Communicative language teaching and form-focused instruction
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Communicative language teaching and form-focused instruction
Nina SpadaUniversity of Toronto
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Strong version: Exclusive focus on meaning; no attention to form
Weak version: Attention to form and meaning
Howatt, 1984
Different versions of CLT
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CLT means an exclusive focus on meaning
CLT means no explicit feedback on error
CLT means learner-centred teaching
CLT means listening and speaking practice
CLT means avoidance of the learner’s L1
Strong version of CLT has led to many myths & misconceptions
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Pedagogic concerns◦Grammar translation useful for the study of
grammar and vocabulary but not speaking and listening
◦Fatigue and frustration on the part of teachers and learners with the limitations of dialogue memorization and pattern practice drills of the audiolingual method.
Why such a strong reaction against traditional methods of L2 teaching?
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develop grammatical knowledge not successful in “using” that knowledge develop reading comprehension ability struggle with listening comprehension not able to use language communicatively not able to use language accurately
Research on the effects of traditional approaches on L2 learning ….
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Communicative competence (Hymes, 1972)
Comprehensible input hypothesis (Krashen, 1984)
Interaction hypothesis (Long, 1983, 1996)
Theoretical influences of CLT
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Communicative competence
Knowledge of language consists of more than a knowledge of the rules of grammar but also knowledge of the rules of language use
Functional linguistics (Halliday,1973) Notional/functional syllabus design
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Similarities between the process of learning a first and second language
Yet, major differences in outcomes particularly with L2 classroom learners
Create conditions for learning a second language that are similar to those of first language acquisition
Comprehensible Input Hypothesis
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Expose learners to meaningful and motivating input that is ◦just slightly beyond their current level of
linguistic competence but …◦comprehensible enough for the learners
to understand L2 learners should be able to;
◦ integrate the new input into their developing language systems and create a grammar
Comprehensible Input Hypothesis
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L2 learners do not need to learn grammar in order to participate in conversations.
RATHER L2 learners, like L1 learners, need to participate in conversations to learn grammar. (Hatch, 1978)
Interaction Hypothesis
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Comprehensible Input Hypothesis
Interaction Hypothesis
Strong version of CLT
Contributors to the strong version of CLT
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Content-based programs◦e.g. French immersion programs in Canada, bilingual programs in the US
CLT programs with children and adults Task-based language teaching Comprehension-based programs with children and adults
Research on CLT (Strong version)
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Learners develop comprehension skills, vocabulary knowledge, communicative ability and communicative confidence
However… They continue to experience difficulties with grammatical accuracy in their oral and written production
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Research findings: Strong version of CLT
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Attention to form and communication
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Theory of
communicative compet
ence
Form-focus
ed instruction
Weak version of CLT
Contributors to weak version of CLT
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Any effort to draw learners’ attention to form within communicative and meaning-based contexts (Spada, 1997)
Explicit or implicitDirect instruction or corrective feedback
Form-focused instruction (FFI)
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◦Many studies in CLT & content-based classrooms
◦Instruction that is meaning-based and includes attention to form is more effective than instruction which: focuses exclusively on meaningOR focuses exclusively on form (Spada, 2010;
Lightbown & Spada, 2013)
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Results of FFI research
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Focus on form and communication
Greater focus on one? Equal focus on both?
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Are there better ways to draw learners attention to form?
Do learners develop different types of L2 ability depending on the way in which their attention is drawn to form?
Other questions of interest to teachers and researchers
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TYPE of form-focused instruction◦Explicit versus Implicit
TIMING of form-focused instruction◦Integrated or Isolated
Are there better ways to draw learners attention to language form?
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Explicit attention to form is more effective than implicit attention to form (Norris & Ortega, 2000; Spada & Tomita, 2010)
BUT… that depends on what type of L2 knowledge is measured in the studies.
Research findings: Explicit versus Implicit FFI
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Are there better times in the instructional sequence to draw learners’ attention to form?
Before or after communicative practice?
During communicative practice?
Are there better times to provide FFI?
