Introduction to Information and Computer ScienceInformation SystemsLecture aThis material (Comp4_Unit9a) was developed by OHSU, funded by the Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology under Award Number IU24OC000015.

(Insert Component Title Here) (Insert Unit Title Here) Lecture a

Information SystemsLearning ObjectivesDefine an information system, how one is used and list examples. (Lecture a)Describethe components of an information system. (Lecture a)Describe the process developing an information system. (Lecture b)Describe the different types of testing and when testing should occur. (Lecture c)Describe how information systems are supported and maintained over time. (Lecture c)Describe specialized information systems. (Lecture d)Explain how information systems are used in healthcare. (Lecture d)*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

SystemsA set of interacting and interdependent entities forming an integrated wholeExamples:Biological systemsSociocultural systemsComputer systemsBusiness systemsRespiratory System(clker.com, 2007, PD-US)*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Information SystemsSet ofPeopleProcessesProceduresHardwareSoftwareData

Work together forDecision makingManagementOperational activities

*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a(clker.com, 2010, PD-US)

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Information Systems TasksInputData EntryProcessingData ManipulationOutputReportsFeedback*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

DataData are raw valuesNumber of hours workedWeightMedical record numberMultiple representationsAlpha-numericImagesVideoAudio

*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a(clker.com, 2007, PD-US)

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Information and KnowledgeInformation is data that is organizedRelationshipsRulesKnowledge is the understanding of relationships of information

*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a(clker.com, 2007, PD-US)

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Useful Information CharacteristicsAccessibleAccurateCompleteRelevantReliableSecureTimelyVerifiable

*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Goals of the Information SystemImprove access to information and knowledgeImprove processes and servicesImprove communications and collaboration both inside and outside the institution*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a(clker.com, 2007, PD-US)

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Information Systems ImplementationManualPaper, file based systemsUsers record dataExperts provide analysis

Computer basedHardware, software, networksUsers record dataComputer and experts analyze data*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a(clker.com, 2009, PD-US)(clker.com, 2007, PD-US)

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Business Information SystemsTransaction processing systemManagement information systems (MIS)Decision support systemsEnterprise resource planning

*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Enterprise Resource Planning(Nikos, 2011 CC BY-SA 3.0)*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Healthcare Information SystemsHospital/Clinic Business Information SystemsLaboratory Information SystemsImaging Information SystemsScheduling SystemsClinical Decision Support SystemsElectronic Health Records*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Components of Information SystemsHardwareSoftwareDatabasesNetworksProcessesPeople*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

ProcessesProcedures for tasksRelated to workflowsCan be modeledUse case diagramsActivity diagrams(Dekker, 2009, CC BY-SA 3.0)*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

People: StakeholdersSystem ownersInterested in information adding new business knowledgeSystem usersCapture, store, process, edit and use data everydaySystem designersCreate detailed designsSystem buildersCreate system*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a(clker.com, 2011, PD-US)

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

System OwnersUsually from managementInterested in the bottom lineSystem costValue or benefits returned to the business*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

System UsersMajority of information workersNot concerned with costs/benefits Concerned with system functionality related to their jobs:Ease of learningEase of useGet the job done*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

System DesignersSoftware designers/developersDatabase administratorsNetwork architectsWeb architectsGraphic artistsSecurity experts*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

