed?

Should we have people judge crimes Should we have people judge crimes without knowledge of race or gender?without knowledge of race or gender?

Motivated Application and InhibitionMotivated Application and Inhibition

We may also be more likely to use We may also be more likely to use negative stereotypes if we are motivated negative stereotypes if we are motivated to disparage the individual. to disparage the individual.

However, we will only do so if we feel we However, we will only do so if we feel we have a good justification for this.have a good justification for this.

Can we make strides to avoid this when Can we make strides to avoid this when people are in positions of power?people are in positions of power?

The Target’s PerspectiveThe Target’s Perspective

Attributional Ambiguity-Attributional Ambiguity- After receiving positive After receiving positive or negative feedback, stigmatized individuals or negative feedback, stigmatized individuals may remain uncertain about their abilities and may remain uncertain about their abilities and how they are perceived.how they are perceived.

So, what clues will people use to regulate So, what clues will people use to regulate behavior?behavior?

Is it better for the indiv. to remain in this Is it better for the indiv. to remain in this uncertainty or to assume that negative feedback uncertainty or to assume that negative feedback is always because of a negative stereotype?is always because of a negative stereotype?

Stereotype ThreatStereotype Threat

Stereotype threat-Stereotype threat- the fear that one will be the fear that one will be reduced to the negative stereotypes of reduced to the negative stereotypes of one’s group can influence performance.one’s group can influence performance.

Remedial vs. Honorific ProgramsRemedial vs. Honorific Programs

Do you think that stereotype threat has an Do you think that stereotype threat has an influence in social behaviors? influence in social behaviors? Friendships? Dating?Friendships? Dating?

Stereotype ChangeStereotype Change

The Contact HypothesisThe Contact Hypothesis Subtyping counterstereotypic individualsSubtyping counterstereotypic individuals

Extreme vs. moderate deviationsExtreme vs. moderate deviations

Stereotypes can evolve over time.Stereotypes can evolve over time.

Is there a way to prevent certain stereotype Is there a way to prevent certain stereotype formations in the first place?formations in the first place?

Can we change a stereotype we don’t want to Can we change a stereotype we don’t want to have?have?

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions

If you were in a negatively stereotyped If you were in a negatively stereotyped group, would there be something you group, would there be something you could do in your behavior to decrease the could do in your behavior to decrease the likelihood of being stereotyped?likelihood of being stereotyped?

Is it better to socialize with/work with Is it better to socialize with/work with people of your own stereotyped group?people of your own stereotyped group?

Do we stereotype within our groups?Do we stereotype within our groups?

The Totalitarian EgoThe Totalitarian Ego

How your ego uses biases in a How your ego uses biases in a selfish and manipulative mannerselfish and manipulative manner

Organization of KnowledgeOrganization of Knowledge

Self – defined by beliefs, goals, values etc.Self – defined by beliefs, goals, values etc.

Desire for unity, consistency, continuityDesire for unity, consistency, continuity

Resist major attitude changesResist major attitude changes

Self uses biases to preserve self-conceptSelf uses biases to preserve self-concept

Three cognitive biasesThree cognitive biases

Egocentricity – self as the focus of Egocentricity – self as the focus of knowledgeknowledge

Beneffectance – responsible for good, but Beneffectance – responsible for good, but not bad outcomesnot bad outcomes

Cognitive conservatism – resistance to Cognitive conservatism – resistance to cognitive changecognitive change

EgocentricityEgocentricity

Past is remembered from our perspective, Past is remembered from our perspective, necessary for autobiographical memoriesnecessary for autobiographical memories

Rogers et al. – information is well Rogers et al. – information is well remembered if considered in relation to remembered if considered in relation to ourselvesourselves

Brenner – memory decline for persons Brenner – memory decline for persons preceding or following uspreceding or following us

Better memory for things related to one’s Better memory for things related to one’s self of social groupself of social group

BeneffectanceBeneffectance

Take credit for success, deny blame for Take credit for success, deny blame for failurefailure

Judging one’s contributions to the groupJudging one’s contributions to the group Johnson (1967) – subjects took credit for Johnson (1967) – subjects took credit for

good scores, but blamed partner for bad good scores, but blamed partner for bad scoresscores

Vicarious beneffectance – fair weather Vicarious beneffectance – fair weather sports fanssports fans

Cognitive ConservatismCognitive Conservatism

Tendency to preserve existing knowledge Tendency to preserve existing knowledge structures (including stereotypes)structures (including stereotypes)

Confirmation bias – promotes information Confirmation bias – promotes information that confirms current judgmentsthat confirms current judgments

Snyder & Swann – selected questions that Snyder & Swann – selected questions that were biased toward confirming hypothesiswere biased toward confirming hypothesis

Scientists biased to confirm existing theoryScientists biased to confirm existing theory Memory search better for info consistent Memory search better for info consistent

with current belief with current belief

More Cognitive ConservatismMore Cognitive Conservatism

Knew-it-all-along effectKnew-it-all-along effect Fischhoff – subjects first informed of the Fischhoff – subjects first informed of the

correct answer claimed to have known it correct answer claimed to have known it all alongall along

Rewrite memories without registering the Rewrite memories without registering the occurrence of changeoccurrence of change

Fear of changeFear of change

Orwell – “to change one’s mind, or even Orwell – “to change one’s mind, or even one’s policy, is a confession of weakness.”one’s policy, is a confession of weakness.”

Why are we afraid to admit that our Why are we afraid to admit that our opinions have changed?opinions have changed?

Should it be considered ‘weak’ to change Should it be considered ‘weak’ to change one’s mind?one’s mind?

Do people differ in cognitive conservatism Do people differ in cognitive conservatism like they do in political conservatism?like they do in political conservatism?

Scientific ParadigmScientific Paradigm

Does the stability of a scientific paradigm Does the stability of a scientific paradigm reflect the stability of the ego?reflect the stability of the ego?

Do we shift paradigms with the same Do we shift paradigms with the same reluctance that we change attitudes and reluctance that we change attitudes and let go of stereotypes?let go of stereotypes?

Does a stereotypical belief mirror a null Does a stereotypical belief mirror a null hypothesis that requires significant hypothesis that requires significant evidence to be rejected?evidence to be rejected?

Is it advantageous?Is it advantageous?

Do people gain by possessing these Do people gain by possessing these biases?biases?

Are people who don’t employ biases at a Are people who don’t employ biases at a disadvantage?disadvantage?

Prolongs the life of an incorrect theoryProlongs the life of an incorrect theory Bandura – inflated efficacy expectations Bandura – inflated efficacy expectations

may lead to better performancemay lead to better performance