COMPENDIUM ON URBAN MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT FINAL YEAR CLASS

OF 2011-2012

The use of GIS in urban management- prosper_washaya and michelle_machipisa

Using GIS technology has become an inevitable choice for regional and urban management departments.

GIS helps store, manage, analyze, manipulate, and display data, this relates to database records and their associated attribute data to a physical location creating what Esterhuizen (2006) Calls a smart map. GIS is

a technology based on computer for cartography and entities analysis on land surface. The system is a

graphic representation, a sort of map, which provides different information about a particular location. This has become an instrumental tool of urban management since it improves on the storage, analysis and

display of municipal data. According to Romana (2005) GIS is an operational instrument irreplaceable in

urban management that assures authenticity, actuality and the objectivity of assessments in founding,

expressing and implementing decisions and urban control.

Geographic information systems have been used in various aspects of urban planning around the world.

These information systems have proved to be ideal technologies in urban management since they possess a spatial bearing on the urban environment. According to Tripple (1987) many municipalities have

attempted to use GIS in urban management for several years, where there has been use of a variety of

tools from the data processing community. When looking at the use of GIS in urban management it is important therefore to look at it using various examples at various scales, that is, global scale, regional

scale and national scale. At a global scale it is clear that developed countries have embraced GIS as

compared to developing countries.

In urban management, the use of GIS can be realized in various departments in the municipality, from the

public works departments to the planning departments. According to Tripple (1987), observed municipal

task that require GIS are can be divided into on-going procedural and on-going managerial. Tasks under on-going procedural include; the acquiring and disposal of property, reviewing site plans and

subdivisions, conducting traffic analysis and conducting facility sitting. Tasks under on-going managerial

include; allocating human resources, performing facilities management, performing database

management, disseminating public information and responding to public inquiries.

The use of GIS has proved to be more efficient in urban management than traditional manual methods

used by municipalities. These advantages can be identified in various tasks in urban management. One major advantage is that of the rapid sitting of events, this can help in faster decision making unlike the

manual way of managing the urban area where there was in efficiency in terms of time and cost

Esterhuizen (2006), argues that by automating municipal functions and tasks there is increase in efficiency and costs are subsequently reduced. Efficiency can also be realized in resource allocation

where GIS helps in better allocation of resources, in such a case GIS software can automatically allocate

tasks to relevant offices. According to Hicken (2009) modern principles suggest that building on GIS

model helps reduce redundancies of data. Moreover, since these tasks are performed in a mechanically and mathematically calculated manner accuracy is also improved.

Despite the advantages of adopting GIS in urban management there are various setbacks that can hinder the adoption of these technologies. According to Schuett (2008).the major hindrance could be issues of

municipal failure these may include; management issues, poor staffing policies, technical illiteracy,

political interference, and poor fund management. Lack of clear GIS objectives at municipal level is another major setback to the introduction of GIS. Hicken (2009) also identifies insufficient top

management understanding and support of GIS as contributing to the failure of the adoption of the

technology. At local levels it is clear that there is need for legislation that supports the use of GIS. The

willingness of the central government to adopt these technologies is also a major factor. In the case of Zimbabwe where the local authorities do not have full autonomy they may be affected if the existing

spatial data drivers are top-down, that is, decisions are made by the central government which has full

autonomy. Esterhuizen (2006) suggests that insufficient GIS resources, limited usage and understanding

of GIS within municipalities, GIS being seen as an expensive luxury and technically difficult to use, a lack of GIS skills and incorrect staffing procedures, insufficient or poor spatial data and systems not

appropriate for the solutions required are some of the critical failure factors in the use of GIS. Esterhuizen

goes on to suggest that insufficient resource allocation for GIS typically creates substandard systems which perpetuate its negative perception and contribute towards isolated (or discontinued) project

development. This results in GIS becoming an isolated function rather than a fully integrated decision-

tool across departments. On the whole, it currently appears that there is a struggle for municipalities to adapt to GIS rather than GIS being applied to suit municipalities.

The superiority of GIS lies in its data synthesis, geographic simulation and spatial analysis. For these to

be achieved various software need to be integrated to form a fully functioning GIS database. Over the years various GIS software has been introduced. According to Schuett (2008) over the years GIS has been

becoming a popular tool for information decision and manipulation. Various GIS software that have been

introduced since1996 include: the first version of Land Serf, an useful application for analyzing digital models (DEM), the Map Server 1.0, an open-source application, arch View Internet Mp Server (IMS) a

commercial instrument that allows GIS data processing on the Internet, ArcGis 9 application, including

ArcGIS Engine and ArcGIS Server products. RSI together with Remote Sensing Systems (RSS) a division of Eastman Kodak Company are taken over by ITT Corporation. Municipalities in various

countries have attempted to integrate this software into various tasks of urban management.

In urban management many of public administration aspects (health, infrastructures, planning, development, disasters management, security, environment protection, education, culture, entertainment)

or private (resources and facilities control: transport, telecommunications, electricity, distribution, trade)

involve geo-spatial data for which information systems provide updated means of management, (Ramona 2005). Hence it is possible to create „smart maps‟ for these various departments of urban planning. These

smart maps can be integrated into the GIS software to help in organizing manipulating and displaying the

data received. In the early stages of the inception GIS into urban management various components of the

urban system were integrated to form a model. According to Ripple (1987), there are ten data components in the municipal data model these are; a base map, environmental overlays, environmental overlays,

engineering overlays, plan/profile drawings, parcel maps parcel/ street address tabular data, area tabula

data, street tabular data, street tabular data, street network file and area boundary maps. Through overlaying these various components. According to Hicken (2009). Visualization of discreet parts of these

components on a GIS map is possible by layering the data into different themes, as well as the spatial

relationships between various features. Figure 1 is an example of a smart map that can be used in GIS which shows the various interrelationships between the different components of the urban environment.

Figure1 source:

Recently, various GIS software has been introduced to complement the already existing in urban

management. One landmark achievement was made in 2004 by the ESRI which launched the ArcGis 9 application, this software was to be used together with Remote Sensing Systems of GIS in facility

management. One component of ArcGis was to be the arc facilities manager which was to be professional

GIS software based on applications for maintenance, modeling and data management. It would also allow one to capture, create, organize, analyze and manipulate data and make maps.

When looking at the use of GIS it is important to look at case studies at a national, regional and

international scale. Internationally various countries have been involved in the use of GIS countries that have been at the centre of introducing these technologies are developed countries since these countries

have supported their municipalities in introducing technologies in various departments. It is clear that

these countries have already embraced these technologies it is now important therefore to look at the perspective of developing countries. One example of a developing country that has embraced the GIS is

Romania where GIS has become more and more known. In Romania, there are serious preoccupations in

this sense, including building surveys applications, where data stocking in analogical format can satisfy

the actual requirements of the local public administration: achieving data bases with exact information, referring to urban land inventory, rapid access to information related to buildings and their owners,

managing networks of public utilities (Ramona 2005).

At regional level, South African municipalities have been at the heart of introducing GIS in urban

management. One municipality that has recently adopted GIS is Kouga Local Municipality (KLM),

Situated in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, where they have adopted the use of GIS in water services management. According to study carried out by Esterhuizen (2006) Using the power of GIS, a

database was developed to contain the alpha-numeric information extracted from the billing system and

the cadastre obtained from the Surveyor General. The system was ultimately a success and proved to be

an inevitable way of urban management to be adopted by most municipalities in South Africa. In Zimbabwe no clear attempts have been made to adopt GIS in urban management. In Bulawayo a

sponsored attempt was made but was not successful and ultimately terminated.

From the discussion it is clear that GIS is an instrumental tool for urban management. According to

Hicken (2009) GIS represent a modern approach for an on-going improvement of services and decisions

and we should assimilate it in order to face the present trends of globalization and European integration. It becomes feasible to suggest that the ability to manage, correlate, foresee and disseminate geographical

information turns GIS into an instrument for analysis.

Sustainable Cities- Chirengendure_tinashe and chinogwenya_rutendo

The concept of sustainable development has dominated both the environmental and development

literature since the early 1980s when the decades of mismanaged growth in the name “development” where manifested in environmental degradation at a global scale. Sustainable development according to

the Brundtland Commission of 1987 refers to development that meets the needs of the current generation

without jeopardising the ability of the next generation to meet the same needs. To date sustainable development is a popular catch-all phrase which endeavours to encapsulate growing concerns over the

future of the planet by highlighting the inextricable links between environment and development.

In the beginning, therewas the small town, then the big town, or city then the continuous urban more

looselyjointed to restore specialization of activities.Senior (1996) consider that there is a new

environment for our civilisation, which may be called the urban region.Potter and Lloyd (1988) defines

urban region as a city that has been defined by different personalities with analysing various characteristics. A city therefore as defined by Senior (1996) refers to an urban area differentiated from a

town by size, population density, importance, or legal status. Thecity and its region have been the most

important concept in urban geography for a long time .This concept is based on that the life style and functions that are derived by the resources available in surrounding regions and in turn serve the region‟s

needs.

But now this concept is loosing its importance during this present globalising world. Now it is considered

and being researched that a city or urban region may be a region in itself. This region has its delimited

area, its location, transitional zone, urbanised population, culture, functions and space which is occupied

with activities of non-agricultural form. Urbanisation according to Potter and Lloyd (1988) is the most significant process affecting human societies together with poverty and over population. The world is

currently experiencing an entirely new era of urbanisation. Today it is the nations which make up

developing world which are experiencing the high rates of urbanisation.

One of the most cited statistics summarising the process of urbanisation which is currently being

experienced in the so called developing world is that towns and cities of these poorer developing countries are receiving a staggering 45 million new urban inhabitants each and every year. This vast

number of new city dwellers in the poorer countries of the world amounting to somewhere in the region

of 125000 new urban citizens a day worldwide is the outcome of high levels of rural to urban migration

in combination with high rates of natural increase of population.The scale of this process of urbanisation is difficult to comprehend in respect of the numbers of houses ,water connections, schools ,clinics

,hospital beds and jobs that will be required over the coming decades in the more impoverished countries

of the world.Quite simply we are living through what we can only be described as a record breaking era that isone during which the world has experienced its fastest ever rate of urbanisation and some parts of

the city tend to loose functionality with changes in urbanites demands and uses with the availability of

resources and technology.

Urban decay (or urban rot) is the process whereby a previously functioning city, or part of a city, falls into

disrepair and decrepitude. It may feature deindustrialization, depopulation or changing population,

economic restructuring, abandoned buildings, high local unemployment, fragmented families, political disenfranchisement, crime, and a desolate inhospitable city landscape.

Since the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay has been associated with Western cities, especially in North

America and parts of Europe. Since then, major structural changes in global economies, transportation and government policy have created the economic and then the social conditions resulting in urban

decay.The effects counter the development of most of Europe and North America; in countries beyond as

urban decay is manifested in the peripheral slums at the outskirts of a metropolis, while the city centre

and the inner city retain high real estate values and sustain a steadily increasing populace. In contrast, North American and British cities often experience population flights to the suburbs and exurb commuter

towns that is the white flight whereas another characteristic of urban decay is blight which is the visual,

psychological, and physical effects of living among empty lots, buildings and condemned houses. Such desolate properties are socially dangerous to the community because they attract criminals and street

gangs, contributing to the volume of crime.

Urban decay has no single cause thus it results from combinations of inter-related socio-economic conditions including the city‟s urban planning decisions, the poverty of the local populace, the

construction of freeway roads and rail road lines that bypass the area, depopulation by suburbanization of

peripheral lands, real estate neighbourhood redlining and xenophobic immigration restrictions.

