COMPARATIVE STUDY ON INDOOR FUNGI GROWTH

INCORPORATED WITH DIFFERENT ANTIFUNGAL AND WALL

FINISHINGS

MENEGA A/P SUBRAMANIAM

A thesis submitted in partial of fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the

degree of Master in Civil Engineering

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

JANUARY 2017

iii

Special Dedication to my beloved family and friends,

for their love, support

and care me.

And

Special Thanks to my lecturers, my supervisor

for all their supports and care.

Sincerely,

Menega Subramaniam

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Assoc Prof

Dr Norshuhaila Binti Mohamed Sunar for her mentorship, encouragements, advices,

guidance, trust, critics and ideas have helped me in finishing my master project.

I also would like to express my special thanks to technician in FTK and FSTPI

Laboratory for the help, and assistance in guiding me for my laboratory testing. Not to

forget, for providing all the apparatus and materials required to run my experiments.

My deepest appreciation is extended to my beloved parents, Mr. Subramaniam

A/L Aplanaidu, and my mother, Mrs. Gouri Parvathi A/P Samidiri for their support,

patience and financial support during my final year project preparations. Not forgetting

my brothers, sister, brother in law and sister in law who always support and pray for

my success in studies.

Finally, my appreciation is to my friends for their support and advice. Thank

You.

v

ABSTRACT

Indoor air quality is important to the health and comfort of building occupants. There

are many sources of pollutants that can be found in the building. One of the sources of

pollutants is fungus. Fungi are present almost everywhere in indoor and outdoor

environments. Building materials supporting fungal growth must be remediated as

rapidly as possible in order to ensure a healthy environment. The goal of this study is

to compare the growth of indoor fungal by using three different antifungals such as

potassium sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate. The indoor fungi were

isolated from selected room at Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

(FKAAS). The objective is to enumerate the growth of indoor fungal after incorporate

with antifungal at different types of wall finishes and evaluate its efficiency. This

research was done on three main substrates which are wood, plasterboard and concrete.

These main materials were each coated with four types of coating which are thin

wallpaper, thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic paint. The growth rate was

monitored as all the materials was applied with the antifungal. The antifungal has

reduced the growth rate of the fungus but depending on the type of material and coating

that is used. Results shows that for wood substrate, the best antifungal treatment is a

mix of thick wallpaper and calcium benzoate, where the growth stops at 53% (CB 53%

< PS 87% < ZS 90% < CTRL 93%). As for plasterboard substrate, thin wallpaper and

potassium sorbate hinders the growth at 40% (PS 40% < ZS 73% < CB 80% < CTRL

97%) whereas for concrete substrate, acrylic paint and glycerol based paint

incorporated with calcium benzoate renders the growth of fungi to stop at 0%

throughout the test (Acrylic Paint = CB 0% < ZS 7% < PS 7% < CTRL 33%) and

(Glycerol Based Paint = CB 0% < PS 70% < ZS 73% < CTRL 87%). Thus, the best

building material would be concrete with the application of calcium benzoate for paint

type of wall finishing’s.

vi

ABSTRAK

Kualiti udara dalam bangunan adalah penting untuk kesihatan dan keselesaan

penghuni bangunan. Terdapat banyak sumber bahan pencemar yang terdapat di dalam

bangunan. Salah satu sumber bahan pencemar adalah kulat. Kulat hampir wujud di

mana-mana dalam persekitaran dalaman dan luaran. Bahan binaan yang

menggalakkan pertumbuhan kulat mestilah disingkirkan secepat mungkin bagi

memastikan persekitaran yang sihat. Matlamat kajian ini adalah untuk

membandingkan proses penumbuhan bagi kulat tertutup dengan menggunakan tiga

jenis antikulat yang berbeza seperti kalium sorbat, kalsium benzoate dan zink salisilat.

Kulat diasingkan daripada bilik yang terpilih di Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam dan Alam

Sekitar (FKAAS). Objektif penyelidikan ini adalah untuk mengkaji kadar

pertumbuhan kulat setelah ditambah dengan antikulat pada kemasan dinding serta

menilai kecekapan ia berfungsi. Kajian ini telah dilakukan pada tiga bahan utama iaitu

kayu, eternit dan konkrit. Setiap bahan-bahan utama telah disalut dengan empat jenis

lapisan seperti cat yang berasaskan gliserol, cat akrilik, kertas dinding nipis dan tebal.

Kadar pertumbuhan kulat dipantau bersama semua bahan-bahan yang digunakan

dengan antikulat. Antikulat dapat mengurangkan kadar pertumbuhan kulat tetapi ia

bergantung kepada jenis bahan dan lapisan yang digunakan. Keputusan menunjukkan

bahawa rawatan antikulat yang terbaik bagi substrat kayu, adalah gabungan kertas

dinding tebal dan kalsium benzoat, di mana pertumbuhan berhenti di 53% (CB 53%

<PS 87% <ZS 90% <CTRL 93%). Bagi eternit substrat, kertas dinding nipis dan

kalium sorbat menghalang pertumbuhan pada kadar 40% (PS 40% <ZS 73% <CB 80%

<CTRL 97%) manakala bagi substrat konkrit, cat akrilik dan cat berasaskan gliserol

digabungkan dengan kalsium benzoat telah menjadikan pertumbuhan kulat berhenti di

0% sepanjang ujian (Paint akrilik = CB 0% <ZS 7% <PS 7% <CTRL 33%) dan

(Gliserol Berdasarkan Paint = CB 0% <PS 70% <ZS 73% <CTRL 87%). Oleh itu,

bahan binaan yang terbaik ialah konkrit dengan penggunaan kalsium benzoat untuk

jenis cat kemasan dinding.

vii

CONTENTS

TITLE i

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES xv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Problem Statement 2

1.3 Objectives of the Study 3

1.4 Scope of Study 4

1.5 Significance of Study 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Indoor Environmentl Quality (IEQ) 6

2.3 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) 8

2.3.1 Elements of IAQ problems 8

2.3.2 Factor Affecting IAQ 9

2.3.3 Effect of Poor IAQ 11

viii

2.3.3.1 Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) 12

2.3.3.2 Building Related Illness (BRI) 13

2.3.3.3 Environment Tobacco Smoke (ETS) 14

2.3.4 Types of IAQ Pollutant 15

2.3.4.1 Organic Pollutant 15

2.3.4.2 Inorganic Pollutant 16

2.3.4.3 Pyhsical Pollutant 17

2.3.4.4 Biological Agents 17

2.4 Indoor Fungal 19

2.4.1 Types of Indoor Fungal 20

2.4.2 Health Hazard of Indoor Fungi 21

2.5 Building Materials 22

2.5.1 Wood 22

2.5.2 Plasterboard 23

2.5.3 Concrete 24

2.6 Interior Finishes 25

2.6.1 Wallpaper 26

2.6.1.1 Thick Wallpaper 26

2.6.1.2 Thin Wallpaper 27

2.6.2 Paint 27

2.6.2.1 Glycerol Based Paint 28

2.6.2.2 Acrylic Paint 29

2.7 Antifungal 30

2.7.1 Potassium Sorbate 33

2.7.2 Zinc Salicylate 34

2.7.3 Calcium Benzoate 35

2.8 Standard and Guidelines 36

2.8.1 ASTM D5590-00 Standard Scale 36

2.8.2 NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods 36

2.8.3 Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality

(ICOP IAQ) 37

2.9 Summary 38

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 39

3.1 Introduction 39

3.2 Location of Sampling Area 41

3.3 Indoor Fungi Sampling Technique 41

ix

3.4 Samples of Indoor Fungi and Total Indoor Fungi Count 43

3.5 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Physical Parameter Reading 43

