The impact of migration on the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago in the latter 20th and early 21st Century (1960-2014).What is Migration?Migration is the temporary or permanent movement of people from one place to another (Eelens, Maduro, Balkstein, 2005, p.1). Migration is normally caused by the existence of what many scholars call pushpull factors. These factors can be economic, political, or social. However, what these factors ultimately end up boiling down to is that there is an opportunity for an increase in chance of a better life of the migrant and also a void in the destination region which needs to be filled.IntroductionRichardson (SSCOB,2014, p. 228) notes that the roots of Caribbean migration go much deeper than many of us may realize. Tinker also notes that migration is a widely accepted aspect of West Indian Life. It can be said that the advent of modern migration began with the onslaught of European colonialism on the aboriginal condition in the time preceding the 17th century. This induced a need for the forced migration of African slaves to work in cementing the establishment of a plantocracy. After the era of slavery a new migration of Asian indentured workers to the colonies and of free-men played a key part in the further development of the Caribbean as a boon for agriculture (Richardson[SSCOB], 2014, p. 233-237). Whites also tried to hold on to a large portion of the economic and political power. One example of this was a requirement for land ownership in the Bahamas (a luxury most slaves did not have then) to vote (Craton, Saunders, 2002, p. 74-82). Many colonial laws were instituted to keep the class order in place. In many countries (Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago etc.) whites were usually segregated from blacks. The ruling class also instituted policies such as truck system and vagrancy laws to keep the underclass dependent. Education for blacks after emancipation was also a luxury and because of this there was largely no development of skilled labor outside of agriculture (Denton, Massey, 1989, p. 790 to 794, Craton, Saunders, 2000, p.74-90, p. 275-280). These practices largely persisted until the push for decolonization and independence after WWII by the black underclass (Springer [SSCOB], 2014, p.42-51, Wong[SSCOB], 2014, p.157-161).Rose (2002, p.29-30) contends that even so the English speaking Caribbean (Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad etc.) continued to have strong economic, cultural, and political ties to Great Britain. This era still contained a considerable amount of racial tension and inequality that continues today. This fact is perplexing because these Caribbean countries for the most part transitioned after WWII to being mostly ruled politically by the colored underclass. Some of these policies that proliferated undertones of colonial discrimination were even instituted by these new ruling entities. For example Haitian immigrants who are often employed as low skill laborers are often marginalized and socially excluded in the Bahamas. In Trinidad this was done to the East Indians(Tinker, 2011, p. 85-92,Yelvington,1993,p. 118-120,44-50).In addition to this Cargill (1998)and Wong (SSCOB,2014) note that the decline of the agriculture industry in the Caribbean signaled a major shift in the flow of migration in the latter part of the 20th century. There was a large uptick in migration between countries before and after this time. Cargill notes this was due to: 1. many of the colonial influences leaving the region (The socio-economic and political structure remained intact however), 2.the movement to form independent states, 3.aggregate inequality, 4. the decline of Cuba as the major tourist destination in the Caribbean, and 5. the archipelagic nature of the Caribbean nations.(p.13). Nurse (2004, p.3) summarizes that the more profitable Caribbean countries transitioned from being a net exporter to a net importer of labor. Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, and Guyana became and are still presently the main disseminators of labor. According to Cargill, Martin, and Garcia (2011) note that investment in the Caribbean is also driven mostly by Europeans, Asians, and Americans who sometimes migrate to these countries. The dynamic of contemporary exchange of societies that was and is still occurring produced a profound effect on the collective political and socio-economical consciousness of the Caribbean (Reddock, Barrow,2001 ,p. 1-30,251-255,954-967). Nevertheless, this paper will focus on the effects of the larger groups of migrations (from a Caribbean perspective) in the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago during the latter 20th and early 21st century. The four key areas where migration has the greatest impact include Demographics, Socio-Economic status, Politics, and Culture.History of Migration to the BahamasAccording to Tinker (2011,) most of the ancestors of Afro-Bahamians were forcefully migrated to the Bahamas to be slaves. There is evidence that these types of slaves were here from the advent of the settling of the Eleutheran Adventurers. This group of people have been the most predominant group of people in the Bahamas since the start of the Atlantic slave trade. Historically the use of migrants in general to grow the economies of communities in this capacity has been a recurring theme up even to modern Bahamian times (Tinker, 2011, p.101-130, Craton, Saunders,2000, Sears,1994). . This slave trade also kick started the migration of Europeans and their cultural influence in the Bahamas. In the Bahamas case this was primarily a small number of people from their colonizing country (Britain).Over the years there have been many large migrations of Afro-Bahamians out of the Bahamas. This has mostly been as laborers to other countries (primarily the U.S and Britain) and for educational purposes (Thompson- SSCOB, p. 243, 2014, Tinker, 2011, Craton, Saunders, 2000). The second largest group of people in the Bahamas are Haitians. There has been what some would call a steady flow of Haitian migration to the Bahamas since 1793. The Governor's dispatches begin to mention Haitians in the Bahamas on the date of the 17th July 1793. In this dispatch and some of those sent following this the governor talks about the refugees from Haiti (then called Saint Domingue).In these letters