However, the interest of planners is increasingly focused on the problems of how to guide this far- flung pattern of urban growth and what to use to make of such devices as greenbelt, new towns, measures to

influence industrial location,transport planning,land use controls and the regulation of urban size and

density in order to create the best environment possible for rapidly multiplying populations without reducing the ability of the next generation to meet the same needs.

Government and planners are promoting the compact city, which favours high density living and

encourages populations to move back to the inner cities, thereby reducing travel travel-to and from work times allowing for high energy consumption. However in third world cities, the main environmental

concerns are not energy reduction or the ozone layer but rather more immediate concerns over water,

sanitation, shelter and access to secure livelihoods.

A sustainable city or eco-city is a city designed with consideration of environmental impact, inhabited by

people dedicated to minimization of required inputs of energy, water and food, and waste output of heat, air pollution - CO2, methane, and water pollution. A sustainable city can feed itself with minimal reliance

on the surrounding countryside, and power itself with renewable sources of energy. The crux of this is to

create the smallest possible ecological footprint, and to produce the lowest quantity of pollution possible,

to efficiently use land that is compost used materials, recycle it or convert waste-to-energy, and thus the city's overall contribution to climate change will be minimal, if such practices are adhered to.

It is estimated that around 50% of the world‟s population now lives in cities and urban areas. These large

communities provide both challenges and opportunities for environmentally conscious developers. In order to make them more sustainable, building design and practice, as well as perception and lifestyle

must adopt sustainability thinking.

These ecological cities canachieve through various means, such as: Different agricultural systems such as

agricultural plots within the city (suburbs or centre). This reduces the distance food has to travel from

field to fork. Practical work out of this may be done by either small scale/private farming plots or through

larger scale agriculture for example farm scrapers.Renewable energy sources, such as wind turbines, solar

panels, or bio-gas created from sewage. Cities provide economies of scale that make such energy sources

viable.

Various methods to reduce the need for air conditioning (a massive energy demand), such as planting

trees and lightening surface colours, natural ventilation systems, an increase in water features, and green spaces equalling at least 20% of the city's surface. These measures counter the "heat island effect" caused

by an abundance of tarmac and asphalt, which can make urban areas several degrees warmer than

surrounding rural areas as much as six degrees Celsius during the evening.

Improved public transport and an increase in pedestrianization to reduce car emissions. This requires a

radically different approach to city planning, with integrated business, industrial, and residential zones.

Roads may be designed to make driving difficult therefore optimal building density to make public transport viable is required but avoiding the creation of urban heat islands.

Solutions to decrease urban sprawl, by seeking new ways of allowing people to live closer to the workspace since the workplace tends to be in the city, downtown or urban centre. There is need to

increase density by changing the antiquated attitudes many suburbanites have towards inner-city areas.

One of the new ways to achieve this is by solutions worked out by the smart growth movement, Green

roofs,Zero-emission transport, Zero-energy building, Sustainable urban drainage systems or SUDS, Energy conservation systems/devices and Xeriscaping - garden and landscape design for water

conservation. The (KPI) Key Performance Indicators for these being development and operational

management tool providing guidance for city administrators.

Developing cities are however not undergoing these changes because of several reasons which are:

Firstly given the lack of consensus over sustainable development, it is not surprising that sits

national economic and social role. There has been a call for an increased understanding of what

is meant by sustainable urban Development so that issues can be prioritised and appropriate

policies is formulated. Satterthwaite [1992] argues that the need for without imposing

unsustainable demands on Local Global Natural Resources and Systems. He further argues that it is not cities that cities themselves which pose a threat to sustainability, but the production and

consumption patterns associated with them, particularly those of wealthier income groups.

Therefore it is ineffective to discuss sustainable development in terms of environmental aspects when the political and economic arena is failing to integrate its management and control over

resources.

Secondly, there is lack of consensus as to whether developing world cities should be seen as

centres of economic productivity as proposed by the World Bank, or centres of environmental problems and concentrations of social deprivation United Nations 1995.

Thirdly Kasada and Parnell (1993) have highlighted the importance of addressing the relationship

between urban size, prosperity and environmental problems. Environmental problems rather

become more serious when the urban population increases without the appropriate institutional

framework while the existence of insanitary conditions and environmental degradation in developing cities are seen as arising from lack of resources and poverty. For example with 6

million inhabitants, Hong Kong produces 23 300 tonnes of solid waste and 21 tonnes of floating

refuse, 2 million tonnes of sewerage and industrial waste per day and 100 000 tonnes of chemical waste per year thus Chan (1994).

In this context, for a city to be sustainable there is need to co-operate the interest of the public, the local authority and other stakeholders in planning for the accountability of the available resources be it

moneyor natural resources. Thus a sustainable city should be able to attain the three ring circus that is

being economically, environmentally and socially sustainable which is a problem rampant in most

developing countries.

Housing in Zimbabwe- thondhlana_ Norman, matika_ lindiwe and chamadenga_ benjamin

The transition to majority rule in 1980 saw the lifting of decades of racial restrictions to the “Right to the

City”. The urban population of Zimbabwe rose rapidly from 23% in 1982 to 30% by the early 1990s. This

trend, typical of many developing countries, can be described as the “challenge of rapid urbanization” whereby people migrating to urban areas improve their livelihoods in terms of income opportunities and

access to social services, while cities, as phenomena. First, many migrants to the city operate in the

informal economy, despite their active contribution to the urban economy, and they rarely pay taxes or fees in direct proportion to the services they use. Second, most local authorities depend to a large extent

on central government transfers which rarely increase in proportion to demographic growth, thus

contributing to declining municipal revenues and expenditures in per capita terms. This vicious circle translates into a serious erosion of local government capacity in terms of planning, environmental

management and the provision of basic services. This is particularly evident in the difficulties the local

government and local authorities are facing in the provision of housing in urban areas.

The population of Zimbabwe is currently estimated to be at 14 million people with about 40% living in

urban areas. His population is characterised by a serious housing shortage and the living conditions of the

urban poor in Zimbabwe have worsened over the past decade or so due to a multiplicity of factors rooted in Zimbabwe‟s urban history, paternalistic housing policy and constraining legislation, and the political

and economic environment. Before 1980, blacks were considered temporary immigrants in cities and

towns due to policies of racial segregation. Increasing insecurity during the war of independence in rural areas in the late 1970s resulted in an influx of people to the cities and towns. Squatter settlements were set

up, mainly around Harare, the capital city. Before this, housing for the urban black population was in the

form of male-only hostels often tied to employment, (Chikwete-Biti, 2009). After independence the

government set out to provide decent housing to city inhabitants but with rate of urbanisation it has, up to now, found it difficult to address many housing problems occurring in the city for example rapid

urbanisation and squatter settlements.

The importance of decent housing and social amenities from land through complete neighbourhoods came

under scrutiny exposing the rich debate amongst politicians, practitioners and home-seekers about

standards, costs, delivery models, institutional roles and partnerships, (Chatiza and Mushamba, 2009).

MODES OF HOUSING DELIEVERY IN ZIMBABWE

There are various ways in which the government of Zimbabwe has provided housing to the urban population over the years.

Site and Service

This is when the government through local authorities identify an area that would be suitable for housing development. Before anyone is allocated a stand at that particular site, the site is provided with the

necessary services such as roads, water and sewer reticulation and sometimes power. When all this is

done people can then are allocated stands and build their own homes. Houses can be built individually of

co-operatively. However, due to lack of resources especially financial, the local authorities have been unable to fully implement this mode of delivery and this has given rise to the incremental housing

development whereby people are allocated stands before the necessary services are provided, on the basis

that they will be provided in time. Although this incremental housing development has its own

challenges, it has assisted the local authorities in dealing with the huge housing demand and long waiting

lists.

Squatter upgrading

Instead of opting to evict squatters form their informal homes the government sometimes opts to upgrade

these settlements to make them safe and sustainable housing developments. Such programmes have been

carried out in areas such as Epworth and Porta farm. This can be done through engagement in Public-Private Partnerships since the government may not be able to provide the necessary resources to carry out

such activities. In some instances the local people can be asked to contribute to the financing of such

programmes.

Integrated urban development

This is a combination of the two modes discussed above

Direct construction

This is a process that can be done by both the government through the ministry of Housing and Social

Amenities or the private sector for a profit. The government mainly does this to provide housing to the

civil service or the vulnerable groups in a society. It can also be done to address certain pressing policies in urban development such to curb urban expansion through densification. Houses or flats are constructed

on serviced land and people can then acquire these houses through purchase, leases of on a rental basis.

HOUSING FINANCE

Finance is a key ingredient to housing development. At present the principal source of formal housing

finance, the Building Societies, lack liquidity. Zimbabweans should be encouraged to save their money to ensure the availability of housing finance. The sector has 70 years experience and generally remains intact

with four Building Societies. Combined the four Building Societies have 134 branches nationwide, a staff

complement of 1 396 and in the last ten years delivered 32 811 housing units. Such a delivery track record

is testimony to the resilience and innovativeness of the housing sector, (Chatiza and Mushamba, 2009)

The current macro-economic conditions are generally antithetical to the provision of long-term and

affordable housing finance. In the interim therefore, it is worth exploring other partnership-based financing models like Public-Private Sector Partnerships (PPPs), build-own/operate and transfer

(BOT/BOOT), community-based savings mobilization (e.g. cooperatives, urban poor funds, MFI-

provided finance etc), employer-assisted housing and supplier-based finance. For this suite of financing models to work as the traditional Mortgage model recovers, there is need to create the right policy

framework that promotes security of tenure (property rights), allows savings mobilization and has a

supportive tax regime. The importance of the World Bank, USAID and other international financiers was

also emphasized in the light of off-site infrastructure backlog. Considering that the local financial sector notably the IDBZ remains under-capitalized international private capital is critical if the sector is to be re-

energized.

HOUSING POLICIES

Housing policy is essentially in two main spheres. There are those policies that are directly about the

process and product on one hand and policies that guide action in allied fields before and after the actual process of housing delivery. The latter range of policies include land administration policies, planning law

and procedures, legislation governing financial institutions, local government laws and a plethora of other

policies. The former includes laws and policies in relation to standards, approval processes, institutional

roles and relations in terms of housing delivery and maintenance. Notwithstanding bottlenecks in allied

sectors, housing policy (i.e. the NHP1 of 2000) in Zimbabwe poses constraints that are evidenced by the

current reality where urban areas are choking under the weight of overcrowded neighbourhoods and have dilapidated infrastructure that constantly fails. In short, policy constraints exist in both spheres i.e. the

housing sector itself and in allied sectors, (Chaeruka, 2009)

Housing provision has been politicised in modern societies and even more so in developing countries as it

is recognised as a basic and social good, a human right and more importantly, as a political good1 in

itself. Governments are thus always involved though this varies from direct to indirect involvement. And

even though institutionalised rules and regulations standardise the housing programmes, housing processes are open to various influences amongst them general market trends, the policy environment as

well as design and construction (Rakodi and Withers 1995). Uche (1999) has criticized the tendency by

many governments in the developing world to introduce housing policies without adequate knowledge of the nature, scope and dimensions of the housing problems in their urban and rural areas. In Zimbabwe this

is evidenced by such housing policies as the Operation Murambatsvina of 2005 which left about 700 000

people homeless throughout the country. However over the years the government has engaged itself in

policies that have benefited the homeless, for example, operation Garikai, squatter upgrading and densification or infill development.