3.6 Laboratory Works 44

3.6.1 Antimicrobial Test 44

3.6.1.1 Cultivation of Spore 44

3.6.1.2 Suspension of Spore 45

3.6.1.3 Calculation of Suspension of Spore 45

3.6.2 Coating Bio Resistance Material 46

3.6.2.1 Coating Bio Resistance Procedure 49

3.6.2.2 Measurement Technique of Fungal Growth 50

3.6.3 Growth Parameter 51

3.6.3.1 Temperature 51

3.6.3.2 Relative Humidity 52

3.6.4 Summary of Substrate and Wall finishing 52

3.6.5 Summary of Testing 54

3.7 Summary 54

CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 54

4.1 Introduction 56

4.2 Suspension of Spore 56

4.3 Quantification of Suspension of Spore 57

4.4 Rating of ASTM D5590-00 Indoor Fungal Growth 57

4.5 Diameter of ASTM D5590-00 Indoor Fungal Growth 69

4.6 Percentage of ASTM D5590-00 Indoor Fungal Growth 82

4.7 Summary 94

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 80

5.1 Introduction

955

5.2 Conclusion

955

5.3 Recommendation for Further Study 97

REFERENCES 99

APPENDIX 112

x

LIST OF TABLES

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

2.10

2.11

2.12

2.13

2.14

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

Definition of Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ) According to EN

15251

Elements of Indoor Air Quality problems

The Sources of Indoor Air Contaminant

Symptoms or key signs of ETS

The conditions of mold growth on surfaces

Categories of mold count

Different types of materials used in study

Different types of wall finishing used in study

The antifungal application of the antifungal purposes

Potassium sorbate for antifungal purposes

Zinc salicylate for antifungal purposes

Mold index according to ASTM D5590-00 Standard Scale

The Acceptable Range for Specific Physical Parameters According

to ICOP-IAQ by DOSH (2010)

The List of Indoor Air Contaminants and the Acceptable Limits

According to ICOP-IAQ by DOSH (2010)

Performance profile for bioaerosol sampling followed NIOSH

Manual Analytical Method NAM 0800

Scale for evaluation fungal growth (ASTM D5590-00 Standard

Scale)

Summary of wood substrate and wall finishing used

Summary of plasterboard substrate and wall finishing used

Summary of concrete substrate and wall finishing used

Summary of testing conducted

7

9

10

14

18

19

25

29

32

34

35

36

37

37

41

49

52

53

53

54

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1

2.2

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

4.10

4.11

Categories of Indoor Environment Quality

Example of Sick Building

Research Methodology Overview

Biostage impactor with mounting bracket accessories

Sample of wood

Sample of plasterboard

Sample of concrete

Sample of Thick wallpaper

Sample of Thin wallpaper

Fungal Growth Percentage Measurement Technique

Digital Colony Counter

Neubauer Counting Chamber

ASTM Rating of multiple substrate with antifungals

ASTM Rating of wood substrate with multiple antifungal and wall

finishing

ASTM Rating of wood substrate on multiple antifungals

ASTM Rating of plasterboard substrate with multiple antifungal

and wall finishing

ASTM Rating of plasterboard substrate on multiple antifungals

ASTM Rating of concrete substrate with multiple antifungal and

wall finishing

ASTM Rating of concrete substrate on multiple antifungals

Diameter of indoor fungal growth on multiple substrate with

antifungals

Diameter of indoor fungal growth on wood substrate with multiple

antifungal and wall finishing

Diameter of wood substrate with multiple antifungal

7

13

40

42

47

48

48

48

49

50

51

57

59

61

62

64

65

67

68

70

73

74

xii

4.12

4.13

4.14

4.15

4.16

4.17

4.18

4.19

4.20

4.21

4.22

Diameter of indoor fungal growth on plasterboard substrate with

multiple antifungal and wall finishing

Diameter of plasterboard substrate with multiple antifungal

Diameter of indoor fungal growth on concrete substrate with

multiple antifungal and wall finishing

Diameter of concrete substrate with multiple antifungal

Percentage of fungi growth on multiple substrates incorporated

with antifungals

Percentage of fungi growth on wood substrates with multiple

antifungal and wall finishing

Percentage of fungi growth on wood substrate with multiple

antifungal

Percentage of fungi growth on plasterboard substrates with

multiple antifungal and wall finishing

Percentage of fungi growth on plasterboard substrate with multiple

antifungal

Percentage of fungi growth on concrete substrates with multiple

antifungal and wall finishing

Percentage of fungi growth on concrete substrate with multiple

antifungal

77

78

80

81

83

86

87

89

90

92

93

xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

% Percentage

0C Degree Celsius

AP Acrylic paint

ASHRAE American Society for Heating, Refrigerating and Air-

Conditioning Engineers

ASTMD5590-00 American Society for Testing and Materials 5590-00

BRI Building Related Illness

C Concrete

CB Calcium benzoate

CONT Control

DOSH Department of Occupational Safety and Health

EFSA European Food Safety Authority

EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

ETS Environment Tobacco Smoke

FKAAS Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

GBP Glycerol based paint

HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning

ICOP-IAQ 2010 Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality 2010

IAQ Indoor Air Quality

IEQ Indoor Environment Quality

ISO 7730 International Standard Organization 7730

MEA Malt Extracts Agar for Fungi

NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

NMAM 0800 NIOSH Manual Analytical Method 0800

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

P Plasterboard

PS Potassium sorbate

RH Relative Humidity

xiv

SBS Sick Building Syndrome

THICK Thick wallpaper

THIN Thin wallpaper

UTHM Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

VOC Volatile Organic Compounds

WHO World Health Organization

W Wood

Z Zinc salicylate

xv

LIST OF APPENDICES

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A9

B

C

D

E

F

G

Rating for Wood (ANOVA Analysis)

Rating for Plasterboard (ANOVA Analysis)

Rating for Concrete (ANOVA Analysis)

Diameter for Wood (ANOVA Analysis)

Diameter for Plasterboard (ANOVA Analysis)

Diameter for Concrete (ANOVA Analysis)

Percentage of Wood (ANOVA Analysis)

Percentage of Plasterboard (ANOVA Analysis)

Percentage of Concrete (ANOVA Analysis)

Quantification of Suspension of Spore

List of Publication

ASTM D5590-00 Standard Scale

Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality (ICOP IAQ)

NIOSH Manual Analytical Method NAM 0800

ASTM D3273-12 Standard Scale

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

127

129

130

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

The human health can be affected by many factors. One of the most common factors

is the air that is inhaled by them. This air that surrounds the building and its exterior

can be classified by using IAQ or Indoor Air Quality. This term is also a part of IEQ

or Indoor Environment Quality. Poor weather condition is due to the increase in

temperature day by day. Therefore, it enhance the growth of indoor fungi and the

people who lives in the polluted environment suffers (Pagliano et al., 2016).