System BuildersApplications programmersSystems programmersDatabase programmersSystem/Network administratorsSecurity administratorsWebmastersSystems integrators*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Systems AnalystsSpecialists who study the problems and needs of an organization to determine how people, data, processes and information technology can best accomplish improvements for the business Bridge the gap between the perspectives of different stakeholdersOverlap the roles of other stakeholders*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Project ManagerProject teams require managementOne or more stakeholder takes on the role of Project Manager (PM)Ensures on-time developmentKeeps project within budgetMaintains acceptable quality*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Information SystemsSummary - Lecture aInformation systems combine technology, people and processes to produce and use informationThere are many different information systems used in businesses and institutionsHardware, software, databases, networks and people are components of information systemsPeople are stakeholders of information systems*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Information SystemsReferences Lecture aReferencesActivity Diagrams. (2011, Nov 17). Retrieved Nov 26, 2011, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_diagramEvans, A., Martin, K., & Poatsey, M. (2010). Technology in Action: Complete (7th ed.). New York: Prentice Hall.OpenERP. (2011, Nov 25). Retrieved Nov 26, 2011, from OpenERP: http://www.openerp.comShelley, G., & Rosenblatt, H. (2010). Systems Analysis and Design (8th ed.). Boston: Course Technology.Shelley, G., & Vermaat, M. (2010). Discovering Computers 2011: Introductory. (1st ed.). Boston: Course Technology.Stair, R., & Reynolds, G. (2010). Fundamentals of Information Systems (5th ed.). Boston: Course Technology.UML Activity Diagrams. (2011, Sep 5). Retrieved Nov 26, 2011, from UML Diagrams: http://www.uml-diagrams.org/activity-diagrams.htmlUse Case Diagrams. (2011, Nov 25). Retrieved Nov 26, 2011, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_case_diagramWhitten, J., & Bentley, L. (2007). Systems Analysis and Design Methods (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Information SystemsReferences Lecture a (continued)ImagesSlide 3: Respiratory System Image [image on the Internet]. Public Domain. [Updated 11/18/2007; cited 11/20/2011]. Available from: http://www.clker.com/clipart-12109.html. (PD-US).Slide 4: Info ButtonImage [image on the Internet]. Public Domain. [Updated 9/20/2010; cited 11/20/2011]. Available from: http://www.clker.com/clipart-blue-information-glossy-button.html. (PD-US).Slide 6: Audio File Icon Image [image on the Internet]. Public Domain. [Updated 11/13/2007; cited 11/20/2011]. Available from: http://www.clker.com/clipart-3701.html. (PD-US).Slide 7: Lightbulb Image [image on the Internet]. Public Domain. [Updated 11/18/2007; cited 11/20/2011]. Available from: http://www.clker.com/clipart-12330.html. (PD-US).Slide 9: Teamwork icon Image [image on the Internet]. c 2007 [Updated 10/11/2007; cited 11/20/2011]. Available from: http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_teamwork.png . (GNU-GPL).Slide 10: Paper and Pencil Image [image on the Internet]. Public Domain. [Updated 11/13/2007; cited 11/20/2011]. Available from: http://www.clker.com/clipart-1853.html. (PD-US).Slide 10: Computer Image [image on the Internet]. Public Domain. [Updated 4/27/2009; cited 11/20/2011]. Available from: http://www.clker.com/clipart-26904.html. (PD-US).Slide 12: OpenERP Screenshot Image [image on the Internet]. Nikos (c 2011). [Updated 6/9/2011; cited 11/20/2011]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OpenERP_V6.png. (CC BY-SA 3.0). Slide 15: Use Case Diagram Image [image on the Internet]. c 2002 [Updated 9/23/2009; cited 11/26/2011]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Use_case_restaurant_model.svg. (CC BY-SA 3.0). Slide 16: People Image [image on the Internet]. Public Domain. [Updated 1/6/2011; cited 11/26/2011]. Available from: http://www.clker.com/clipart-population.html. (PD-US).

*Health IT Workforce Curriculum Version 3.0/Spring 2012Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Introduction to Information and Computer Science Information Systems Lecture a

Welcome to Introduction to Information and Computer Science: Information Systems. This is Lecture (a).

The component, Introduction to Information and Computer Science, provides a basic overview of computer architecture; data organization, representation and structure; structure of programming languages; networking and data communication. It also includes basic terminology of computing.

*The objectives for this unit, Information Systems, are to:

Define an information system, how one is used and list examples. Describe the components of an information system. Describe the process for developing an information system. Describe the different types of testing and when testing should occur. Describe how information systems are supported and maintained over time. Describe specialized information systems. Explain how information systems are used in healthcare.

This lecture focuses on the first two objectives: defining an information system and describing the components of one.

Systems are groups where individual pieces work together as a whole to complete tasks. The individual pieces can be people, parts, components, pieces, units, or whatever makes up the collection or group.

Some examples are:A biological system is a group of organs working together to provide life requirements such as circulation, respiration, digestion, and reproduction.

A socio-cultural system is a system within society and culture. Society is an association of people with the same interests, whereas culture is the knowledge and values shared by that society. A socio-cultural system is, then, a group of people with similar interests, knowledge and values.