RECENT CONFERENCES ON URBAN HOUSING

1. UN HABITAT CONFERTENCE FOR A BETTER URBAN FUTURE

The Ministry of National Housing, Zimbabwe, and the United Nations arrange a conference about new

thinking in housing that creates housing assets and wealth for the poor. Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe,

October 26-30 October 2009.During this conference the government of Zimbabwe committed itself to the provision of houses to the low income earners. More so was to consider the size of stand to be

apportioned to low income households

2. UN HABITAT CONFERTENCE FOR A BETTER URBAN FUTURE PHAES 2

This conference was held so as to assess the progress which had been since the adoption of the resolutions

which were made during the first congregation. Thus it can be termed an evaluative conference. After retrospections on the previous conference the delegates present noted that very little progress has been

made and the main causality was and still remains as financial constrain from the central government.

Furthermore the local authorities were not in a position to provide land to community housing co

operations which have turned to be the chief providers of low income houses Also it was noted that the local authorities were more concerned about the fortunes coming from the land

under their jurisdiction. So it was noted that they were prepared to enter into land deal with the private

sector who will later sell the land at a higher value beyond the reach of many ordinary residence. Overly, the problem of corruption and greed was indicated to hampering the provision of low income houses

LOW INCOME HOUSING Most strands of dialogue still revolve around ways to bring the excluded poor into the cities with

affordable shelter in livelihoods-accessible locations. Parnell (2008, seminar presentation) has pointed out

that post-apartheid planning around housing delivery has had two pervading principles, those of

integration and compaction, implying bringing together diverse class and race groupings at increased rates of occupation density in the core city areas with location advantage for the poor. Densification is still an

important issue, though attention has turned away from compact city planning in its earlier form due to

the high costs and scarcity of urban land. In addition, the policy goal of delivering as many units as

possible acted to hold down the price for individual units, leading to development of projects on the urban

periphery in localities that were often unfavourable for poverty livelihoods. With the unfolding of more complete and accurate perspectives on how housing delivery interacts with poverty and with economic

activity.

Provision of affordable low-income housing in both urban and peri-urban areas is an internationally proven solution to the housing problem in the developing world. However, experiences in neighbouring

South Africa indicate that squatter settlements develop on the periphery of cities and towns and,

according to the South African government, this form of housing remains the prevalent means through which urban households are accessing shelter in that country. It is believed that governments in the so-

called developing world inherited a system that was never designed to cater for the majority. However,

Zimbabwe has had a successful land reform programme which has made it possible to allocate some of this land for residential settlement rather than strictly for agricultural purposes. In the same vein, it is no

secret that the majority of the deprived fall in the low-income and informal economy bracket. Various

policies such as densification Operation Garikai and squatter upgrading are policies that have been

employed by the government in an attempt to address the specific needs of the poor in the urban environment.

Urban Development and Management- kudzanai_mautsi

Development control entails that development should take place as set out on the various statements that

constitutes the legal regime of planning, for example section 24 of RTCP Act (Chaeruka 2002). In UK,

development control is the system of town and country planning of which local government regulates land use and new buildings. It relies on plan lead systems whereby development plans are formed and the

public is consulted. Subsequent development control requires planning permission, which is granted or

refused with reference to the development landas a material consideration. In Singapore the aim of

development control is to ensure that all properties are developed and used according to the master plan land use zoning, gross plot ratio and building height control. It seeks to protect the amenities and interest

of larger community while being mindful of the needs of the individual land owners and business in its

planning policy. In this regard it will continue to strive for a balance of interest within the community by facilitating development planning approvals and yet protect the amenities of the area. Thus development

control is a process of controlling development.Pountry and Kinybury (1983) also view it as a means of

realizing schemes or development plans which are judged to advance the goals of town and country

planning at any particular date, whilst resting those that do not.

On the other hand, urban development management in Africa has been described by Clarke (1991) as

political and administrative structures of cities and the major challenges that they face to provide both social and physical infrastructure services. These include managingeconomic resourcesparticularly land

and the assets of the builtenvironment, creating employment and attracting investment in order to improve

the quality and quantity of goods and services available. Clarke further argued that management is a profession which like other professions has four main elements, tasks,tools,principles and responsibilities.

This paper seeks to establish the relationship that exists between development control and management.

More practical examples from Zimbabwe shall be put forward. Planners can help manage the growth of

cities. Appling tools like zoning and growth management to manage the uses of land. Historically many of the cities nowthought the most beautiful are the results of densely, long lasting systems of prohibitions

and guidance about building sizes and uses. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles,

safety, and material in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repacked using the contemporary term smart growth (Holstein 1991).

According to Kainyeihamba and McAura writing in Uganda, “Evidence shows that no one dreams of disputing the role of government in respect to town and country planning, these are unquestionable

government functions…” In Zimbabwe, the development of physical planning in 1991 at a conference

agreed to the need for development control as a means of maintaining sanity, sense and harmony in plan

management. It is therefore seen as a means to regulate development through some form of licensing. It determines what goes where and of what quality in terms of building material and design. By doing so, it

enables the LPA to compare the proposed development with the existing for purposes of harmony. This

has a positive impact on urban management since it discourages the growth of neighborhood buildings.

Moreover, the aim of development control is to achieve the town and country planning objectives which

include order, safety, aesthetics and accessibility. For example, Operation Murambatsvina (2005) was a move towards restoring order in urban areas since so many illegal structures have emerged. Thestatutory

216 of 1994 had promoted the backyard industries in a bid to achieve self-sustenance. However, though

this was a good economic policy which was aimed at repealing the Rhodesian government notice of 1976,

which was a major departure from the rigid planning ordinance of the colonial era. Its impacts were soon to be felt. For example Kamete (1996) argued that the partial deregulation of industrial activities in the

residential areas has some design implications.Kamete claimed that obviously the shift would have

infrastructure, space and superstructure impacts with resultant knock-on effect on public health, safety and convenience as well ascompatibility and aesthetics. In other words SI 216 led to the increase in illegal

structures which promoted all crime, disorder and unsafe environment since the backyards grew without

specified standard designs, hence Operation Murambatsvina (2005) was a solution to restore order.

However Murambatsvina went against section 35(2) of the RTCP Act which requires the planning

authorities to give notice before demolishing buildings (Tibaijuka 2005). Thus the implication of Murambatsvina was ridden with errors and breach of critical clause in the process

Apart from that, to promote urban management, developmentcontrol in Zimbabwe makes use of different tools, instrument or schemes. These include enforcement orders which are used to control illegal

development at sometimes accompanied by prohibition order, permits, statutory instruments, special

consent, and change of reservation among other things. Generally in terms of RTCP Act revised edition of

1996, a permit is required before any development or change of use takes place. This helps to avoid development that will give rise to noise, smoke, and smell or dirty. By so doing it enables buildings to

suit in the given environment, hence promoting urban development.

Moreover, the rapid urbanization that many developing countries are facing has caused more slums to be

build. This makes a task of urban management extremely difficult to achieve. This means more people in

need for housing, water and sanitation as well as access to communication. However, most of these populations are poverty stricken which makes them less reliable to pay for most of these public services.

Thus they prefer to settle at the periphery of the cities where there is less expense. However development

of the settlements is often unplanned and develops in haphazard manner which makes the provision of

services more costly and in some cases impossible. As a result these areas are characterized by uncertain or illegal land tenure, minimal or no infrastructure, low incomes and lack of recognition by the formal

government. Therefore, there is need to address the problem of slum development (William etal 1993)

Moreover, Bosselman (1996) claims that the urban sprawl and the economic regulatory systems which

create it, not only produce an insufficient and unpleasant environment on the urban fringe, but adversely

affect the inner city and the rural areas as well. This is typical of Harare metro pole which is currently expanding towards its hinterlands and in the process many new settlements emerge. This includesWhite

cliff andCaledonia farms. Given this scenario development control is therefore needed to guide urban

development in order to maintain an orderly development.

However, development control especially in Zimbabwe has its own weaknesses. This is because it is

directly linked to planning standards. Yet, design standards have implications on affordability and

availability.Tibaijuka (2005) argues that the standards which are set are too high as compared to the social-economic conditions. Thus, high standards have led to overcrowding and shortage of housing

which is a poor sign of urban management. Moreover development control in Zimbabwe is too rigid, it

lacks flexibility. For instance Harare is still using a master plan prepared in 1993 and a scheme of 1974. Likewise,the special development order of 1982 which is being used in Zimbabwe needs to be revised.

Besides that, development control in Zimbabwe is discouraging architectural innovations. This is because

the preservation of special buildings of special architectural merit or historic has its own drawbacks. For example buildings along Robert Mugabe are out dated and therefore unaesthetic. Moreover development

control in Zimbabwe is prone to abuse by politicians. For instance when planners went to Mupedzanhamo

to remove informal traders without permits, politicians intervened and protected the informal traders. Similarly, when planners proposed to demolish structures (flats) in Mbare, in order to revitalize them to a

better urban quality, politicians also sided with the public against this plan. Given this scenario, urban

management becomes very challenging.

Also Operation Garikai abused development control by not paying attention to the circular number 70 of

2004 on planning standards, thus development control in Zimbabwe is just the same as a toothless

bulldog. Garikai was initiated by government but it did not observe the circular 70. The law being uniformity, equality but here the government acted above the law/legal framework. Not only that, but in

most cases development control has failed to maintain its consistency in safeguarding urban development.

For example the current development which is a policy of promoting densification has also abused the use

of open spaces which were left for recreational purposes. Other areas once left in the form of ESA are

now being used for development purposes instead of being preserved; hence urban development becomes a difficult task to carry out.

In conclusion, development control is anecessary evil for maintaining effective urban management. This is because the cities are growing at a faster rate due to a rapid increase in population growth. Because of

that cities have to have effective regulation policies which arenotssss only effective but also very sound.

.

Subdivision and Consolidation chikwetu_milton

Subdivision is the process of creating legally defined parcels of ground, usually lots, or tracts and for the purposes of transferring the ownership of subdivided parcels (Payne, 1990). Subdivision means the

division of improved or unimproved land into two or more lots, parcels, sites or other divisions of land for

residential purposes and for other purposes, whether immediate or future, of sale, lease, rental, or transfer

of title to or interest in any or all such lots, parcels, sites or division of land. The term also includes a building or group of buildings, other than a hotel, which is placed on a zoning lot, containing or divided

into three or more dwelling or lodging units.

Consolidation is the opposite of subdivision and this can be described as the process in which different

parcels of land are joined together to form one parcel of land or one entity. This may also be regarded as

the joining of two or more properties to form one property. According to (Davey, 1993) consolidated of land is the legal merging of two or more titles into a single entity. In South Africa consolidation may not

be done without the approval of the municipal council and township boards and this is normally done

within the same zone. If the zoning is different rezoning may be done and consolidation can be done in

the same way (Payne, 1990). In South Africa the procedure for subdivision and consolidation of land however differs in the various provinces in accordance with the requirements of the relevant provincial

legislation.

In Zimbabwe subdivision and consolidation cannot be considered separately because they work hand in

glove. The main legislative instrument which guides these two processes is the Regional Town and

Country Planning Act (RTCPA) especially PART VI which talks of subdivision and consolidation. According to the RTCPA 1996 section 39 no subdivision or consolidation will not take place unless a

permit is granted. Section 40 (1a and b) stipulates steps which are undertaken for one to obtain a

subdivision or consolidation permit. Again this is very much similar to that of South Africa in the Cape

Land use ordinance which stipulates that no person including the state shall subdivide any piece of land unless the Administrator exempts such subdivision.