The US Environmental Protection Agency, (2013) stated that the indoor air

pollution is a top five threats to public health, including in office, homes, other indoor

area and makes existing problem worse with poor air quality. It causes harmful if not

managed with properly (Joo et al., 2012). The important about adsorption or

desorption by building materials pollutant are incorporate as basic components of

IAQ model to get some information by any influence of building materials on Indoor

Air Quality (IAQ).

There are many sources of indoor air pollution. These sources include high

temperature and humidity level, poor ventilation, remolding and any activities in or

near a building gives impact on fresh air coming into building (Chenari, Dias Carrilho

& Gameiro Da Silva, 2016). The IAQ of a space also affected by gases such as carbon

monoxide, radon, volatile or organic compounds. Other than that, it is also be affected

by particulates and microbial contaminants such as fungi and bacteria. The presence

of these contaminants in the air, specifically fungus and its spores is not a serious

2

issue until it is inhaled by the body. The fungus that entered the body through the

respiratory system can lead to health problems or also make certain conditions much

worse. Symptoms such runny nose, nasal congestion, eye irritation, cough, asthma

aggravation, fatigue, headaches and difficulty in concentrating are common when

exposed to the fungus.

Wall finishes are decorative elements that are applied on the surface of the wall

for an accessories purpose. It brings the element of beauty and does not have any

major purpose other than another protective layer for the wall while substrate are

materials such as wood, plasterboard and concrete. These items are commonly used

in the construction industry and can be seen on many surfaces in the interior of any

houses (Kontogeorgos & Founti, 2013; Paul, Sree, & Aglan, 2010). All the items that

were previously said have one common problem, it is the fungal infection on the

surface of them (Tanaca et al., 2011; Hoang et al., 2010). Fungi are airborne spore

spreaders that emerge during damp conditions and suitable surfaces for them to breed

on. To overcome this, antifungal chemicals are used on the surfaces of the wall and

its accessories.

Antifungal chemicals prevent the microbial colonization, subsequent growth

and bio-deterioration of the substrate. Besides that, antifungals are eco-friendly as it

is commonly used in food industry (Hwang & Huang, 2014; Heydaryinia, Veissi, &

Sadadi, 2011). Antimicrobial coatings are designed to generate a surface that is easy

to clean. It is also a chemical that kills or inhibit the growth of microorganisms such

as bacteria, fungi, mold and algae (Roden, 2010; Tiller, 2008). Therefore, it is

suggested that the application of antifungal on the wall finishing’s in the building

contributes to protect and prevent the bio-deterioration of the substrate and creates a

healthy environment. This study has been conducted for evaluate the efficiency of

antifungal such as potassium sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate on 4 types

of wall finishing which are the thin wallpaper, thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint

and acrylic paint.

1.2 Problem Statement

Fungi are long known to affect the health of humans in many ways. The common

ways are diseases to crop plants, decay of stored food, human tissue infections and

3

immune system related diseases. A fungus is a heterotrophic and filamentous

organism that depends on external sources of organic carbon and its cells are parasitic

where they absorb nutrients through cell membranes.

Fungi use the air to spread it and therefore, it is classified as an airborne spore

spreader. These spores are the actual danger of the fungi as it poses a great threat

when inhaled into human body by the respiratory system. Therefore, the IAQ is a very

important guide to make sure that the air inside and surrounding a space is safe. This

is important as users to a normal urban home; spend almost 90% of the day in the

homes.

More research need to be carried out on the IAQ issue as it leads to major health

problems. High relative humidity and temperature causes to microbial growth.

Malaysia’s environmental factor is a perfect ground for the growth of indoor fungi.

Therefore, significant research for a sustainable, long term, low cost and

environmental friendly approached is needed to address and to solve the IAQ

problems.

Antifungal on the other hand are the solutions to this problem but the

availability of numerous antifungal in the market and the unknown effectiveness to

fungal types proving to be a disadvantage. The application of antifungal as a bio

resistance compound to inhibit the growth of fungi is a safe product as it was

previously being used as a food preservative which was been consumed by the human

beings. Yet, very few studies have remediated the indoor fungal growth using

antifungals through different substrates and wall finishing’s. Thus, in this study,

antifungal such as potassium sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate was used

to treat the indoor fungal on 4 types of wall finishing which are the thin wallpaper,

thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic paint. Preference was given to the

lecturer room, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam dan Alam Sekitar (FKAAS), Universiti

Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) as it was identified with the growth of indoor

fungi.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are:

i. To compare the growth of indoor fungal after incorporated with antifungal

4

(potassium sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate) at different types of

substrates based on rating for 28 days.

ii. To evaluate the antifungal efficiency when use as a coating on substrate (wood,

plasterboard and concrete) for coating bio resistance based on diameter (cm).

iii. To measure the growth rate of indoor fungal on substrate with different wall

finishing (thin wallpaper, thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic

paint) that coated by antifungal and free antifungal based on percentage (%).

1.4 Scope of Study

i. The culture and harvest indoor fungi spores using biostage single–stage viable

cascade impactor attached to a SKC Quick Take 30 (NAM 0800).

ii. The laboratory works for antifungal treatment for indoor fungi using potassium

sorbate, zinc salicylate and calcium benzoate on thin wallpaper, thick

wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic paint based on rating, diameter and

percentage (Belloti et al., 2010, ASTM D5590-00).

iii. The laboratory works without using antifungal treatment on thin wallpaper,

thick wallpaper, glycerol based paint and acrylic paint based on rating, diameter

and percentage (Vacher et al., 2010, ASTM D5590-00).

iv. The growth rate of indoor fungi was determined with the effect of antifungal

and non-antifungal (Belloti et al., 2013, ASTM D5590-00).

1.5 Significance of Study

The primordial purpose of this study is to compare on remediation process by using

different types of antifungal. Particular antifungal mentioned have a high potential to

treat the indoor fungi growth (Aspergillus Niger sp.) as it was successfully proven in

lab scale. Hence, by applying antimicrobial additives, this method reduces the

building maintenance cost and saves time. This study also leads to better indoor

environment.

The quality of the environment improved and variety of health effect prevented.

Thus, this study serves as the basis for future plans of action. Besides that, this study

which focused on antifungal as the agent in remediation process of fungi growth is an

5

excellent source of environmental friendly. Application of antifungals, acts as an

alternative by avoiding hazardous chemicals on the coating of the buildings. Quality

materials which can sustain longer by adding antimicrobial coatings is an advantage

for the industry too. An added point for the users and to industry is that the antifungal

is cheaper, easily obtained and safe to be used and consumed. It was proven by using

those selected antifungals in the food industry.