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Integrated: Attention to form always embedded in communicative practice
Isolated: Attention to form always separate from communicative practice
Spada & Lightbown, 2008
Timing of FFI
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Arguments for Isolated FFI?• Traditional presentation, practice, pedagogy• Traditional presentation, practice, pedagogy
• A natural way to teach
• Humans are limited capacity processors• You can’t pay attention to everything at once
• Motivation• No interruption of communicative interaction
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Efficiency: Two for One Students have an opportunity to communicate and receive feedback at the same time
Motivation Immediate help is available precisely when it is needed
Arguments for Integrated FFI
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When we learn something, our memories record not only the item learned but the cognitive and perceptual processes that were engaged while learning the item.
Subsequently, when we try to remember the item learned, we also recall aspects of the learning process
Blaxton, 1989; Morris et al, 1977
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Transfer Appropriate Processing
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Therefore…. the greater the similarity between how we learned something and our later efforts to retrieve that knowledge, the greater chances of success
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Transfer Appropriate Processing
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Isolated FFI
Integrated FFI
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Type of instruction & L2 knowledge
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109 adult ESL learners in four classes◦2 Isolated FFI; 2 integrated FFI
2 teachers◦1 taught Isolated FFI and 1 taught the
Integrated FFI classes Target feature: “be-passive”
Many cars were stolen last year.The file was deleted from the
computer.
The Study
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InstructionIntegrated FFI Isolated FFI
12 hours Same amount of time
on form and meaning-based practice
Form activities:◦ Attention to form only
Meaning activities: ◦ Attention to meaning
only
12 hours Same amount of time
on form and meaning-based practice
All activities:◦ Attention to meaning first
then attention to form woven into the meaning-based activities
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Error Correction Task
Laws are making by the government. made Laws are making by the government.
Oral Production Task
The package was sent to the wrong address.
It was returned to the post office.
Language Measures
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Both groups significantly improved over time on the passive form:◦Error correction task◦Oral production task
Interpretation: As long as learners receive a combination of form and meaning-based practice, differences in the timing of attention to form may be less important
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Results
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Learners in the Isolated FFI classes performed better on the ECT
Learners in the Integrated FFI classes performed better on the OPT
Results
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Criteria for selecting Isolated or Integrated FFI for L2 instructionLearners’ level of proficiency
e.g. difficult for low proficient learners to focus on form and meaning at the same time. Thus, Isolated FFI might be best for this group of learners.
Type of language featuree.g. some language forms are easier to elicit in communicative activities than others. This might be a good reason for selecting those features for Integrated FFI.
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Criteria for selecting Isolated or Integrated FFI for L2 instructionL1 background of learners
e.g. L2 structures that learners experience difficulty with because of L1 influence may be more salient (i.e. noticeable) if they are provided via Isolated FFI.
Learner preferences for instruction e.g. Some learners may have a preference to focus their attention on form either separately from or embedded within communicative practice.
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L2 instruction that focuses primarily on meaning but not to the exclusion of attention to form is most effective for L2 learning◦How attention to form is best provided?◦When attention to form is best provided?◦How do specific language features and
learner characteristics interact with how and when attention to form is best provided?
Conclusion
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Spada, N. (2011). Beyond form-focused instruction: Reflections on past, present and future research. Language Teaching. 44, 225-236.
Spada, N. (2006). Communicative language teaching: Current status and future prospects. In J. Cummins & C. Davis (Eds.), Kluwer handbook of English language teaching. Amsterdam: Kluwer Publications.
Spada, N. (1997). Form-focussed instruction and second language acquisition: A review of classroom and laboratory research. [State of the Art Article] Language Teaching, 30(2) 73-87.
Spada, N., & Tomita, Y. (2010). Interactions between type of instruction and type of language feature: A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 60(2), 1-46.
Spada, N. & Lightbown, P.M. (2008). Form-focused instruction: Isolated or Integrated? TESOL Quarterly, 42, 181-207.
Spada, N., Jessop, L., Suzuki, W., Tomita, Y. & Valeo (in press). Isolated and integrated form-focused instruction: Effects on different types of L2 knowledge. To appear in Language Teaching Research.
References