The key actors involved in the subdivision and consolidation of land in Zimbabwe

1. Developers –these may be private developers, public developers such as the local authorities and

sometimes government. 2. Public sector planners-These are one of the stakeholders in the development process. They can be

found within various local authorities around the country such as City Councils, central

government, Department of physical planning (DPP) and others in different government sectors.

3. Private sector planners- these are planners found in non- government organization and they can be found in private planning consultancy companies, real estate and property management

companies and other planners in non-governmental organization such as Plan International,

UNHABITAT. 4. The surveyor –the surveyor general is the custodian of all survey records meaning that before

subdivision or consolidation takes place qualified surveyors have to first approve the

development.

5. Registrar of deeds-all the title deeds and other legal records are maintained in the deeds registry. This department contains both a manual and database on the cadastral boundaries, type of

property size, and owner of the property.

6. Department of physical planning-this government department is responsible for the overall physical planning in the country. It works closely with institutes such as Telone, ZESA, ZINARA

and EMA.

Level of subdivision and Consolidation

1. National level- Subdivision can be done on a national and this is guided by various policies and legislative acts for example in Zimbabwe the land Apportionment Act, the Land Acquisition Act

and Communal Land Act, Agriculture Land Settlement Act and other policies such as the Land

reform program where large farms were divided into small farms or plots. This may also come in

the form of delineating the Provincial Administrative boundaries. 2. Provincial Level-At provincial level there are various forms of subdivision which range from the

delineating the city boundaries, rural district councils.

3. Local level- this is subdivision or consolidation which takes place within a local municipality jurisdiction and this involves the zoning of land into commercial, industrial and residential.

4. Site level- this is subdivision or consolidation on an individual property.

Subdivision and consolidation in the context of urban management and development

As stated above the two processes that is subdivision and consolidation are closely linked to the use of

land. This therefore means that the manner in which these process are operated are likely to have a bearing on the use of land, its management as well as its disposal. In light of this observation one may

realize that planners have to possess adequate knowledge on how land is subdivided and consolidated.

The process of subdivision involves many actors as stated earlier and the planner is also among those and it should be noted that the planner himself is the key stakeholder in this subdivision of land. In a town or

city the planner is the one responsible for the zoning of land into its different categories that is residential,

recreation, industrial and commercial and this normally comes out in the form of a layout design. Subdivision of land however needs to be done in an orderly and efficient manner to ensure that there is

full maximization of land. The RTCPA stipulates that no development will take unless a permit is granted

this entails that there is some kind of control over these use of land because the consequences of

developing land without a permit is seen in the distortion of the form and structure of the city or town. The other result is the issue of “informal subdivision”. Informal subdivision can be simply defined as an

form of development (construction, erection or occupation) of a certain area without the approval or

without the granting of a permit by the local authority or approval from the responsible authority. Informal or illegal subdivision is practiced mostly in the peri-urban area (Chirisa, 2009).

Subdivision and consolidation is primarily concerned with the changing ownership of land. Many subdivision activities have only a minor effect on land use but the creation of new parcels of land is

accompanied by expectation of associated land use. Subdivision provision in plan is one tool that can be

used to control the use, development and protection of land and associated natural and physical resources.

Some regions and cities with large urban areas and which are subject to rapid growth may promote strategies of urban consolidation. These strategies may become a restrictive management approach for

subdivision outside urban boundaries and a flexible approach allowing for higher densities within urban

boundaries, such as around town centers and public transport routes as done in the city of Auckland.

As cited by (Hough, 1995) the way subdivision and consolidation is managed can affect:

Density of development and the ability to integrate urban design principles into subdivision

design.

Road patterns affecting traffic safety and subsequent affects on the amenity of the state and

surrounding areas (e.g. grids or cul-de-sacs).

Roads and pedestrians linkages, within the subdivision and also to surrounding land.

How site relate to the streets and each other and how they are accessed from the roads.

The provision of size and location of reserves.

The provision of core infrastructure and whether the subdivision is to be developed in stages or

not.

The extent to which land stability factors landscape values, existing or proposed vegetation

earthworks, or cultural or heritage site can be accommodated within the subdivision layout.

Future growth pattern and focus.

A conclusion which can be drawn from this discussion is that the process of subdivision and

consolidation needs to be done and managed in a proper way because they have both direct and indirect effects on the surrounding environment. These two process determine the order, form and function of an

area hence the legislative instruments which govern them needs to well understood by the various actors

involved in these process.

Employment Generation in Urban Areas- mlambo_ ebiot

Every society has a host of human needs that are not being fully met, needs for greater physical comfort,

health, education, environmental safety, luxury curiosity, travel to mention but a few. These unmet needs

represent a huge untapped potential for employment generation. In spite of widespread anxiety that machines are progressively replacing people in the workforce, historically there has been a strong

correlation between technological development and job creation.

In the last two or more decades, Africa has been confronted with multi-dimensional crisis with several systems including drought and famine, floods, wars, HIV/AIDS and various endemic and widespread

poverty. Underlying all these is the problems of African sub-region (Sarr, 2000). A necessary condition

for enhancing employment intensive economic growth that is employment led growth strategy is required to address the problems of widespread poverty and unemployment in Africa. This required that there

should be a link between employment policies, development needs, education and human development

(ECA, 1999). At global level, with an estimated 70 million youth around the world unemployed and many more underemployed, the need for employment creation cannot be deemed (UN, 2002).

There has been a widespread debate on the actual definition of employment. Potter and Sally (1988),

define employment as work undertaken in return for a wage or other remuneration. Therefore, unemployment refers to those who are registered as not economically active and seeking work. Potential

unemployment in developing nations currently stands at 40% of the potential workforce (UNDP, 1992).

There has been worldwide concern over growing unemployment since 1970(ILO, 1970, Turnham et al, 1990; 1993). With an estimated 2,3% PA in the working population in developing countries(Turnham,

1993), employment creation cannot keep pace with demand even in regions where there is increased

industrialization. For the majority of developing countries, urban unemployment is twice as that in rural rate, ranging 10-20 %( Todaro, 1995).

While employment creation is part and parcel of macro-economic policies, there is need for the

government and other stakeholders to embark on programmes and projects to promote employment for example, the government through the response to urban housing shortage can engage in housing schemes

and having housing brigades Though this, many especially youth will be employed to work thereby

reducing unemployment.

Majority of youth in African towns and cities are engaged in the informal sector activities as shop

assistants, clerical assistants, typist‟s stewards, casual labour and illegal activities such as touting, stealing, armed robbery, dealing in prohibited substances such as drugs and prostitution. Only a small

proportion of youth are engaged in formal sector (Chigunta, 2002). Many of the male and females are to

be found along the streets of major cities selling apples, oranges, telephone cards, telephone handsets

among other assorted goods.

ICT has become an employment sector for African youth in recent years. The government through the

initiative to generate employment has become a very important factor. The number of computer shops, internet service providers and trainers and phone shops is in an increase in the in urban areas in Africa.

Most of these manned by youth, however these jobs created do not reach the unskilled or the poorest

youth and women who lack computer education. As a strategy, the government must introduce ways of training the youth and women so as to be attractive to employers.

In African urban centres, a government have embarked on various projects and programmes to promote

employment. (Sarr, 2000, 2002). National Directorate of Employment (NDE) can be introduced by the government which will give legal backing and make it a national agency for tackling unemployment. Its

mandate will be to combat mass unemployment, articulate policies aiming at developing work

programmes and maintain a databank on employment within a country with a view to acting as a clearing

to link job-seekers with employment of labour.

Furthermore, the government can introduce Vocational Skills Development Programmes, Special Public

Works Programmes, and Small Scale Enterprise Programmes. Each programme have several sub-programmes and the overriding objective are to give training opportunities to the unemployed especially

youth by providing guidance, finance and other support services to help them create jobs for themselves

and for others for example in Nigeria, over two million people benefited.

In Nigeria, the government engaged in Capacity Acquisition Programme (CAP), which our government

can also adopt. It is essentially skill acquisition programme of about three months duration at the end of

which graduates are assisted with credits in cash or kind to set up their own enterprises. More so, Mandatory Attachment Programme (MPP), is an enterprise internship programme where graduates of

tertiary institutions are attached to various establishments and paid a stipend by the government for a

period of 3-6 months. It is aimed at provision of training opportunities, employment opportunities.

Over and above that, the government can introduce Job Creation Sustainable Livelihood programme. The

main thrust of this programme is the creation of additional jobs by expanding opportunities for enterprise

development by both men and women. The programme strategy includes harnessing resources, upgrading of technical skills, improving access to inputs such as technology, market information, financial and

extension services (UNDP, 2002).

In line with the above, the government can also introduce Skills Development Centres and Micro Credit.

The initiative will be to enable the unemployed youth to acquire skills which will enable them to become

self-employed. Facilities that can be provided for training in the areas of Hairdressing/cosmetology, textile technology and weaving, fashion design and dressmaking, electrical installation and basic metal

working or even computer training. Micro credit delivery aims at increasing access of small communities

to small loans and other productive inputs to empower them and expand their livelihoods. This can be

though indigenisation by giving them funds in order for them to start their own projects.

A number of unacceptable behaviour, attitudes result due to unemployment. An unwholesome aspect of

youth unemployment and underemployment in many cities in Africa is visible „idleness‟, whereby youth congregate at bars and eating places to drink or converse or smoke marijuana, for substantial parts of the

day (Chigunta, 2002). Such places encourage the development of street gangs and criminal activities. In

general, large -scale unemployment among youth is encouraging the development of “street youth” in Africa. They survive by engaging in various activities such as petty trading, casual work, borrowing

stealing, pick-pocketing, prostitution, touting and other illegal activities. Some have become drunkards;

others are on drugs such as marijuana and, mandrax (Chigunta, 2002).

Youth unemployment in Africa has also promoted „gangsterism‟. Many youth now run criminal

enterprises engaged in violence, armed robbery, car snatching, illegal fuel sales, and illegal importation of

arms, many of which have reached alarming levels in several African cities. Bennell (2000) argued that urban society in Africa is becoming increasingly criminalized, especially with the proliferation of youth

gangs. Such youth gangs and their criminal enterprises have developed not only their sub-culture, but also

a “career path” with a ladder of promotion, and status attainment where the participants see a horizon of „personal development‟. The rise of youth gangsterism in urban Africa is posing a threat to urban

communities all over Africa (Chigunta, 2002).

Another disturbing aspect of youth unemployment in Africa is that the problem of unemployed and disaffected youth appears to play a significant role in African conflict experience (Curtain, 2000;

Chigunta, 2002). The prevailing socio-economic environment is enticing youth to turn to war as a means

of livelihood. Emerging literature points to the „social exclusion‟ and „marginalisation‟ of youth arising

from the collapse of social institutions and the failure of the economic system to generate sufficient means

of livelihood opportunities for young people as an explanation for youth‟s increasing involvement in conflict and war situations all over Africa. Young people in Africa are now at the forefront of all major

wars in Africa‟s current rebel phase (Chigunta, 2002).