This method of application is sustainable too as much consideration given to

sustainable practices due to the need and taking into consideration of present concept

among engineering society. This is in line with the definition of sustainable practices,

where this defined as living life in a way that uses resources in a responsible way.

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter describes overview of related theory and previous research relevant to

the study. The intention of this chapter is to give basic information about indoor

environmental and air quality and it’s fundamental. The material and information for

this chapter has been gathered from various reference books and research papers.

2.2 Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ)

The quality of a building’s environment in line with the health and well-being of

people who live in particular area is referred as Indoor Environment Quality, IEQ.

The effect of poor IEQ is not only on physical health of the building occupants, but

also on their physiological health (Ahmed, 2007).

Basically, IEQ can be determined by many factors such as lighting, air quality

and damp conditions. Dampness, cleanliness and ventilation characteristics are

associated with building related symptoms (Lee et al., 2012). Therefore, many health

related problem was occurred due to this poor environment. Wong, Mui & Hui (2008)

states that thermal comfort, indoor air quality, noise level and illumination level are

the four aspects to examine the Indoor Environment Quality, IEQ. Air quality and

freshness, the presence of light, thermal comfort and quality of acoustic are the

important factors of IEQ in healing environments, which affect occupant satisfaction

(Lai et al., 2009; Sarbu & Sebarchievici, 2013).

Variety of contaminants whether from machines inside the buildings, dust cleaners,

renovation works, water damaged building materials, carpets and furnishings,

7

cigarette smoke, perfumes, microbial growth, insects and outdoor pollutants are the

common contaminants faced by the building occupants (Parjo et al., 2015). How

individuals respond to indoor environment can also predicted through the indoor

temperature, relative humidity and the ventilation levels of a building. Energy

consumption of buildings depends significantly on the criteria used for the indoor

environment (temperature, ventilation and lighting) (Sarbu & Sebarchievici, 2013).

Building related symptoms could be resolved by understanding the sources of indoor

environmental contaminants and by controlling them. There are 6 categories of IEQ

which shown in Figure 2.1 and Table 2.1 tabulated the definition of Indoor

Environmental Quality (IEQ) according to EN 15251.

Figure 2.1: Categories of Indoor Environmental Quality (Robert, 2009)

Table 2.1 Definition of Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)

According to EN 15251

Category Explanation

I High level of expectation is recommended for space occupied by very

sensitive and fragile persons with special requirements like handicapped,

sick, very young children and elderly persons.

II Normal level of expectation and should be used for new buildings and

renovations.

III An acceptable, moderate level of expectation and may be used for existing

buildings.

IV Values outside the criteria for the above categories. This category should

only be accepted for a limited part of the year.

IAQ• Air Quality

ILQ• Lighting Quality

ISQ• Sound Quality

IVQ• Vibration Quality

IOQ• Odour Quality

ICQ• Thermal Comfort Quality

8

2.3 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

It is defined as the air quality within and around buildings, because it is concerning

the health with comfort of building occupants. The degradation of indoor air quality

induced by microorganisms (molds, bacteria, fungi) is of growing concern to

international health organization (Leman et al., 2006; Verdier et al., 2014). Indoor air

quality is a major determinant of personal exposure to pollutants in today’s world.

Much time is being spent in numerous different indoor environments by people

(Sarbu & Sebarchievici, 2013). Norhidayah et. al., (2013) reported that people spend

their lifetimes up to 80% in workplace or homes. Problems caused by microbial,

especially fungal growth do exist in some new buildings (Ismail, Deros, & Leman,

2010; Er et al., 2015; Parjo et al., 2015). IAQ is a part of indoor environmental quality

(IEQ) (Lee et al., 2012). Collection of air samples, monitoring human exposure to

pollutants, collection of samples on building surfaces and computer modeling of air

flow inside buildings are some of the way involved in determining the IAQ.

Indoor air quality is very important because it is one of the main discomfort

causing factors in a closed space. Removing this discomfort factor causes most people

to feel better. Indoor environment also affects health, productivity and comfort of the

occupants (Sarbu & Sebarchievici, 2013; Er et al., 2015). However, some pollutants

cause diseases which have no symptoms immediately but will emerged later. Some

examples of the diseases are cancer and respiratory problems (Kris-Etherton et al.,

2002).

2.3.1 Elements of IAQ problems

In any home, there are many types of indoor air pollution that can occur. Some of the

reasons for the pollution to happen are gas, coal and tobacco products which are

common in the kitchen. Other than that, damp carpets, wood furniture’s, heating and

cooling systems and pesticides are also sources of pollution that affect the IAQ of a

space. The unsuitable fitting materials, adhesive and furniture selection are also

contributing to the sources of poor IAQ (Noraini et al., 2013). Mainly, the importance

factor is how much of pollutant is releases and the danger level that the pollutant has.

Age factor of the source and its maintenance are also important in its determination.

9

Elements which involved in development of indoor air quality problems are clearly

shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Elements of Indoor Air Quality problems (EPA, 1991)

Elements Description

Source There is a source of contamination or discomfort indoors, outdoors or

within the mechanical systems of the building.

Heating, Ventilation, and

Air Conditioning

(HVAC)

The HVAC system is not able to control the existing air contaminants

and ensure thermal comfort (temperature and humidity conditions that

are comfortable for most occupants.

Pathways One or more pollutants pathways connect the pollutant source to the

occupants and a driving force exists to move pollutants along the

pathway(s).

Occupants Building occupants are present.

2.3.2 Factor Affecting IAQ

Ventilation is a typical improving method of IAQ of buildings (Lee et al., 2012).

Insufficient ventilation or air circulation builds up the indoor polluted level.

Therefore, many factors affect the IAQ. Indoor, outdoor and HVAC system are the

major three following elements that are involved in the development of indoor air

quality problems. According to Lee et al., (2012) reported that one of the principal

methods to mitigate IAQ problems is the ventilation, which is mainly composed of

active IAQ control by heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and passive

IAQ control by natural ventilation.

The contaminants of indoor air may come within the building and also from

outside of the building (WCB, 2005). The first element is indoor. Personal activities

such as smoking or personal hygiene affects the indoor air quality. The use of

deodorizers, cleaning materials or dust while doing the housekeeping also contributes

to this factor. Indoor air quality will be affected by the emissions of volatile organic

compounds given off by office equipment like photocopier machines and from the

office supplies such as toners, carbonless paper products. Besides that, poor thermal

and humidity comfort and huge number of occupant load do contribute to this factor.

Other factor that affects the IAQ is the outdoor. Vehicle exhaust, pollen, or

industrial pollutants contaminates the outdoor air. The indoor air also polluted due to

the nearby source emission especially from the garbage dumpsters, loading docks or

the re-entrained exhaust from buildings. Radon, underground storage tanks or

10

pesticides are under the group of soil gas that pollutes the air quality. Finally, another

reason that enhances the poor indoor air quality is the microbial from standing water

that is molds or mildew.

The HVAC system classified as one of the affecting elements of poor indoor

air quality. Inadequate distribution of fresh air in ventilation system contributes to

this phenomenon (Gaskin et al., 2012). Unclean air filters, dust in ductwork enhance

the microbiological growth in ductworks and or humidifiers. Inadequate IAQ has

been tied to symptoms including headaches, fatigue, trouble concentrating, and

irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. Table 2.3 below shows the Sources of

Indoor Air Contaminant according to EPA, 19911.