the Governor of the Bahamas empathizes with the white loyalists of St. Domingue who fled because of the ongoing war between the French colonists and the black militia there. Most of these Haitian migrants were on their way to the United States. However, due to privateering many of the vessels and belongings of the refugees were seized. However, the majority of locals began to build up disdain for these people and the government began to implement policies to curb this migration. Haitian migration has basically continued to flow through and to the Bahamas like this from the 19th century onward. The third largest group of migrants in the Bahamas would be Turks and Caicos islanders who have been migrating to the Bahamas since the 18th century. The fourth and fifth largest group of migrants to the Bahamas are Jamaicans and the Guyanese who began coming to the Bahamas in the latter 19th century and the middle of the 20th century respectively .Smaller groups of migrants include Asians ,Cubans, and Greeks.History of Migration to Trinidad and TobagoBefore the onslaught of colonization occurred in Trinidad and Tobago these islands were populated by the Carib and Taino people who were most likely migrants from the Americas. This group of people were reduced to smaller numbers because of colonization. After this the British, Spanish and French brought in slaves to replace the aboriginal condition. These Afro-Trinidadians became and are still one of the predominant groups of people in Trinidad. Again like the Bahamas from this period on historically the use of migrants in general to grow the economies of communities in this capacity has been a recurring theme up even to modern Trinidadian times. After this the British (1834), French (1848), and Spanish (Cuba in 1886) fully abolished slavery in all of the colonies. This caused a large amount of people in the Anglophone, Francophone, and Hispanophone Caribbean to become freed men. The freed slaves were afforded forced apprenticeship and some human rights (Craton, Saunders, p. 2-10, Muhammad, 2004, p.898). The effects of this echoed throughout the economic and social structures of the Caribbean. One of the problems for the ruling class then was finding a way to pay their laborers and still attain a sizable amount of profit. One of the ways this was done in Trinidad and Tobago, is a large number of indentured workers were brought in to work the plantations in Trinidad and other countries to replace former slave laborers. The migration of Asians continues even up to today ([SSCOB]Wong,p. 155-160).Many Venezuelan farmers also settled in Trinidad and Tobago (Carmichael,1961). The islands of Trinidad and Tobago were united in 1889. Oil was discovered in Trinidad in the early 20th century. Trinidad became tactically important to the Americans during and after WWII .Therefore the Americans (U.S) created bases in Trinidad during WWII in a similar fashion to the Bahamas. The U.S and the Europeans presence is still strong in Trinidad currently. Trinidad and Tobago during this time was also an important destination of regional immigration. From 1870 until 1910 because of its agricultural sector (Carmichael, 1961, Yelvington, 1993) and then again in the latter 20th century .Grenadians, Haitian, Jamaicans have been the largest group of migrants in this capacity recently in this aspect. However, Blacks and East Indians have remained the dominant groups in these countries. These two ethnicities historically have a lot of hostility towards each other (Eclac,2006,p.1020,Herskovits,1976,Luke,2007,Mohammed,2009,Ryan,1972,WorldBank,World Development Indicators,2014).DemographicsPopulation growth is one of the principal indicators of mass migration. If you take a look at the population growth rate from 1960 until now you would see that there is a very low net migration rate for the high labor exporting countries and relatively high net migration rate for the high labor importing countries (WBWDI, 2014). As of the year 2000 according to the Bahamas department of statistics approximately 10 % of people residing in the Bahamas are immigrants. The IOM also notes that 30% of the population of inter- Caribbean migrants live in Trinidad and Tobago. There also seems to be a sex ratio disparity of migrants presently travelling to both countries. Male dominant in the flow to the Bahamas as there has been historically a surplus of migrant males coming to the Bahamas for employment in industry and agriculture. It is female dominant in Trinidad and Tobago as there is more availability of jobs suited for women (e.g. caretakers, maids, etc.) (WBWDI, 2014). Despite the economic state of the high labor exporting countries when compared to Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago all of the major statistical indicators of the demographic impact of migration are decreasing. There is also an increasing number of skilled migrant workers out of the country. These migrants usually move to the states and Canada for similar reasons as the rest of the Caribbean countries. The Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago have experienced very low population growth in recent years. These factors imply that migrants have higher chance of marrying local mates. In the Bahamas children born to marriages like these are usually resented in the larger society in regards to obtaining citizenship. A similar dynamic of resentment has formed in Trinidad and Tobago but it more because of racial tension. However, there is data that shows locals usually marry among themselves in these countries. Women according to both Bahamian law cannot pass on their citizenship to their children if her husband is a foreigner. Children born to immigrants inside of these two countries can apply for citizenship at the age of 18 in the Bahamas. Trinidad and Tobago has similar laws (Constitution of the Bahamas,1973, Bahamas Nationality Act,1973, Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago,1976). In the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago nationals tend to work in the sectors controlled by the government (utilities, finance, government offices, etc.).Locals have also linked high population density with the idea that there nation is being taken over by foreigners (Cargill, 2001, p 6-27.ECLAC,2006, p 14-20,Reddock,Barrow,2001) also notes that both countries locals have expressed distress over