War appears to be an option that requires few skills and capital investment, it also provides quick returns as they can rely on the gun to bring them money and respect. There is also widespread use of drugs on the

warfront. Use of drugs erodes self-control and encourages acts of bravery on the warfront. Most of these

youth can hardly read and write, they come largely from disadvantaged communities or marginalized ethnic groups. Street children have provided an important pool for recruitment into rebel armies. The

transition from the „street‟ to „child soldiers‟ bestows a sense of prestige, a sense of belonging and power

(through the barrel of the gun), to otherwise alienated individuals. This has contributed to the widespread use of drugs, indiscriminate violence and general indiscipline of fighting forces in war zones in Africa.

Among young women, lack of employment opportunities has contributed to increasing feminization of

poverty all over Africa. It has also encouraged prostitution as a means of survival in several African towns and cities. Furthermore, it has encouraged „trafficking in women and girls‟ across international

borders to engage in prostitution. Women migrants trafficked to Western Europe in Africa come mainly

from Ghana, Nigeria and Morocco (Taylor, 2002; Aghatise, 2002). In Ghana, women trafficked come from cities as well as rural areas where many uneducated and semi educated girls are lured with promises

of lucrative job offers abroad. Girls trafficked from Nigeria come mainly from Edo State as well as Delta,

Imo and other states in the Southern part of Nigeria. Sometimes, parents or relatives sell these young women to traffickers; they are then trapped within an illegal migration environment where they are

exposed to many forms of abuse including bonded labour and forced prostitution. The sex industry is a

particular target for traffickers as it offers great profits at the expense of trafficked migrant women.

A profile of Ghanaian prostitutes in Netherlands shows that victims of trafficking are mainly

young women, less educated, often semi-literate or illiterate women with little control over their own

situations (Taylor, 2002; Aghatise, 2002). Many of them are exposed to HIV/AIDS. Poverty, unemployment and lack of economic prospects, the absence of regular migration opportunities, parental

and peer pressures, and misconceptions concerning job prospects in North American and European

countries, are among the principal factors giving a push to massive migration of educated as well as

educationally and socially disadvantaged groups in Africa, including young women. Thus youth unemployment poses grave economic and social problems for the African continent. The overall situation

of youth in Africa requires urgent attention; youth should be made a priority group for employment and

development programmes if their socio-economic situation is to improve.

In conclusion, the issue of employment creation has become a concern in many third world countries. A number of strategies can be employed to generate employment in urban areas. Failure to generate

employment will result in much social-economic unrest.

Local Economic Development - dubious _munetsi

LED has been described by various authors in a different way but with one theme of improving the

wellbeing for people within a certain locality. This Paper seeks to unmask local economic development, it

shall start by defining LED and various issues associated with it, this shall be followed by outlining factors that promote LED; theories that explain LED shall be given and wherever possible examples in

Zimbabwe will be incorporated.

According to Blakely (1994), LED is a process involving the formulation of new institutions, the development of alternate industries and the improvement of the capacity of the existing employers to

produce better products, the identification of new markets, the transfer of knowledge and the nurturing of

new firms and enterprises. The American Economic Development Council (1984 p18) has defined LED as a process of creating wealth through the mobilization of human, financial capital, physical and natural

resources to generate marketable goods and services. LED offers local government, private and not for

profit sectors (NGOs) and local communities the opportunity to improve local economy. It incorporates many local government and private sector functions including environmental planning, business

development, infrastructure provision, real estate development and finance, infact LED is all about

communities continually improving their investment climate and business enabling environment to

enhance their competitiveness, retain jobs and improve income, according to the World Bank Group 2011. From the above definitions one can safely deduce that LED is a process of improving the social

wellbeing of people through creation of employment by establishing business and other small companies

which seek to create jobs I communities.

LED can be categorized into three initiatives that is first, community based that which can be applied in

both rural and urban, labor based technologies for rural road maintenance can be a typical example of such community based initiatives. The second category is business that can directly target or involve

enterprises. Locality development is the third category of LED which involves overall planning and

management of the area, according to the World Bank Group (2011).According to Blakely JE (1994),

LED have got three groups which are (a) to build quality jobs for the current population that is to create employment for the people, (b) to achieve local economic stability that is economic development will be

successful if the community has a specific approach to meet all the needs of business (land, labor, finance,

infrastructure and technical assistance to labor), (c) to build a diverse economic and employment base, no community with a single employer.

Blakely (1994) added that factors of LED are employment development base and location assets. Employment, the rationale for communities to engage in active development efforts is to boast local

employment; in the neo classical model lower wage costs are sufficient to create employment.

Development base is based on the notion that local economy must maximize its internal institutional

linkages in the public and private sectors. Location assets, technology is shattering the traditional view of physical location as the major determinant of development, so to boost LED, authorities should

concentrate on building the social and institutional network thereby creating the ideal

Inviting environment for a firm to develop or locate in a community.Blakely `s report about LED in 2003

states that LED is seen as one of the most important ways of decreasing poverty hence must aim to create

jobs by making the local economy grow and this means that more business and factories should be started in the municipal area. The Department of Provincial and Local Government of South Africa has identified

eight key principals underlying LED. (1) Poverty and unemployment are the main challenges facing

South Africa hence LED strategies must priorities job creation and poverty, (2) LED must target

previously disadvantaged people, marginalized communities and geographical regions black economic empowerment enterprises and SMMEs to allow them to participate fully in the economic life of the

country. (3) There is no single approach to LED; each locality may develop an approach that is best suited

to its local context. (4) LED promotes local ownership community involvement, local leadership and joint

decision making (promotes public participation). (5) LED involves land, national and international

partnerships between communities, business and government ventures and builds local areas. (6) LED uses local resources and skills and maximizes opportunity for development. (7) LED involves the

integration of diverse economic initiatives in all inclusive approach to local development. (8) LED relies

on flexible approaches to respond to changing circumstances at local, national and international level.

Furthermore, Blakely mentioned that municipalities have to follow the key strategies to met LED goals.

There is need to develop infrastructure of the municipality to make it easier for business to operate (that is

schools, transport, roads, water, electricity, health facilities). Whilst infrastructure contributes to providing better living conditions it also creates an environment that promotes economic growth through

transportation of raw materials and finished products, skilled personnel to train in schools, health facilities

and other goals to complete the available ones. Hence its investing in both soft and hard infrastructure.

Adding to that, municipalities have to promote tourism which currently is one of the biggest growth

industries in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Areas such as Victoria Falls, Nyangan Mountains, National parks (Hwange, Gonarezhou) are tourists‟ destinations. This including developing local tourist sites and

facilities, improving security and ensuring that all residents are welcoming the tourists. Tender and

procurement policies for municipalities must favor small contractors and emerging business. Where these

companies cannot provide the required services, steps must be taken to get larger companies to enter into joint ventures with smaller partners PPPs. Thus the World Bank Group in other words alluded that there

is need to support informal and newly emerging business and also to support growth of particular clusters

of business.

Moreover, another strategy is to market the municipalities` infrastructure and people to local and

international business. This can be combined with service centers that provide assistance and information

to business that wants to start. This has been termed as attraction of external investment (national and

internationally) by the World Bank Group 2011.

There is no single solution to LED that will work in every local area, each area has a unique set of

opportunities and problems and must develop an approach to LED that is specific to area for instance

some have physical features like mountains, natural forest and falls which can be used to help economic development through tourism. Other areas may draw on different resources for LED such as presence of

diamond in Chiyadzwa, coal in Hwange, flat and fertile land suitable for irrigation purposes in the

lowveld areas which grow sugar cane (Triangle, Mwenezana and Hippo Valley). Or areas with a well

educated and skilled workforce for instance cities Harare being one of them are areas for higher and tertiary education in which business can take advantage of skilled personnel‟s from Universities and

colleges to employ so as to come up with sound decision crucial for the company development, according

to Bartik J T (2005). It is important to note that investors and entrepreneurs who decide to set up business will only do so where they consider the local environment is stable and secure and where negative factors

like civil unrest prevails, that impact on their business, they are not willingly to invest there.

According to Blakely (2002), America‟s new economy in 1992 faced a number of problems which then

calls for LED and some of these can be equated to those of Zimbabwe. First is the troubled

manufacturing sector where the closure of manufacturing plants resulted from capital flight ,loss of

competitiveness and technology change have reduced workers‟ confidence and the confidence in their in the possibility of reestablishing community prosperity. Manufacturing productivity figures show growth

in person-hour output but decline in the manufacturing sector known as “jobless growth” or

improvements in productivity without corresponding increases in human resources . Geographic

inequalities are other problems. Though the nation is producing more jobs there is less than perfect match

between people seeking work, location of work and the resources needed to stimulate job creation. While some places are gaining new jobs, others particularly rural communities and inner city neighborhoods are

mired in the old traditional economy and long well long well behind the nation in employment

generation. Almost 60% of all the jobs in the nation are now I the suburbs. The problem of out migration

is a direct or indirect result of such factors as global market demands, obsolete plants, uncompetitive industries, locational disadvantages, inferior skills and racial discrimination. This is applicable in

Zimbabwe where rural areas are still lagging in as far as development is concerned and still are

experiencing out migration as people come into cities like Harare and Bulawayo for education and employment purposes.

Adding to that point, there is inner city decline .This is where by city neighborhoods in particular have suffered long term decline for nearly three decades with consequences of high unemployment

rates(particularly among non white youth),crime deteriorated shopping districts and dilapidated housing

stock. They have benefited little from the rising affluence of the nation and economic restructuring has

had little impact upon them. This is due to systematic disinvestment in these areas over several decades. The downtown area has been declining over the past years despite recent upgrades for changing uses for

example along Mbuya Nehanda; old buildings have been transformed into shopping malls. Furthermore,

suburbanization was the problem which results in an increased demand in infrastructure and houses, usually suburbanites were poor, hence this called for the need for local economic development which

addresses poverty. There were rural/small town economic declines due to persistent poverty and

unemployment. Deeply divided labor force and chronic poverty were other problems which America‟s new economy faced; in Zimbabwe these problems are evident. Owing to the economic decline coupled

with the impacts of ESAP over the past two decades the rate of unemployment seem to rise, this has lead

to an increased rate of informal activities increased which seem to generate income for the populace,

these include carpentry, hair dressing, however the government of Zimbabwe has formalized these by giving these people a designated area to do their work. As a result according to Blakely E.J (2002) alluded

that some economists advocated for correct national economic policies which could cure all these

problems by stimulating LED to create better human and financial capital flows. These economists view unemployment as a problem linked to the competitive position of a place or locality in the national l and

world economy.

Blakely postulated that the capacity to solve these problems of income areas lies within these

communities, hence must market their resources intelligently and gain competitive advantages to create new firms and maintain their existing economic base .They must use their current human ,social,

institutional and physical resources to build a self sustaining economic system for instance schools,

churches, hospitals just to mention a few, this can be linked to carious theories he ad proposed to explain LED. He went on to say that the insight of LED is that these same organizations have the potential

through partnerships to identify their assets and use them to build a better local economy. Blakely (2002)

quoted Robinson(1989) who pointed out that there are two distinct views of LED that is first ,corporate centre approach which emphasizes urban real estate development and industrial attraction and secondly,

the alternative approach which attempts to steer economic development activities to disadvantaged

residents. Thus there is need to balance two perspectives in any local program to meet the needs of

business as well as the broad social and political needs.