Computer systems combine the computer, software and peripheral devices necessary to make the computer function. A workstation is an example of a computer system.

Business systems provide goods and services. A business system consists of people and/or machinery, processes and/or procedures that allow the completion of work to make the business function successfully. An accounting system is an example of a business system.

*An Information System (IS) is a collection of people, processes, procedures, hardware, software, and data working together to support decision-making, management, and operational activities. The system works together to generate information needed by the organization; it supports day-to-day information needs and long-term planning. It can be used by employees, business partners, clients and customers of the organization.

In an information system, data is input into the system. It can be manually entered by users or pulled in from another system. An example would be entering a new patient record into a clinic's information system.

After the data is input, processing occurs on the data that is determined by the tasks within the systems. For example, in a clinic's billing system, data about a patient's office visit would be processed into an invoice.

The output of an information system is the type of information it produces. For the billing example, output would include the printed bill that is sent to the patient and/or the insurance company. Output from information systems also includes reports, summaries, and other documents.

Feedback potentially exists between all three tasks. For example, outputted reports can identify errors from data inputs. This might affect how data is input in the future.

*For this discussion, it is important to define data. Data are raw values that are collected for some purpose. For example, a payroll system would collect the number of hours that employees work in a pay period. A healthcare clinic would record the weight and medical record number of a patient.

Data can be represented in multiple ways, depending on the context. It can be stored as alpha-numeric characters, numbers, images, video or audio, to name a few.

*Information is data that is organized in a particular way so that relationships and rules are evident. For example, a graph of a patient's weight over time would be information that is potentially generated by an electronic medical record. Body Mass Index (BMI) would also be considered to be information; it is an index calculated with data about weight and height.

Knowledge is the understanding of relationships between information; it is being able to determine the rules that govern data. For example, knowledge would be using BMI to determine if a patient is overweight, normal weight or underweight.

*Not all information is useful, however. Here are some characteristics of useful information:

First of all, information has to be accessible; it must be available at the right time and in the right format. For example, a system that supports e-prescribing must be able to display medication information, dosages and interactions in about the same amount of time it would take to write the prescription by hand and look up the medication in a pocket reference guide.

Information must be accurate. If it contains errors, it is not usable.

Information must be as complete as possible. If important data is missing, then the information is not useful. For example, having an incomplete patient history can result in improper care.

The information must be relevant to the task at hand. A clinician probably does not need reports about billing information while he or she is treating a patient, but might need information about medication dosing.

Information must be reliable. This can be related to the accuracy of the information, errors in the data, for example, but it is also related to ensuring that the relationships and rules are correct.

Information must be secure, particularly in a healthcare setting. Only authorized users should have access to the information.Information must be timely, with the capacity to be generated when it is needed. Timely information also needs to include the latest research and findings, particularly in medical settings.

Information must be verifiable. The data and information can be assessed for its correctness.

*Information systems provide access to information and knowledge which allows for planning and decision making. From a small business to a large institution, information is key for successful operations.

A business process describes a specific set of transactions, events, tasks and results. Managing and improving processes is the key to success in many fields, including healthcare.

Communication improvements are directed toward two critical goals: (1) Information systems need to provide effective and efficient communication interfaces to users to enhance teamwork and provide coordination of activities. (2) Information systems must interface effectively and efficiently with other information systems both inside and outside the institution.

While information systems are usually computer based, it is possible to implement one without using a computer. For example, many medical offices have used paper based information systems for patient health records for years, even if their scheduling and billing systems were electronic. The same concepts can apply to manual or paper based systems; as long as the system has well defined processes and procedures, data collection, and people who use it, it is still an information system. Because it is not electronic, the users themselves must process and analyze the information.

Of course, computer based information systems are very popular and are the focus of this unit. With today's technologies, information systems can quickly and efficiently gather, analyze and report data and information. Users still provide expertise when operating the system, but the computer can automate routine calculations and analysis. The remainder of this unit will focus on computer based information systems.

*There are several different types of information systems used in businesses today. At the lowest level, a transaction processing system records and automates basic business transactions. These can be payroll payments, payments to suppliers, or sales to customers. Built on top of that system is what is called a management information system or MIS. These information systems use the data collected in the transaction processing system to provide reports for managers. These reports can be used to track inventory, expenditures, and payroll costs, for example. Decision support systems use data from transaction processing and management information systems to support business decision making. Decision support systems are usually interactive and provide support for decision making at all levels of the business--from daily operational decisions to more long term strategic planning.