Table 2.3 The Sources of Indoor Air Contaminant (EPA, 1991)

Sources Categories Description

Outside Building Contaminated outdoor

air

Pollen, dust, fungal spores, industrial pollutants

and general vehicle exhaust

Emissions from nearby

sources

Exhaust from vehicles on nearby roads or in

parking lots, or garages, loading docks, odors

from unsanitary debris near the outdoor air

intake

Soil gas Radon, leakage from underground fuel tanks,

contaminants from previous uses of the site (e.g:

landfills) and pesticides.

Moisture or standing

water promoting excess

microbial growth

Rooftops after rainfall and crawlspace

Equipment HVAC

system

Dust or dirt in ductwork or other components

microbiological growth in drip pans,

humidifiers, ductworks, coils improper use of

biocides, sealants, and/or cleaning compounds,

improper venting of combustion products and

refrigerant leakage.

Non-HVAC equipment Emission from office equipment (volatile

organis compounds, ozone), supplies (solvents,

toners, ammonia), emissions from shops, labs,

cleaning processes, elevator motors and other

mechanical systems.

Human Activities Personal activities Smoking, cooking, body odors, and cosmetic

odors.

Housekeeping activities Cleaning materials and procedures, emissions

from stored supplies or trash, use deodorizers

and fragrances, airborne dust or dirt (e.g:

circulated by sweeping and vacuuming).

11

Maintenance activities Microorganisms in mist from improperly

maintained cooling towers airborne dust or dirt,

volatile organic compounds from use of paint,

caulk, adhesives, and other products, pesticides

from pest control activities and emissions from

stored supplies.

Buildings

Components and

Furnishing

Locations that produce

or collect dust or fibers

Textured surfaces such as carpeting, curtains,

and other textiles, open shelving, old or

deteriorated furnishings materials containing

damaged asbestos.

Unsanitary conditions

and water damage

Microbiological growth on or in soiled or water

damaged furnishings, microbiological growth in

areas of surface condensation, standing water

from clogged, or poorly designed drains, dry

traps that allow the passage of sewer gas.

Chemical released from

building components or

furnishings

Volatile organic compounds or inorganic

compounds.

Other

Sources

Accidentals events Spills of water or other liquids microbiological

growth due to flooding or to leaks from roofs,

piping, and fire damage.

Special use areas and

mixed use buildings

Smoking lounges, laboratories, print shops, art

rooms, exercise rooms, beauty salons, and food

preparation.

Redecorating/

Remodeling/ Repair

activities

Emissions from new furnishing, dust, and fibers

from demolition, odors and volatile organic and

inorganic compounds from paint, caulk, and

adhesives microbiological released from

demolition or remodeling activities.

2.3.3 Effect of Poor IAQ

Lack of good maintenance practices in some buildings leads to moisture build ups

that, when left alone, results in microbial contamination and higher levels of bio

aerosols (Ayanbimpe, Danjuma, & Okolo, 2003). The primary effect of poor IAQ

that is commonly experienced is health effects. These effects are observed

immediately or even years later. The immediate effect is observed after one exposure

or after many exposures. The symptoms are irritation of the eyes, nose and throat,

headaches, dizziness and are some cases; fatigue (Mendes, 2014). The symptoms are

normally short-termed and are easily treated. The common way, is to simply remove

the person from the polluted environment or remove the pollutant from the

environment. This is only possible when the source of the pollution was identified.

Diseases that observed to the occupants in the poor IAQ environment are asthma,

hypersensitivity pneumonitis and humidifier fever (Mendell et al., 2011).

12

If the immediate pollution is present in an environment, there are also other

factors that contribute to the likelihood of immediate reactions of an occupant.

Firstly, the age of the occupant and also the present medical condition of the

occupant. Other than that, the sensitivity of an occupant to pollutants plays a vital

factor in this matter. This is because some people are sensitive to biological

pollutants whereas some are sensitive to chemical pollutants.

The drawback of this immediate effect that it is commonly diagnosed as cold

or other viral diseases; therefore, it is hard to distinguish whether the symptoms are

caused by poor IAQ indoors or just a flu reaction. The simplest way to identify the

presences of pollutants in a space, is by checking the symptoms of an occupant after

left the place. If it does, poor IAQ is present in the space. The effect is much worse

by inadequate outdoor air supply.

Long term effects arise after years of exposure and the most common effects

are respiratory diseases, heart diseases and cancer. A much deeper research has to be

conducted to identify the real causes and problems that are present in the long term

effects.

2.3.3.1 Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)

Situations in which building occupants experience acute health and comfort effects

which appeared to be connected to time spent in a building but there are no specific

illness or caused that identified is referred as sick building syndromes (Kawamura et

al., 2006; Khan & Karuppayil, 2012). Sick building is pointed out as it marks the

imperfection of heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems (Aizat et

al., 2009).

In addition, other reasons of sick building are said due to the contaminants

produced by out gassing of some types of building materials, molds, volatile organic

compounds (VOC), improper exhaust ventilation of ozone, light industrial chemicals

used within or because of lack of adequate fresh air intake or air filtration. Takigawa

et al., (2012) reported that chemical substances have been considered the main factor

associated with SBS symptoms in Japan, because of the people affected live in newly

built or renovated houses. Building related disease include infectious diseases spread

from the building services. Legionnaires’ disease and diseases spread from worker to

worker within a building, such as virus infections are some of the examples. It is also

13

included any toxic reactions to chemicals used within the building, or derived from

fungi growing within a building (Burge, 2004). Figure 2.2 shows an example of a sick

building.

Figure 2.2: Example of Sick Building (Hardt, 2014)

2.3.3.2 Building Related Illness (BRI)

Health effects that are experienced by the occupants of certain buildings range from

severe effects (asthma, allergic response, cancer risks) to a series of mild symptoms,

generally non-specific in nature, which exhibit an association with the indoor

environment, particularly indoor air. There are symptoms that showed from

occupants if the buildings have BRI such as cough, chest tightness, fever, chills, and

muscle aches. These symptoms are clinically defined then the result were identified

the causes (WCB, 2005). Collectively, all such health effects are termed as ‘building-

related illness’ and many arise from identifiable causes, for example specific

pollutants, poor ventilation, humidifier fever, poor thermal comfort, poor lighting,

psychosocial factors (Burge, 2004).

There are many factors that can be related to the building illness. Job stress,

ergonomic stress, lighting, noise and temperature extremes are some of it. Hence, the

common building illness according to Zhang et al., (2012) are itching, burning eyes,

irritated skin, nasal congestion, fatigue, dry irritated throats, nausea, headaches,

humidity problems, unacceptable noise levels, adverse ergonomic conditionally,

14

improper temperature conditions and inadequate ventilation. It may occur

individually or combined (Zhang et al., 2012).