Theories in LED

According to Blakely (2002), LED is an emerging field and currently more of a movement rather than a

strict economic model specifying a uniform approach. Hence at this stage no theory or set of theories

adequately explains regional or local economic development, but several partial theories point to an underlying rationale and the sum of these theories is:

Local and regional development= c* r

Where c is an area‟s capacity (economic, social, technological and political capacity), r represents

resources of an area (natural resources availability, location labor, capital investment, entrepreneurial

climate, transport, communication, industrial composition, technology, international economic situation and national and state government spending. If c =1, there is a neutral capacity that neither adds nor

detracts from the resources of a community. A c greater than 1 implies an area have got strong capacity

that when applied to resources increases them. Strong organizations that can form effective partnerships to meet the need of local economy cam multiply resources. If c is less than 1 it entails a weak community

capacity (low functioning social, political and organizational leadership), whether due to cronyism,

corruption, self interest, disorganization or ineptitude that when applied to resources decreases them and

hampers development.

Theories of economic development have traditionally focused mainly on the r part of the

equation(resources) neglecting the c part (capacity).For instance location theories emphasizes the advantages that come from being close to markets but economically lagging because they lack the social

and political capacity to take advantage of their geographical advantages. Other theories focus primarily

on infrastructure and the need to invest in any number of programs such as building industrial parks, roads, or telecommunication hubs. But these resources in the absence of fully developed programs to

utilize them do not add to community capacity. This witness the thousands of rural industrial parks that

have failed to attract businesses and remain empty. This might have also contributed to the failure of the

growth point initiative which was introduced in Zimbabwe, most of the proposed growth centers have remained rural service centers because they failed to attract any meaningful propulsive industry to grow,

there was no economic base in some of these points.Thus any theory of LED must consider resources and

capacity together. Of note is the fact that theories of LED are categorized into two that are location theories, which focuses on geographical factors; and economic base theories, which look at the flow of

activity into and out of the local economy to identify and explain which firms and industries, have the

greatest capacity to expand.

Neo classical economic theory

It offers two major concepts for regional and local development that is equilibrium of economic systems and mobility of capital. It asserts that all economic systems will reach a natural equilibrium if capital can

flow without restrictions, that is capital flow from higher wage/cost to low wage areas because the latter

offer a higher return on investment. This means that ghettos would draw capital because prices for poverty and sometimes labor are lower than in the overall market. Workers who loose their jobs should

move to new employment areas as a further stimulus to development in such places.

Economic base theory

Supporters of this theory postulates that a community„s economic growth is directly related to the demand of its goods, services and products from outside areas of its local economic boundaries. The growth of

industries that house local resources including labor and material for final export elsewhere will generate

both local wealth and jobs. Hence LED strategies that emerge from this theory emphasizes the priority of

aid to and recruitment of businesses that have a national or market over aid to local services or

international market over to local services or non export firms. Implementation of this theory model

would include the establishment of export based firms in an area such as tax relief and subsidy of transport facilities and telecommunication. Mining and agricultural activities can form economic base for

Zimbabwe especially with the discovery of diamonds in the Manicaland province. This activity will

create jobs in mining operations, diamond processing plants and security office companies .the same

applies to the agricultural sector despite the decrease in agricultural produce due to mismanagement, where a number of people are employed in farms.

However, this made relies on external demand rather than internal need. Over zealous application of base models can lead to a skewed economy almost entirely dependent upon external, global or national market

forces. This is useful in determining the balance of industrial types and sectors that a community needs to

develop for economic stability.

Product cycle theories (Raymond Vernon 1966)

Venom showed how product development takes place in areas with greater wealth and capital to invest in

the process of inventing and developing new products. New products are likely to find first markets in

areas where there are affluent and educated not on areas lacking the skills and resources with which to

purchase these items over time. The product becomes standardized, it becomes popular and well known, this will force prices down and product becomes so routine that it no longer needs to be done by

specialized persons and few jobs are generated from it. At that point production can move to

underdeveloped countries, where firms compete on the basis not under unique products but of price. What the communication service providers are doing is a typical application of product cycle. Initial mobile

phones were bought only by the rich segment of the society, because of the economic hardships were

facing, but as the cell phones become so popular the prices went down such that the majority could now afford and even the rural populace.This has resulted in companies like Econet, Telecel and Netone

establishing network boosters in rural areas like Ngundu, Renco mine, Rutenga and Neshuro, by these

activities this create job opportunities and development as well.

New markets theory

This comes from ideas that claim that inner city and rural areas have valuable untapped or underutilized market potential. Rural areas containing new migrants also have large unrealized market potential. The

reasons relates to misperceptions and poor information regarding these markets. According to Michael

Porter 1995 (quoted by Blakely), inner city areas have features that place them in the fore front of the new economy. This theory considers ghettos and declining rural areas as economic opportunities zone that are

not being utilized approximately. Sebungwe region and other rural communities in Zimbabwe cite a good

example of such marginalized areas in which there are misperceptions and little information abut them.

Sebungwe have got problems and opportunities which if addressed well can become an employment base not only for its area but for the country as a whole, these include tsetse flies ,sparse population, dry(no

water) and a lot of wild animals .This can result in the establishment of game reserves trying to protect the

animals from the man‟s activity through employing local people as guards, this will then attract complementary uses into the regions, thus standards of living will improve. The same thing has been

practiced in the low veld part of Zimbabwe after realizing that cattle and wild animal raring is suitable as

the area is characterized by high temperatures ,low rainfall and flat terrain, this has resulted in formation of Nuanetsi ranch, Magudu ranch and Bubi ranch. Sugarcane (Triangle, Mwenezana and Hippo valley

estates) production also resulted taking advantage of the flat terrain suitable for irrigation and its rich dry

land. All these activities have generated job opportunities and infrastructure like schools, roads and

hospitals for instance Terry Goss high school and Colin Saunders hospital, for the benefit of the local people. Therefore these areas can bare new markets.

Economic development of these areas requires first, understanding the value of community assets,

secondly creating or matching financing tools to these assets, thirdly developing methods to evaluate the long term benefits of these investments and partly determine ways in which the wealth generated can be

shared by a wide range of community members.

Attraction theories.

Are based on location theory and are theories of economic development most widely used by

communities. Communities all over the world have initiated policies and programs to make their area more attractive to investors, firms, new migrants, entrepreneurs and others thereby to gain a competitive

advantage over other areas with similar resources endowments. The assumption is that community can

alter its market position with industrialists by offering incentives and subsidies. This assures that new activity will generate taxes and increased economic wealth to replace the initial public and private

subsidies. A new approach in this theory is the change in emphasis from attracting factories to attracting

entrepreneurial populations particularly certain socio-eco groups to a community area. In the theory communities are products hence they must be packed or appropriately displayed.

Central place theory

It explains different growth prospect of central and peripheral regions. Each urban centre is supported by

a series of smaller places that provide resources (industries and raw materials) to the central place which

is more specialized and productive. This theory has relevant application for both rural and urban LED, its necessary for instance to differentiate the functions of various neighborhood areas so that they can remain

variable centre. Some areas will become regional core cities serving an entire region; others will be

smaller villages or towns that serve only local resident community. Urban centre contains specialized retail stores that serve the entire region investment bankers and surgeons. This was attempted by the

government of Zimbabwe in the 1980 s through establishment of growth points which were expected to

be located in an area with a resource base thus forming a propulsive industry.This industry was supposed

to induce growth in a region by attracting other ancillary activities that is multiplier effect, by so doing the activities were to trickle down to the surrounding peripheries and in that way jobs are created in these

areas. This attempt managed to stimulate LED because the initiative involved some construction works

and the industrial activities too managed to e employ many people taking for instance the cotton farms, cotton ginneries, textile industries and cloth making factories in Gokwe, one can imagine how many were

employed. However, not all growth points succeed to become towns because of social economic and

political reasons chief among them being tat it ended up being a policy for appeasement where each district was supposed to have a growth centre without considering that the area do not have any economic

resource base, for instance Gokwe, Murambinda and Mupandawana otherwise the rest remained as rural

service centers.

There is need to support informal activities so as to achieve the goals of LED ,this is based on the notion

that there is are sufficient jobs no matter how good the economy is performing and with the rapid increase

in population, this entails an increased demand for jobs, therefore policies should support informal .The government of Zimbabwe have done this by first allowing the introduction of backyard industries

through the statutory instrument 216 of 1998 in an attempt to alleviate poverty; and secondly by

designating Glenview area 8 complex for the manufacturing on furniture, thus encouraging self employment(LED).

Owing to the above discussion, LED seems to be the effective way towards human, physical and poverty

not only for but especially in developing nations, however LED alone without political will, coordination and collaboration will achieve no best results, there is need to support initiatives.

Building standards- praise_ sibanda

Rapid uncontrolled and unplanned urbanization has led to cities growing along informal lines. Unhygienic infrastructure and health problems are a huge challenge facing cities today especially third world cities (Mbengeranwa in Zinyama et al, 1992). To improve the physical environment and in particular promoting

health, safety, order, amenity, convenience and general welfare as well as efficiency and economy in the

process of development and improvement of communication, communities or cities have to adhere to

planning standards and design guidelines (RTCP Act, 1996). Local authorities are authorized in the making of plans (whether regional, master, local) to provide for the protection of rural and urban

amenities and generally regulate the appearance of the town-scape and landscape and to provide for the

control over development including use of land and buildings (RTCP Act, 1996).

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Planning standards Refer to the communities agreed land use planning space, standard guides for infrastructure

facility and utility provisioning which were endorsed and approved by local and central

governments.

Urban design

Concerns the arrangement, appearance and functionality of towns and cities in particular

in the shaping of uses of urban public space (Schiller et al; 1998).

The art of creating and shaping cities and towns. Involves the arrangement and design of buildings, public space, transport systems,

services and amenities (White: 1994).

Blends together architecture, landscape architecture and city planning together to make urban areas functional and attractive.

In other words planning standards and urban design could be defined as documented

guidelines that control the arrangement and appearance of towns and cities to make the

areas functional and attractive. They are design principles, criteria and specifications which describe the manner in

which development and related improvements are accomplished in order to obtain

development approval. It serves as a written statement that contains guides that become reference in advancing

development.

Purpose of planning standards and design guide lines

Articulate community design principle, guidelines for development within the city.

They provide a :

Basics for making fair decisions

Consistency in design reviews

Property value enhancement

A tool for education.

They are also helpful, interpretive, explanatory recommendations consisting of written and

graphic information in a printed book format. They are key support materials for administering

review. Furthermore the help in standardized and effective planning and avoid the misuse of land

or building through the use of population and building intensity to create comfortable and livable environment (Sendich; 2006).

What planning standards and urban design consider?

Urban structure – how a place is put together and how its parts relate to each other

Urban topology – density and sustainability spatial types and morphologies related to intensity of

use, consumption of resources and production and maintenance of viable community.

Accessibility- providing for ease, safety choice when moving to and through places.

Function and fit- designing areas to meet their intended purposes.

Legibility and way find

Complementary mixed uses

Order and incident- balancing consistency and variety in the urban environment in the interest of

appreciating both (Sendich; 2006).

Planning standards and design guidelines at a global context.

While every city is different, every city wishes to create high performing balanced creative urban environments which produce good quality of life. Rapid generation of city areas has placed the quality of

urban design high on public and policy agendas worldwide.

The British planning system deals with design issues through three sets of documents: 1. Development plans

2. Design guides 3. Design briefs

These documents rely on the advice from the department of the environment on design considerations.

In Hong Kong urban design guidelines are presented in subsequent subsections for the following

specific urban design issues : 1. Urban Fringe Areas (peri-urban areas)

2. Rural Building Height and building form to be harmonized with rural setting

3. Development Height Profile (Sendich; 2006).

Planning standards and design guidelines in Zimbabwe

A design guide is a general set of design principles and standards required by the local authority and applying to a wide area and not just a particular site (Llewelyn – Davies Weeks, Forester Walker and Bor,

1976 in Biddulph 1996).