Finally, enterprise resource planning systems (or ERP) involve data and support for the enterprise as a whole, involving all related business sites. They encompass all systems used by the business--manufacturing systems, production systems, human resources systems, transaction processing systems, sales systems, financial systems, customer relationship management systems. ERP systems provide support for making decisions about the business as a whole and how it relates to its partners.

*This slide shows an example of an ERP system, OpenERP, a free, open-source system, and some of the interfaces used in the application. Note that there are icons representing all parts of a business process: sales, purchases, warehouse, manufacturing, accounting and human resources.

*Healthcare information systems are just another application of general information systems. Because hospitals and clinics are businesses, you will also find examples of traditional business information systems in healthcare settings. In addition to business systems there are dozens of other types of information systems; only a few of them are listed here. A more in-depth discussion of information systems in healthcare is provided in a later lecture. Laboratory information systems record, analyze and communicate data related to laboratory testing such as urinalysis or blood draws. Imaging information systems manage image data such as those from x-rays or magnetic resonance images, or MRIs. Scheduling systems provide support for scheduling patient appointments, doctors' and nurses' shifts, and resources such as operating rooms or equipment. Clinical decision support systems are an example of decision support in medicine; these systems use knowledge to help with tasks that include diagnosing patients and selecting treatments. Finally, electronic health records are information systems which document patient data and interface with other systems to provide or retrieve information relevant to the patient, such as lab results or scheduling.

Each of these information systems interfaces with others within the same healthcare setting to coordinate business and healthcare operations. The systems may also interface with systems outside the institution such as external healthcare clinics or laboratories.

*Computer based information systems are complex and include components that span the breadth of computer technology.Hardware includes the physical pieces of the system: the servers, desktop computers, laptops, printers, scanners, monitors, barcode readers, and so on. Computer programs that make hardware useful are called software. It includes everything from operating systems to application software. Software technologies can be developed in-house, purchased, or purchased and customized. These programs work with a database and hardware to perform all of the tasks required by the system. For example, an electronic health record's software allows clinicians to view and update a patient's record. Databases are collections of organized data; they store data based on relationships which makes information easier to retrieve Networks connect hardware components, allowing software and databases to connect and work together.

Processes are the procedures used for accomplishing tasks. The information system will automate and/or aid processes necessary for the effective use of the system.

Finally, people are an important part of information systems. They design, implement, use and maintain them over time.

*Processes are the procedures for accomplishing tasks in a system. Identifying and describing all the processes of a system provides a complete view of what the system does or will be designed to do. Processes are usually composed of several steps and involve multiple people and components of the system. A process usually starts with an input, then performs some activities or calculations and then produces an output. It is intended to be a comprehensive view of a task within an institution, taking into consideration the impact of the task throughout the institution and how it is affected by external forces.

Workflows are more general views of processes; they provide a big picture of how processes are connected together. For example, in a clinical information system, there is a process for how external labs electronically send test result data to the system. A workflow would describe how a nurse handles a specific patient request for lab results.

Representing these processes can be done in a variety of ways. There are different modeling techniques, which include use cases and activity diagrams. Use cases are a graphical way of representing how users (called actors) interact with a system to achieve a goal. The use case diagram shown on this slide demonstrates how users interact with a restaurant to accomplish tasks. The actors are the client (patron), the waiter, the cashier and the chef. Each actor interacts with the system in its own way--a waiter receives the food order and serves food. The chef cooks the food. A client orders food, eats it and pays for it. A cashier accepts payment. The use case diagram shows how the process can be extended to include wine along with the food.

*Stakeholders are the people who have an interest in an information system, whether the system is existing or proposed. Stakeholders include technical and non-technical workers. Each stakeholder group has a different perspective of the same information system. The success of a project is in direct proportion to the active participation of the different stakeholders.System owners are high level executives or managers who are interested in information that adds new business knowledge. Their primary role in a systems development project should be to define the scope and vision for the project. As the project sponsor, they need to supply clear requirements and expected project outcomes to the development team. They will approve the formal requirements and determine acceptance of the system.