2.3.3.3 Environment Tobacco Smoke (ETS)

A significant indoor air pollutant is environment tobacco smoke (ETS). It is the term

used to describe a complex airborne mixture of gases and particles that results from

tobacco smoking in buildings. ETS is a complex mixture of particulates, CO, CO2,

formaldehyde and many volatile compounds, some of which cause cancer. ETS is a

combination of two forms of smoke from burning tobacco products which side stream

smoke (SS) such as cigarette, pipe or cigar and also mainstream smoke (MS) such as

the smoke exhaled by the smoker (Dresbach & Sanderow, 2008). It is also referring

to the exposure to tobacco smoke not from own smoking, but from others cigarette,

cigar or pipe. Those who exposed to this type of environment are classified as second

hand smoke. Moreover, inhaling environmental tobacco smoke is called as in

voluntary or passive smoking. Tobacco smoke can irritate the respiratory system, and

in allergic or asthmatic persons, often results in eye and nasal irritation, coughing

wheezing, sneezing, headache, and other sinus problems (IREM, 2006).

ETS can also be described as the material in indoor air that originates from

tobacco smoke. Many of the toxic agents and carcinogens that are present in

mainstream smoke are contained in the ETS but in diluted form. ETS do increase the

risk of heart disease in nonsmokers.

ASHRAE standard 62 states that air removed from an area

with environmental tobacco smoke shall not be recirculated into ETS free air. ETS

space requires more ventilation to achieve similar perceived air quality to that of a

non-smoking environment. Table 2.4 shows the symptoms of ETS for all ages.

Table 2.4 Symptoms or key signs of ETS (EPA, 1991)

Categories Symptoms or Key Signs

Adults Rhinitis/pharyngitis, nasal congestion, persistent cough

Conjunctival irritation

Headache

Wheezing (bronchial constriction)

Exacerbation of chronic respiratory conditions.

Infants and

children Asthma onset

Increase severity of, or difficulty in controlling, asthma

Frequent upper respiratory infection and/or episodes of otitis media

Snoring

Repeated pneumonia, bronchitis

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2.3.4 Types of IAQ Pollutant

Pollution is the presence of a pollutant also known as unwanted substances in the

environment and is often the result of human actions. Pollution has a detrimental

effect on the environment. Animals, fish and other aquatic life, plants and humans all

suffer when pollution is not controlled. A pollutant is a substance that pollutes the air,

water or land. This term is used to describe things in the environment that do not

belong. Indoor air quality pollutants can be divided into four. They are the organic

pollutant, inorganic pollutant, physical pollutant and also biological pollutant (Kampa

& Castanas, 2008). Below are some of the common types of air pollutants.

2.3.4.1 Organic Pollutant

A variety of organic compounds are emitted into the atmosphere by natural and

human activities. Organic compound basically can be divided into two categories

namely the primary pollutants and secondary pollutants. The primary pollutants are

those emitted directly from the sources while the secondary pollutants are those that

formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions among the primary pollutants and

normal atmospheric constituents.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds which are resistant to

degradation and persistent in the environment, with half lives of years in the soil or

sediment and days in the atmosphere. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are toxic

chemicals that adversely affect human health and the environment around the world.

Because it is transported by wind and water, most POPs generated in one country can

and do affect people and wildlife far from where it is used and released. POPs persist

for long periods of time in the environment and accumulate and pass from one species

to the next through the food chain (Kampa & Castanas, 2008). Humans mainly ingest

POPs from food and drinking water, but also from the air (mainly by breathing in dust

particles) and through the skin (through direct contact with the chemicals). The

highest concentrations of POPs are generally found in marine mammals and humans,

both of which are at the top of the food chain.

Some POPs are used as pesticides. Pesticides enter indoor areas via use and

storage, track-in by people and pets from outdoors area, or outdoors air entering the

home (Nishioka et al., 1999). Pests that pesticides control include insect, plants,

16

rodents and microorganisms (EPA, 2001). Others are used in industrial processes as

well as in the production of goods such as solvents, polyvinyl chloride and medicines.

POPs leads to death and illness including disruption of endocrine, reproductive and

immune systems. It also affects the neurobehavioral disorders and cancers.

2.3.4.2 Inorganic Pollutant

Inorganic air pollutants of various kinds, including gases and particles are focused in

this type of pollutant. Inorganic air pollutants consist of many kinds of substances.

Many solid and liquid substances become particulate air contaminants. Another

important class of inorganic air pollutants consists of oxides of carbon, sulfur, and

nitrogen. Inorganic pollutants contribute to a great extent in composition variations

of the atmosphere and are mainly due to combustion of fossil fuels (Katsouyanni,

2003; Kampa & Castanas, 2008). Carbon monoxide is a directly toxic material that is

fatal at relatively small doses. Carbon dioxide is a natural and essential constituent of

the atmosphere, and it is required for plants to use during photosynthesis. Carbon

monoxide (CO) is a colorless, non-irritant, odorless and tasteless toxic gas which

produces by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuels such as wood, petrol, coal,

natural gas and kerosene (WHO, 2010). There is also probable that during combustion

there is incomplete combustion which also produces high concentration of carbon

monoxide in indoor environment (WHO, 2010).

However, CO2 turn out to be the most significant air pollutant of all because of

its potential as a greenhouse gas that causes devastating global warming. Oxides of

sulfur and nitrogen are acid-forming gases that causes acid precipitation. A number

of gaseous inorganic pollutants enter the atmosphere as the result of human activities.

Those added in the greatest quantities are CO, SO2, NO, and NO2. These quantities

are relatively small compared with the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Other

inorganic pollutant gases include NH3, N2O, N2O5, H2S, Cl2, HCl, and HF. Substantial

quantities of some of these gases are added to the atmosphere each year by human

activities.

As people breathe, the carbon dioxide in a building increases above that level

and peaks after several hours. If carbon dioxide concentrations get too high, the air

gets stale and people will not be comfortable.

17

2.3.4.3 Physical Pollutant

Physical pollution is the most recognizable among other types of pollution. The

physical contamination includes gas particulates contaminant, dust, carbon dioxide,

roofing asphalt odors, lighting, noise and biological contaminants such as bacteria

and mold (Khan & Karuppayil, 2012; OHS, 2012). Physical pollution is what referred

to as trash and is the direct result of human actions. In other words, nature does not

produce physical pollution because in natural systems, all byproducts or wastes are

eventually recycled back into the environment. For example, in nature, a fallen tree

degrades and eventually return nutrients to the soil.

However, physical pollutants, such as discarded water bottles and plastic bags

along with waste materials from industrial or manufacturing processes, do not

naturally degrade and accumulates or leach chemicals into the ground or water

supplies as it breakdown. Physical pollutants are often sent to landfills, which are

designated areas for trash disposal in which the waste is dumped and then covered by

soil. The combustion byproducts such as smoke and carbon monoxide are regular

indoor contaminant that produced from fuel combustion for heating system or

ventilation (Schierow & Bearden, 2012).

Landfills keep physical pollutants confined to one area, and many modern

landfills are lined with layers of clay or plastic to prevent leakage. However, as buried

waste products and organic matter decompose, it releases methane gas, carbon

dioxide and other gases that are harmful to the environment.