In Zimbabwe design guidelines and circulars are prepared by central government and local planning authorities in order to give design guidelines for the detailed development of residential areas in

accordance with any policies and proposals set out in an operative development plan for an area. The design guidelines give detailed information on standards of development and the way in which land can

be subdivided and set out in relation to the site itself and road network to ensure technical efficiency and

affordability. These guides supplement the zoning requirements for an area as set out in an operative

master plan or local plan of an area. The statutory zoning plans gives development control details regarding use of land, minimum size of stands, building height, coverage, and building lines for an area.

In higher incomes, low-density areas, development and design is controlled mainly by the development

control provisions of the statutory plan operating for an area although the design guidelines will still be used to influence the layout of subdivisions of large areas of land (Davison, 1999).

Majority of the design guides were prepared in 1970`s when there was growing concern for the provision of better and more affordable housing areas for lower income groups. This growing concern for providing

better and more affordable housing resulted in research being undertaken by the department of Physical

Planning and the Housing Department Service branch in the Ministry of Local Government and Housing on design guidelines that would be appropriate. This research, which started prior to independence but

was continued after 1980, resulted in a number of manuals being produced to assist local authorities and

other bodies responsible.

These publications include:

Principles of planning and layout design for low income housing developments in Zimbabwe (MLGH, 1981).

Design approach to water and sewerage problems relative to urban and rural communities in Zimbabwe (MGLH and BCO`D 1981).

Infrastructure design in Zimbabwe (MLGH and UNCHS 1982) and

Planning and subdivision standards in Zimbabwe (MLGH and UNCHS 1982).

These publications were supplemented by guidelines in the form of regulations, standards and circulars issued by the department of Physical Planning, Ministry of local government, Ministry of Public

Construction and National Housing.

More recently Circular No3 of 1992 on revised minimum building standards for medium and low cost housing was issued by the Ministry of Public Construction and National Housing. This circular revised

the minimum building standards relating to the planning, infrastructure and super structure for medium

and low cost housing. The standards defined in this circular are still relevant for all site planning carried out in low income, and high density areas. In 1996, the department of Physical Planning (DPP) in the

Ministry of Local Government and National Housing (MLGH) issued a layout Design Manual for High

Density Residential Development (Davison; 1999).

All of these design guides have been dedicated to the creation of efficient and affordable layouts for high density housing (MLGH, 1996). The design guide publications of the housing development Services

Branch in the Ministry of MLGH and BCO~D, 1981 and 1982 are concerned mainly with ensuring high

standards of geometric design for road layouts and the structural design of storm water drainage, sewerage and water supply. These principles of planning and layout design for low income housing

development in Zimbabwe published by the same branch is concerned primarily with the economics of

design and the effort of infrastructural design on development cost (Davison 1999).

The design manuals used in Zimbabwe promote concepts like:

Establishment of a road hierarchy and network of roads whose function determines its standard size. Details on the ideal proportion of different sizes of road to ensure cost efficiency in layout

design. For example, the manual states that the accepted proportional distribution of the total

road network for low income, high density residential areas are 75%for stand access roads/ footpaths. 25% for local distributors and 5%for district distributor.

Definition of space standards for public facilities and amenities, support the strong definition of

neighborhood units where schools, shops and other community facilities form the main focal

point of the layout. Current design directives limit space for community facilities to 30% of the site and not more than 5% of the site for use by open spaces for sporting activities (Circular

No3 1992). The guidelines regarding the standards of provision for the range of land uses that

should be located in a residential area such as shops, community halls, clinics, churches. They should be located centrally, accessible to serve only the residents of one neighborhood area

(Davison, 1999).

Infrastructure provision which is significant

The local government and housing also published the Model Building Bylaw which looks at

issues like structural design and construction, foundations, masonry and walling, water supply,

lighting, drainage and sewerage, ventilation and public safety. These model Building Bylaws are operationalized in the Urban Councils Act and Rural Councils Act. They are applicable in these

Acts as they set standards of what or how is a building in a certain area are to be built. For

example, a habitable room shall be provided with openings for direct admittance of daylight.

Such openings make up the area referred to as daylight openings. Position of daylight openings are 300mm above floor of room and minimum permissible area of required daylight openings in

a room expressed as percentage of floor area of that room. For instance a minimum permissible

daylight opening of a kitchen is 12%of its floor area (Model Building Bylaw). Much more planning standards and designs guidelines are dwelt with in the Model Building Bylaws.

In conclusion, planning standards and design guidelines articulate community design principles. A basis for fair decisions to promote order, safety, amenity, aesthetics and health. Planning standards are operationalized in planning tools such as the RTCP Act, Urban Councils Act, Environmental

management Act and many others.

Davison, C. (1991). An evaluation of existing residential layout design in Zimbabwe; suggestions for alternative approaches. Work shop 29 March-1 April 1999. Department of Rural and Urban

Planning, University of Zimbabwe.

Urban Management and Development- rutendo_ mugurasawe and russel_ matanhire

What are recreational and leisure areas?

According to (John 1986) recreation refers to the experiences and activities chosen and pursued

by the individual in his/her time: the basis being that the experience is sought and activities pursued “recreates” the individual so that he/she maybe refreshed in order to resume daily

obligations.

Leisure is just spare time, time not consumed by the necessities of living. Leisure is a force that

allows individuals to consider and reflect on the values and realities that are missed in the

activities of daily life.

From the above recreation and leisure facilities are needed to improve the quality of life of residential

areas. Therefore, well designed and well implemented planning policies for recreation and leisure are fundamental to delivering broader governmental objectives that are directed towards improving the

welfare of residential areas. There are different classes of residential areas which mean they have different

requirements in the provision for these areas. Recreational centres and leisure are vital because they provide for:

Green spaces in urban areas and these green areas perform vital functions as areas for nature

conservationand biodiversity by creating “green lungs”which aids in improving the ir quality in

all residential areas.

The promotion of social inclusion and community cohesion. Recreational centres can bring

together members of deprived communities and provide opportunities to people for social

interaction‟

The promotion of wealthy living and preventing illness and in the social development of children

of all ages through play sporting activities and interaction with others.

The promotion of more sustainable development by ensuring that recreational facilities are easily

accessible by walking and cycling.

Supporting an urban renaissance –local network of high quality and well managed and

maintained open spaces and recreational facilities help create urban environments that are

attractive, clean and safe.

Types of recreational facilities

Passive recreational areas- for more calm relaxation

Active recreational areas-caters for more rigorous recreational activities like sports and jungle

gyms for children. Usually for the low end of the demography

Conservation areas- self explanatory; for peaceful relaxation were one can enjoy the natural flora

and fauna

Types of recreational spaces in residential areas

Play-lot

-for children of the pre-school age. These should be equipped with swings, slides sand boxes,

jungle gyms and space for running. A portion of the lot should be paved

Neighbourhood play ground

-designed for children from 6-14. It is the neighbourhoods centre for recreational activities.

Should be within walking distance of the dwelling area it serves. Should be located preferably

next to the community centre

Playfield- for young people and adults. It provides a variety of activities. Serves 3,4or5

neighbourhoods

Factors to consider when planning for recreational areas

Population‟ size

Population composition

Population density

Class of residential area

Availability of space

Financial resources

Provision of recreational and leisure facilities

local authorities are the responsible body and should ensure that provision is made for recreational

facilities and leisure (either through an increase in the number of facilities or through improvement to

existing facilities where planning provision is granted for new developments (especially housing).The planning department monitors the laying out and maintenance of recreational areas and the council

should set aside land that would cater for the recreational space and facilities of residents. For Harare,

provisional for recreational facilities is enshrined in the Harare combination master plan. The zoning

instrument is used to demarcate the specific uses that are allowed in a given area. Provisions have been made for recreational areas but these areas have either been left idle or have been. For the undeveloped

spaces, there the major reason was lack of finance. As for the dilapidated areas, there were unclear

institutional structures which led to the neglect of maintenance of public infrastructure.

Decentralization- mangundhla_tribute

Decentralisation of centres is based on the combination of the growth pole theory by Francois Perroux and the multiple nuclei model by Ullman and Harris 1945. The multiple nuclei model describes the layout

of a city. It notes that while a city may have started with a central business district, similar industries with

common land use and financial requirements are established near each other. These groupings influence their immediate neighbourhood. The number and kinds of nuclei mark a city`s growth. The growth pole

theory on the other hand considered growth not as a spatial over whole phenomenon. It involves the

spatial concentration of economic activities thus; there must be an agglomerated complex of industries which then becomes a growth pole. This growth pole is dependent on the availability of a propulsive

industry on which the growth will be centred.

The growth pole theory by Francois Perroux in 1950 was further sharpened and finally evolved into an idea that came to take on a meaning rather different from one positioned by Perroux. While he had

conceived a growth pole to be a focus of economic development in an abstract economic space, it was

interpreted by his disciples particularly Jacques Boudeville to be a focus of development in geographic space. The idea was to identify selected nuclei for industrial growth to stimulate development in

surrounding area instead of focusing on the development on the underdeveloped region as a whole. A

more territorial approach seemed appropriate for both rural and urban development. These growth poles were highly urbanised and well serviced. The idea was that this urban development present at growth

poles would spread to surrounding areas in what is known as the trickling down effects.

The settlement structure of the European territory can be described as a dense and polycentric urban pattern. Urban areas outside the largest cities have a relatively important weight in the urban structure of

the European territory and represent an important part of the European population. Therefore it is of great

importance to better integrate them in the global economy and facilitate them better to contribute to even

more economic growth, job creation and urban development. Secondary growth poles should be engines

for regional development and might offer citizens an urban living environment at a lower cost.

The urban retail structure is made up of various kinds of retail nucleations that are usually widely

dispersed within cities. Some of these nucleations are unplanned, often at the intersection of two strips of ribbon development, while others, especially are planned shopping centres. One of the major changes in

the pattern of retailing since world war 2 has been the suburbanization of shopping centres and in

particular, the emergence of large, planned shopping centres. At first these planned centre tended to be

smaller than their planned counterparts, as developers tried to restrict competition between stores by controlling the level of functional duplication. More recently, however, the planned shopping centres have

become increasingly larger, and have also incooperated other services besides retailing, such as movie

theatres and skirting rinks.

A second change in the pattern of retailing, somewhat related to the first is that the planned regional-level

shopping centres have now become catalysts for the overall suburbanization process rather than merely the followers of that process. In other words, regional shopping centres often act as local growth poles.

Cheap land is purchased at the periphery of the city and the shopping centre later becomes the focus for

new apartment buildings, industrial parks, residential homes etc.

Local perspective

Suburbanisation

During the 1980s Harare was a mono-centric city very much dependent on the CBD for the provision of

goods and services. The attraction of the city centre in terms of the range and order of goods it offered was overwhelming throughout the whole planning area. The city centre seemed to be playing an

increasingly onerous function in that while commercial activity in it was increasing and population

demanding its services grew at a fast rate, its spatial extent under existing schemes was still very limited,

such that accessibility, circulation and other means of mobility were becoming more and more hampered. This resulted in policies which favoured poly-centrism and thus, the rise of several suburban shopping

centres.