migrants coming into the country and would like to see their numbers greatly reduced.Socio-EconomicThere is a perception in Trinidad and Tobago and Bahamas that migrants are a burden on both societies. Cargill(1998) notes:They are blamed for depressed wages, increase in unemployment during economic recessions, and the displacement of natives from jobs. They are also scape goateed by governments for escalating crime, a shortage of affordable housing, overcrowding, failure to meet their tax burden, increasing poverty, infrastructural decay and, environmental deterioration (p.22).Conversely she also noted that there is empirical evidence that shows that immigrants exert positive growth effects on wages and employment opportunities of natives. They also tend to be higher risk takers in business and greatly desire to be financially solvent. Natives of the Bahamas and the Trinidad generally praise migrants for their hard working and willingness to follow instructions. However, immigrants also tend to live in lower quality housing. There was also a spike in health care cost during the peaks of migration to the Trinidad and Tobago and the Bahamas. It also costs more to educate children of migrants who cannot speak English(World Bank, 2014,ECLAC,2005,p. 10-14).The push factors in both these countries are very strong. Trinidad and Tobago promotes the idea of unskilled laborers leaving the country. However, according to the IDB migration of skilled or tertiary educated workers reaches nearly 80 % and 60 % for the Bahamas. This does not take account of remittances but, the effects of this on the socio-economic state of both countries are insanely enormous. Estimates by the IDB indicate that both countries may be losing upwards of 4 billion dollars a year in gross domestic product per year because of this. Countries at the World Congress on Intellectual Capital were all in agreement in the fact that the loss of intellectual capital effect on society is virtually incalculable (Bontis, 2002). Bahamians also tended to resist the integration of immigrants. However, Trinidad and Tobago was observed to be more tolerant of migrants in their policies (ECLAC, 2005, p. 14-16).They were shown to be by ECLAC to be one of only three countries that actively tries to aid the assimilation of migrants.PoliticsIt then becomes the burden of the government to retroactively plan a way to fix these problems. On the contrary in both Countries there has not been a solution found to alleviate this problem for quite some time. The collective anxiety of both countries have caused their governments to enact policies and language that can be seen as xenophobic. For example amnesty international (2014) expressed great concern over the treatment of Haitians and their children which were born in the bahamas. Both the prime minister of the Bahamas and the minister for foreign affairs responded to this statement by saying they were badly mistaken (Christie,2014,Mitchell, 2014).This is not a new occurrence as under Loftus Roker of the Progressive Party and prior to him the Bahamas has been accused of mistreating migrants by international organizations(Tinker,2011,Sears,1994,p.3-6). However, In an interview with B.J. Johnson Assistant Director of Immigration noted that the policy was supposed to be non-discriminant and that the officers we were well trained to deal with migrants humanely. The Minister for National security also had to address similar concerns (Griffin,2014) .Trinidad again is a little more tolerant of migration to their country as they have as was said before a high instance of outward migration. Trinidad and Tobagos government also passed two acts the Immigration Act and the Caribbean Community Skilled Nationals Act which allows skilled personnel to migrate to this country easily. Locals also frequently voice concerns about a political coup dtat or uprising that the migrants may incite. Even if this is non-sensical, it is not feasible to automatically allow migrants to engage in the democratic procedure without due process.

CultureThe ethnic diversity of both of these countries is now palpable. Yet there is still a significant level of social exclusion and fight for homogeneity between ethnic groups. Globalization and a reliance on tourism has forced both countries into trying to move towards being more bilingual and multicultural. The diverseness of the migrants of all races that are now flocking to the islands for better or worse have also given the locals perspective. Bahamians often play American, Reggae, and Soca music at social events. Trinidadians also play American and Reggae music at social events (FHE- Regis, 2014, p. 351-357, FHE-Encarta Encyclopedia, 2014, p.348). They also play a foray of different popular Caribbean sports in both countries. Bahamians tend to lean towards playing American sports. In these countries you can also find a great variety of cuisine from all over the world that is being cooked there. People of the Caribbean also seem to share a somewhat similar mindset and social structure as others in the Caribbean.(Reddock, Barrow, 2001,p. 860,995,Bethell-Bennett,p. 1-4). ConclusionMigration has been a common part of Caribbean life since before the dawn of European colonization. Without it the Caribbean that is known today would not exist. Now deep in to the age of globalization and transnationalism; The Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago continues to attract migrants to their shores. This has formed an interdependent relationship that is sometimes contentious as migrants start to compete with locals for jobs and economic viability. At other times this relationship is sometimes loving (mostly during the initial part of economic growth periods). There is no magic pill to get rid of the problems associated with migration despite the great need for them to do menial labor in developing. However, a form of symbiosis must be achieved as the need for migrant labor increases throughout the developing Caribbean. The locals and migrants must understand that they will have to live cohesively if they wish to live in peace and harmony together. The impacts of migration to both countries vast and deeply rooted into each society. As Tinker (2011,p. 160) the problem of migration cannot be fixed by remedial action. There should be more research done to creating all-encompassing policies in both countries.1