2.3.4.4 Biological Agents

Biological pollutants are or were living organisms that promote poor indoor air

quality. It travels through the air and often invisible. Biological pollutants consisting

of complex and varying mixtures of particles suspended in the breathing air, which

vary in size and composition, and are produced by a wide variety of natural and

anthropogenic activities (Kampa & Castanas, 2008; Poschl, 2005). Biological agents

said as airborne which can be inhaled into lungs. Some biological pollutants even

damages surfaces inside and outside of the house. Basically it needs two things to

grow which are the nutrients and moisture.

18

Biological contaminants include bacteria, molds, mildew, viruses, animal

dander and cat saliva, house dust, mites, cockroaches, and pollen. The carbon dioxide,

moisture, odors, and microbes such as fungi are generating from humans and their

household pets simply through normal living processes (Hallowell, 2010). Moisture

condition in the building normally come from plumbing roof, window leaks, flooding

and condensation on cold surface cause by high humidity (OSHA, 2011).

By controlling the relative humidity level in a home, the growth of some sources

of biological can be minimized. A relative humidity of 30-50 percent is generally

recommended for homes. Standing water, water-damaged materials, or wet surfaces

also serve as a breeding ground for molds, mildews, bacteria, and insects. House dust

mites, the source of one of the most powerful biological allergens, grow in damp,

warm environments. These areas include pillows, mattresses, carpets, soft

furnishings, soft toys and even clothing (THH, 2013).

Some biological contaminants trigger allergic reactions, including

hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allergic rhinitis, and some types of asthma (Bonetta et

al., 2010). Infectious illnesses, such as influenza, measles, and chicken pox are

transmitted through the air. Molds and mildews release disease-causing toxins.

Symptoms of health problems caused by biological pollutants include sneezing,

watery eyes, coughing, and shortness of breath, dizziness, lethargy, fever, and

digestive problems.

Some diseases, like humidifier fever, are associated with exposure to toxins

from microorganisms that grows in large building ventilation systems. However,

these diseases also traced to microorganisms that grow in home heating and cooling

systems and humidifiers. Children, elderly people, and people with breathing

problems, allergies, and lung diseases are particularly susceptible to disease-causing

biological agents in the indoor air. Mold have the condition for growth on surfaces

which shown in the Table 2.5.

Table 2.5: The conditions for mold growth on surfaces (La Muth, 2008)

No. Conditions

I Temperature range above 40oF and below 100oF

II Mold spores

III Nutrient base (most surfaces contain nutrients)

IV Moisture

19

Molds are measured by particles per unit meter (pcm) then translated into the

number of spores in a one-meter cube of air. The Table 2.6 below shows the

categories of mold count (La Muth, 2008).

Table 2.6: Categories of mold count (La Muth, 2008)

Particles (pcm) Categories

0 – 500 low

500 – 1500 moderate

> 1501 high

2.4 Indoor Fungal

Fungi are ubiquitous components of indoor human environments. The contact

between humans and microbes occurs are the most (Khan & Karuppayil, 2012). A

neutral role is played by majority of these organisms, but some are detrimental to

human lifestyles and health. People may be exposed to indoor contaminants in the

air, tap water, or dust by inhalation, skin contact, or mouth (Schierow & Bearden,

2012). Recent studies that used culture-independent sampling methods demonstrated

a high diversity of indoor fungi distinct from that of outdoor environments (Visagie

et al., 2014).

Reduced fungal exposure is reasonably be expected to improve the health (EPA,

2008). Ito, (2013) mentioned that fungal contamination recognized as one of the

serious problem in terms of health and aesthetic impact in indoor environment.

Prevention and elimination of fungi from the home environment are done by the

removal of moisture from the indoors and proper maintenance of air filters aid in.

According to Ozolinsh & Jakovich (2013), a negative influence’s on the building’s

sustainability and human health occurred when mould grows under high moisture.

Fungi are prevalent and it are threat to public in indoor environments (Khan &

Karuppayil, 2012; Crawford et al., 2015). Dilute bleach solution is used to cleaned

small areas of present contamination, which kills viable colonies and removes the

mycelia. If fungal contamination is not addressed early, substantial damage occurs,

requiring professional remediation. Regular inspection and cleaning prevents many

fungus-related problems.

The air in many indoor environments also contains spores. Bellotti et al., (2013)

states that fungi are heterotrophic organisms that commonly colonize organic

building materials like coatings, which metabolized by it. Indoor fungi of these spores

20

are as contaminants when the fungi have colonized indoor substrates. It gradually

destroys things it grows on. Actually the outdoor air may be the source of the spores

whenever fresh air is introduced. In addition, many indoor locations serve as

amplification sites for the growth of fungi. Such sites include carpeting, upholstered

furniture, showers, shower curtains, other bathroom fixtures, potted plants, and the

soil around potted plants. Anytime moisture or even high humidity is available, spores

germinates and fungi grows and produce thousands of new spores utilizing organic

material in these sites (Er et al., 2015). Pasanen et al., (2000) reported that the hyphal

growth and sporulation of the fungus on moist wallpaper accrued within one day of

incubation.

In buildings with central HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)

systems, properly maintained in-system or in-duct filters removes many of the spores

present. The HVAC system itself served as an amplification and dissemination site

for fungal spores. Therefore, fungi found growing on air filters as well as in the ducts

(Burge, 2004). Routine maintenance prevents this from occur.

2.4.1 Types of Indoor Fungal

The species of fungi grows easily on the surface materials. Nutrients and energy

sources was used as to produce spores as dispersal and survival units. Some fungi are

beneficial to human as it were used as antibiotics. Micro fungi are important in certain

condition. Kanaani et al., (2009) found that Aspergillus, Penicillium and

Cladosporium were the fungal genera frequently occurring indoors, in both Australia

and other places in the world.

It plays the role as decomposers of dead organic matter and recycled into the

ecosystem. Discoloration occur when the presence of fungi at outdoor. It gives impact

to the indoor environment such as the volatile product and unpleasant odors.

Furthermore, the presence of the nutrient, temperature, pH and moisture accelerates

the growth of fungi (Khan & Karuppayil, 2012; Er et al., 2015). Fungi shows a growth

response to climates (temperature and relative humidity) (Angumeenal &

Venkappayya, 2004). Therefore, fungi do function as sensors to climate.

In commonly the water in the material is considered as the important element

for growth of fungi in outdoor or indoor. There are many species of indoor fungi.

21

Verdier et al., (2014) states that the microorganisms the most frequently detected on

indoor building materials are (i) fungi genera Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus

and Stachybotrys, and (ii) Gram negative bacteria and mycobacteria (Visagie et al.,

2014).

2.4.2 Health Hazard of Indoor Fungi

The inhalation of the spores, mold, fragments of the molds, or can lead to health

problems or make certain health conditions worse. Many of the molds produce

mycotoxins (Sivakumar, Singaravelu, & Sivamani, 2014). Mycotoxins are the

metabolites or by products from mold (Nielsen, 2002; Rajasekar & Balasubramanian,

2011). It has been identified as toxic to human. According to Belloti et al., (2013)

fungal growing inside buildings affect people’s health by producing quite toxic

mycotoxins. Therefore, human immune system is slowly worn down by these toxins.