Harare has so many suburban shopping centres which were developed as part of the decentralisation

initiative which was meant to reduce the pressures on the central business district. Suburban shopping

centres in Harare include Sam levy`s village, Arundel village and Westgate shopping centre just to mention a few. All these shopping centres lie in a strategic location in the centre of a large market and

within easy reach of metropolitan highways and public transport networks. Traditionally these suburban

shopping centres acted as a „city‟ for their suburbs with the main bus terminal, civic facilities, the bulk of

commercial activities and main employment centres were located within these. Thus, these centres acted as growth poles for it attracted other land uses to peripheral areas of the city mainly residential and

provided the migrating populace with the necessary services and function such as availability of jobs and

road networks for e.g Old mutual properties, the owners of Westgate shopping mall constructed Harare drive road.

At their inception, the suburban shopping centres were developed to be nucleus of growth for their surrounding environments. Their mere encouraged urbanisation and development around them. In the

case of Westgate shopping centre, new residential areas like Good hope, Westgate new Adylin

neighbourhoods have developed thus, ideally these multiple shopping centres were meant to encourage

urban development around them until the city as a whole is urbanized.

However, very recently, commercial blight has set into these areas. In the case of Westgate and High glen

shopping centres, such blight has been more of functional rather than physical. Old mutual has maintained

high standards at these centres yet most of the shops at these centres have been long vacated. This blight

which now characterizes such shopping centres now makes them stagnating and disintegrating cores with similar effects on the urban development of its adjacent areas.

The growth point initiative

The first proposal to redress historical rural and urban imbalance in development in Zimbabwe were

introduced in July 1978 in the Integrated Plan for Rural Development produced by the ministry of finance

(Reynold et al 1988). According to Reynold et al, “the plan sought to create twenty to twenty-five towns to already existing towns or growth centres in rural areas.” Each town would service a productive

hinterland that in turn would foster development in the centre. The planners assumed that with the

provision of basic infrastructure such as roads, telecommunications and water supplies, these centres would somehow generate residual growth and urban attributes through the so called “trickle down” effect

or process.

Supplementing the 1978 plan was the intensive rural development areas report which developed a 3 tier

settlement hierarchy calling for the establishment of growth points, rural service centres and business

centres. Unlike the 1978 plan, the IRDA emphasized heavy capital expenditure on infrastructure in order

to promote rural industrial development and urbanisation. The IRDA hierarchy of settlements was modified slightly by the department of physical planning and the modified form included another level

i.e. a district service centre which was intended to become the administrative capital of each district and

would accommodate light industrial, commercial and other activities. Growth points were to have a resource base that would allow them to develop into regional towns with considerable potential for

industrial development.

In conclusion, decentralization is a submission to the growth pole theory which considered growth not as

a spatial over whole phenomenon. This is to mean that growth occurs at multiple nuclei and over time this

growth will merge to produce an urbanised geographical space.

Urban Blight- Davis_ chivere

Urban decay is a process by which a city, or a part of a city, falls into a state of disrepair and neglect. It is characterized by depopulation, economic restructuring, property abandonment, high unemployment,

fragmented families, political disenfranchisement, crime, and desolate urban landscapes. Oludare (2011)

defines Urban Blight as the emergence of low quality houses and slums in the urban centers especially in

areas occupied by the urban poor and may sometimes cause communities to consider redeveloping and urban planning.

Examples of urban blight

Slum housing - with outside toilets, overcrowding, no hot water or central heating

Many buildings have been poorly built and now have leaking roofs, draughty windows and

crumbling stonework

Empty buildings are vandalized; gap sites where buildings have been knocked down turn into

derelict land

As the factories and housing have been in the same areas air, noise and water pollution have been common

During the 1970s and 1980s, urban blight was often associated with central areas of cities in North America and Europe. During this time, changes in global economies, demographics, transportation, and

policies fostered urban blight. Many planners spoke of "white flight" during this time. This pattern was

different than the pattern of "outlying slums" and "suburban ghettos" found in many cities outside of North America and Western Europe, where central urban areas actually had higher real estate values.

However, starting in the 1990s, many of the central urban areas in North America have been experiencing

a reversal of the urban bight, with rising real estate values, smarter development, demolition of obsolete

social housing and a wider variety of housing choices

The central districts of many of Africa's major cities now boast numerous skyscrapers of cement, glass

and steel. But far into the distance spread Africa's real urban conglomerations: unplanned, chaotic settlements built of wood, corrugated metal sheeting, mud bricks and whatever other materials may be at

hand and the structures have by far outlived their life spans, no longer suitable for human habitation. They

have only poor and dirt roads, and open sewer ditches. They lack piped water, refuse collection, electricity and most other basic municipal services. All these summed up give birth to what is referred to

as urban blight or urban decay, a situation which has put African cities under strain because of this

massive deterioration on the city fabric.

The rapid urbanization in many developing countries over the past half-century seems to have been

accompanied by excessively high level of concentration of urban population in very large cities.

Urbanization is taking place at different speeds in different continents. In Africa and Asia the proportion of city dwellers rose from 25 percent in 1975 to 35 percent in 1995, and a little more than 37 percent

today. It is predicted that the figure will reach 50 percent by the year 2025 (Abudulahi 2003). Developing

countries today face greater urbanization challenges than developed countries. Developed countries urbanized at a comparatively leisurely pace. The United States was 40 percent urbanized in 1930, 70

percent in 1960, and 75 + percent in 1990. This gradual pace is in marked contrast with that in many

developing countries. For example, the Republic of Korea was 40 percent urbanized in 1970 and 78

percent urbanized by 1990. What took the United States 90 years to accomplish, took Korea 20 years and Brazil 30 years (Harrison, 2004). A study by the United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (UNCHS-

Habitat), in 2001, stated that nearly half of the Worlds‟ people are now city dwellers and more than one

billion of the worlds‟ city residents live in inadequate or deficient housing; because of rapid urbanization. The problem is more felt in Africa, Asia and Latin America where half of the population are either

homeless or living in houses which are dangerous to health and an affront to human dignity. Nearly 80%

of the urban population lives in slums and squatter settlements without adequate water, lighting,

sanitation and waste disposal.

Africa's cities are being "overwhelmed by the sheer rate of change, according to Tibaijuka (2009). She notes that Dar es Salaam, in Tanzania, is expanding at a rate of 10 per cent a year and at that pace, the

city's total population will double in seven years. This guarantees challenges on water services, electricity,

telephones, traffic, schools to mention a few.

She also notes that the continent's urban problems do not revolve only around insufficient resources and services. They also include severe social dislocations, high levels of crime and insecurity, corrupt and

inefficient local government institutions, striking inequalities in wealth and especially the pervasive

poverty that blights most urban settlements.

A half decade ago, some of the unique urban problems of Africa were recognized at the Second UN

Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat-II), held in June 1996 in Istanbul, Turkey. It adopted a global "Habitat Agenda," affirming that adequate shelter is a human right and acknowledging "the critical

situation and needs of Africa and the least developed countries." Participants cited Africa's high rate of

rural-to-urban migration, wars that have spurred massive population displacements and the severe decay

of urban infrastructure.

Urban growth, a result of natural population increase, but most coming from rural-to-urban migration has

seen to the urban blight in the city of Harare. Drought, environmental degradation, rural poverty and in

Zimbabwe continue to push many young villagers toward the cities in search of jobs and other economic

and social opportunities. But with the economic crises of the past two decades, few regular jobs are to be

had.

Africa's urban problems have been worsened by the economic policies adopted by many governments

during the 1980s and 1990s, largely at the urging of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

The economic policy which was adopted by Zimbabwe was the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme. The initial privatization programmes often led to reduced formal sector employment, as did

trade liberalization, which contributed to the failure of many local businesses unable to compete with

cheap imports. Without steady jobs, many residents have been unable to afford adequate shelter. "Homelessness does not mean that there are no homes," notes Tibaijuka (2009). It exists because people

"don't have employment to have access to homes."

On top of this, the budgetary stringency that came with structural adjustment programmes further eroded

the capacities of municipal authorities to maintain and finance essential services, such as roads, waste

collection, and electricity and water systems.

Conditions in some of the largest cities have deteriorated to such an extent that the patterns of migration from the countryside are starting to shift. Historically, most migrants have flocked to one or two main

cities in a given country: Abidjan, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, Dakar, Brazzaville, and Luanda. In 1999,

according to estimates by the UN's Population Division, more than half the total urban population lived in

the single largest city in 16 African countries.

Over the past decade, however, as conditions in these big cities have worsened, the urbanization process

has become less lopsided (Abudulahi, 2003). In Tanzania, for example, medium-sized towns of about 20-30,000 people have proliferated. According to research by Prof. Fall, Dakar's rate of growth has slowed

noticeably, while four or five secondary towns now absorb a greater share of rural migrants, marking the

beginning of “diversification” of Senegal‟s urban centers.

The world population continues to increase very rapidly (Gordon and Marcotullio, 2005). Africa

experienced the maximum growth rate of 2.7% during the period and Zimbabwe experienced 1.1% annual growth rate between 1963 and 1975 and as much as 2.5% between 1975 and 1991. The population

continues to increase and rural-urban migration continues in astronomical rates. The urbanization process

in many developing countries particularly Zimbabwe has not been accompanied with a corresponding supply of adequate housing, basic infrastructures and amenities. This has given birth to the development

of informal settlements and slums. Another problem of our urban centers is that they fit into what some

scholars have tried to distinguish as “grown” and “planned” cities (Blumenfeld 1971).

The inevitable result of this has been: disorganized congestion, decline, dilapidation, blighted areas and

then slums. Another major contributor to the urban decay is negligent urban housekeeping, and irresponsible civic management; which has permitted its spread. Continuous neglect will mean that:

physical decay of urban community will continue or be encouraged; obsolesces (obstruction to full

production of housing) will continue to stretch over the built environment with its consequent degeneration to the city. The deterioration of our urban centers has been a process, not a willful act that

may be corrected on command or presidential fait. Consequent upon the above, there is the urgent need

for the regeneration of our cities to standards appropriate to our time. This is also a process, and calls for

effective action along broad fronts

A number of schemes have been put in place to reduce problems of urban decay. The first one is

comprehensive redevelopment. This is when all the buildings are knocked down and started from scratch.

It was felt to be needed in some places as the problems were so bad. In Kingston and the Gorbals in

Glasgow, for example, the old tenements were knocked down and replaced by new flats and multi-storey high rise buildings. Unfortunately, many of the new buildings were poorly built and have also been

knocked down. This approach has also been criticized as it destroyed the social fabric of the area - people

no longer knew their neighbors and they were moved away from their friends and relations.

The other scheme which can be used is urban regeneration which involves renovating the existing buildings to improve the environment, function and the economy. From scheme carried out in Glasgow,

this included new roofs, rewiring the houses and fitting central heating, fitting double glazing, secure

entry-phone systems on tenement closes, the outsides of tenements were cleaned by sand-blasting,

combining two small flats into a larger one, improving the environment by landscaping, building or improving the social facilities such as clubs and medical centers and encouraging new business and

industry to set up in the areas with grants and loans.

In conclusion, the solutions to many of the problems in African cities depend critically on the capacities,

competence and legitimacy of municipal governments and institutions. As Habitat points out, efforts to achieve secure tenure for poor residents and to include as many urban actors as possible in upgrading

programmes require local government institutions that are efficient, open and transparent. To focus more

attention on such issues, it has launched a Global Campaign for Good Urban Governance. Negotiations

currently are under way on a proposed World Charter of Local Self-Government, which would emphasize

the need for national governments to decentralize more responsibilities and authority to the local level.

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