A system user is anyone or anything that uses the system, such as a receiving clerk, a nurse or doctor, a customer or client, or another system. System users are knowledgeable about the data that describe the business. As information workers they capture, store, process, edit and use data every day.

System designers have information technology backgrounds that they use to create detailed technical outlines, or templates, used to build the system.

System builders are the computer programmers and administrators who develop the system and the databases. They implement the designs for software and databases as well as install and connect the hardware components of the system.

Systems owners are the owners of or principal entities responsible for the primary business functions served by the system. A system owner is the individual, organization, or enterprise that is legally and administratively responsible and accountable for the system, its development, operation, products, by-products, and outcomes and disposal. Owners usually represent upper management, and they define the project vision and expectations in terms of their insight into the problems, opportunities and constraints of the business entities and roles. For example, the Federal Government can be considered a systems owner of the systems developed as part of the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) . The Chief Information Officer (CIO) of a hospital would be considered the owner of its information systems.

There are two types of system users. Internal system users are the clerical and service workers, technical and professional staff, supervisors, middle managers and executive managers within the organization. External system users are vendors, customers, suppliers, partners and employees. System users may interact with the system on a daily basis; they are concerned with the system functionality as it relates to their own job and expect the system to support what they do easily and accurately.

Anyone who will be accessing the new heath information systems is considered a system user. Technical/software support people, trainers and implementation support specialists will also be system users as they help doctors, nurses and staff learn and use computer applications. Internal system users in medical informatics include the clinicians and practitioner consultants. External system users include patients and medical supply representatives.

System designers are those who develop the detailed plan for the system; these detailed plans are called specifications. They provide all the details needed for implementation. A software designer/developer translates the requirements of the system into specifications. These specifications cover all areas of the system--software, database, hardware, networks, user interfaces and security. The systems analyst must work with other experts, including database administrators, network architectures, web architects, graphic artists and security experts, to provide very detailed specifications of all elements of the system..

Programmers are the core system builders and possess very technical backgrounds in computer languages. Applications programmers write the code behind applications. As mentioned earlier, an application is a computer or software program designed to help the user perform specific singular or multiple related tasks.

Systems programmers write the code to manage and integrate a computer's capabilities; these programs are not part of the application but instead support the application.

Database programmers write in special languages such as Structured Query Language (SQL) or MUMPS, a database language developed for healthcare applications.

System administrators are responsible for the maintenance of the hardware and software of a network which includes deploying, configuring, maintaining and monitoring active network equipment.

System administration also involves security and the security administrator is crucial in the protection of information and property from theft, corruption, or natural disaster. Sensitive and valuable information must be kept secure and unwanted computer behavior prevented.

Webmasters make sure servers, hardware, and software are operating accurately. They also design websites, generate and revise web pages, reply to user comments, and examine traffic through a website. Webmasters are well-versed in Web transaction software, payment-processing software, and security software.

Systems integrators make sure that all the systems are seamlessly integrated and work together. This includes integrating new systems with old ones and connecting sub-systems, even those that have been purchased from different vendors.

Systems analysts figure out how to use computers to get things done. Computer systems analysts work with business analysts to understand the situation and requirements in order to determine what the system needs to do. Practice workflow and information management redesign specialists are examples of job roles for systems analysts in healthcare.

Project managers are responsible for planning, execution and completion of projects. They are responsible for developing clear and attainable project objectives, building the project requirements and managing the cost, time and quality of the project. Project managers should have the full responsibility and authority necessary to complete a project. Information systems project managers should have business expertise and technology experience; they manage the project but seldom participate directly in the activities that produce the end result. A project manager must have the skills to maintain the progress, cooperation, and work of developers and stakeholders in such a way that reduces the risk of overall failure, maximizes benefits and restricts cost.

This concludes lecture (a) of Information Systems.

In summary, information systems are a combination of technology, people and processes working together to produce and use information. Information systems provide access to information which in turn helps improve processes and aid decision making. They also provide a way for people to communicate and collaborate.

There are many different types of information systems used in businesses and institutions, including transaction processing systems and management information systems.

Information system components include hardware, software, databases, networks, processes and people. People are the stakeholders of information systems and represent-the system owners, users, designers, builders and analysts.

*References slide. No audio.*References slide. No audio.*