It leads to allergic and respiratory problems (Nielsen, 2002). The most commonly

reported symptoms include runny nose or nasal congestion, eye irritation, cough or

congestion, aggravation of asthma, fatigue, headaches and difficulty in concentrating.

Molds can also exacerbate the symptoms of allergies including wheezing, chest

tightness, shortness of breath as well as nasal congestion and eye irritation. People

who are immune-suppressed or recovering from surgery are usually more susceptible

to health problems from molds.

There are no accepted standards for molds sampling in indoor environments or

for analyzing and interpreting the data in terms of human health. Most studies are

then based primarily on baseline environmental data rather than on human dose-

response data. Neither OSHA or NIOSH, nor the EPA has set a standard or PEL for

molds exposure.

Indoor mold is unsightly and smelly, but the potential problems are more

serious than that. By definition, actively-growing mold damages the material it lives

on, thereby impairing structural integrity. In addition, mold is associated with some

unwanted health effects in humans, including allergies and infections. More than 600

species of fungi are exposed to human and less than 50 are identified and have been

described in epidemiologic studies on indoor environments (Khan & Karuppayil,

2012).

22

2.5 Building Materials

Building materials are any type of material used in building construction and

structures. Wood, plasterboard and concrete are commonly used for construction

(Gutarowska, 2010). Building materials and surfaces are the places where various

species of bacteria and fungi have been found growing (Hoang et al., 2010). Building

materials such as drywall may not allow the moisture to escape easily (EPA, 2008).

These organisms cause corrosion and degradation of materials and components of

building materials and thereby load the indoor air environment with harmful spores

and substances, thus leading to poor indoor air quality, sick building syndrome and

building-related diseases.

Due to their harmful effect to the environment, residual toxicity and

carcinogenic nature, treatment of decay in buildings by synthetic antifungals has now

been restricted. Moreover, the constant use of chemicals may induce resistance in a

target organism. This concern has encouraged researchers to research for efficient

method to prevent and cure the harmful effects of microbes in an eco-friendlier

manner (Sundis et al., 2012).

2.5.1 Wood

It is a decorative treatment done with wooden panels on the walls in various designs.

Wood is an organic and heterogeneous material and susceptible to mold growth

(Viitanen, 2000). The material used can be plywood or wood covered with veneer or

laminate. Studies have shown materials with strong concentrations of organic carbon

like cellulose or carbonates (wall paper, wood-based building materials) are more

favorable to the development of mold than those with lower carbon content (plaster,

glass wool) (Vacher et al., 2010). It’s proven that fungal breakdowns the plant

material which are rich in lignin and cellulose (Meier et al., 2010).

Residences suffer mold attack, especially in wood-frame housing. Timber –

framed houses had higher daily amplitudes of humidity and temperature than the

heavyweight houses (Kalamees, Korpi, Vinha, & Kurnitski, 2009). Due to their

porosity and nutritional components, wood and wood - based building products are

highly susceptible to mold infestation (Chen, Yang, & Wu, 2009; Polizzi et al., 2012).

23

Lee et al., (2012) reported increased employment of wood-based composites,

synthetic interior finish materials have caused indoor pollutants, and air tightness has

aggravated IAQ problems. Gao et al., (1991) reported that when fungi grow on solid

substrates, their mycelia are tightly intermingled with the substrate.

The critical limit for mold growth on wood is around RH 75-80% which

constant ambient air humidity (Ojanen et al., 2010). However, higher relative

humidity around 90% is required for fungal growth (Viitanen, 2000). Factors that

contributes to the indoor fungi growth are temperature, weather and humidity

(Clausen & Yang, 2007). According to Clausen & Yang, (2003) an ideal fungicide

for prevention of indoor mold growth on wood-based materials needs to specifically

prevent spore germination and provide long-term protection under conditions of high

humidity. Besides, Clausen & Yang, (1998) affirm the development of synergistic

antifungal to protect wood in interior applications has been of particular interest since

the recent increase of indoor mold infestations.

2.5.2 Plasterboard

This material is also known as wallboard and also gypsum board. The plasterboard is

made of gypsum plaster which is pressed between 2 thick sheets of paper. Surface of

building materials (plasterboard, mortar, etc.) are generally highly porous and rough

(Verdier et al., 2014). The use of gypsum by the construction industry is attribute to

its many favorable technical characteristics such as process ability, lightweight,

resistance to fire, and reduction of sound (Kontogeorgos & Founti, 2013). Pereira et

al., (2011) highlighted that it is also used for the interior coating of walls and ceilings.

On the other hand, excess water could be absorbed by capillary movement into

gypsum and that may serve as a reservoir of water and nutrients, favoring conditions

for microbial growth (Gai, 2009; Parjo et al., 2015). Plasterboard are able in various

size and length as it is ready made walls. For residential wall and ceiling, 10mm thick

of plasterboard size usually used (Gai, 2009). According to Vacher et al., (2010),

among all the materials currently used in construction, plasterboards can be sensitive

to the development of mold in extreme moisture conditions. In damp environments,

these materials provides favourable environmental to proliferation and growth of

24

microorganisms (Friman, 2010; Singh & Chittenden, 2010; Verdier et al., 2014; Parjo

et al., 2015).

2.5.3 Concrete

This is a material composed by water, cement and aggregate of large and small size.

Additives are also added into the mix to increase and achieve the strength expected

by the user. When these ingredients are mixed together, a fluid mass is formed which

can be molded into the desired shape (Do et al., 2005). When left to cool, it hardens

and have a strong strength within the material (Zong jin Li, 2011). Miller et al., (2012)

states that concrete is the most widely used material in civil engineering for different

kind of application. Huge number of existing concrete structures worldwide need

effective and durable repair (Tayeh, et al., 2012).

The high alkalinity of mortar and concrete is known to prevent bacteria and

fungus from growing on their surface. However, as neutralization (or carbonation)

progresses, microorganisms such bacteria and fungi begin to colonize on or within

concrete (Park et al., 2009). In addition to the visible discoloration, fungi also have

deteriogenic effects on concrete and stone surfaces (Giannantonio et al., 2009).

According to Andersen et al., (2011) Aspergillus furnigatus, Aspergillus melleus,

Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus, Chaetomium spp., Mucor racemosus,

Mucor spinosus are commonly found fungi species on the concrete surface.

Suggested relative humidity of fungal growth by some authors are at 85-95% for non-

wetting conditions (Pasanen et al., 2000; Verdier et al., 2014). Moisture management

is a critical component for controlling fungal growth on construction materials

(Hoang et al., 2010).

When organisms are growing inside a building, discomforting odor can occur

and structure inhabitants infected with harmful diseases (Park et al., 2009).

Environmental factors such as water availability, pH, climatic exposure, nutrient

sources, and parameters such as mineral composition, type of cement, as well as

porosity and permeability of rock material affects the microbial colonization (Dubey

& Jain, 2016). Table 2.7 shows the different types of material used in the study.

99

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