Communications and Cross Communications and Cross Cultural DifferencesCultural Differences

Not only do cultural differences affect Not only do cultural differences affect the messengers, they also affect the the messengers, they also affect the

message transmission and message transmission and reception in several waysreception in several ways

Cultural Differences Affect the MessageCultural Differences Affect the Message

The only way a concept can be transferred is The only way a concept can be transferred is the messenger must use forms of the messenger must use forms of communication the people understandcommunication the people understand

The message must be translated so that the The message must be translated so that the people understand it with a minimum of people understand it with a minimum of distortion. distortion.

The message must be contextualized into local The message must be contextualized into local cultural formscultural forms

• Church buildingsChurch buildings• Forms of worshipForms of worship• Leadership styleLeadership style

People must develop a theology in which People must develop a theology in which Scripture speaks to them in their historical-Scripture speaks to them in their historical-cultural settingcultural setting

Symbols and CommunicationSymbols and Communication

Communication is the transmission of Communication is the transmission of information from a information from a sendersender to a to a receiverreceiver. .

Ideas and emotions cannot be Ideas and emotions cannot be communicated directly from mind to mindcommunicated directly from mind to mind—must first be expressed in forms that —must first be expressed in forms that others can receive them through their others can receive them through their senses.senses.

The linkage of The linkage of meaningsmeanings and and feelingsfeelings to to formsforms that create “symbols.” that create “symbols.”

Nature of SymbolsNature of Symbols

Symbols Symbols link together:link together:• MeaningsMeanings• FormsForms• PersonsPersons• FunctionsFunctions• ContextsContexts

Ex. “tree”: type of plant; genealogical Ex. “tree”: type of plant; genealogical descent; a certain kind of animal (descent; a certain kind of animal (treetree frog); a symbol of craziness, “up a tree”. frog); a symbol of craziness, “up a tree”.

Types of SymbolsTypes of Symbols Symbols do not stand alone, but are parts of a Symbols do not stand alone, but are parts of a

larger system, within which individual symbols larger system, within which individual symbols have their meanings. have their meanings.

Words are used to communicate cognitive Words are used to communicate cognitive messagesmessages

Gestures and tones of voice to communicate Gestures and tones of voice to communicate feelingsfeelings

Several systems are used simultaneouslySeveral systems are used simultaneously• Spoken languageSpoken language• ParalanguageParalanguage• Kinesics or body languageKinesics or body language• Temporal and spatial symbolsTemporal and spatial symbols• Estimates are 38% is communicated verbally; Estimates are 38% is communicated verbally;

62% is communicated nonverbally!62% is communicated nonverbally!

Meaning of SymbolsMeaning of Symbols Symbols acquire meanings of ideas, feelings and values Symbols acquire meanings of ideas, feelings and values

in two ways:in two ways:• Many symbols refer to events in everyday life, but in Many symbols refer to events in everyday life, but in

pointing to specific things, they do not point to others. pointing to specific things, they do not point to others. • Symbols gain their meanings partly from their Symbols gain their meanings partly from their

relationship with other symbols that belong to their relationship with other symbols that belong to their same domain or field. same domain or field.

• Things that point to some things and not to others are Things that point to some things and not to others are called called denotativedenotative meanings. Also called meanings. Also called explicitexplicit meaningmeaning

• Some symbols have meanings that come from other Some symbols have meanings that come from other domains or thought and feeling, which are called domains or thought and feeling, which are called connotative connotative meanings. meanings.

• Ex. “Red neck”, “Reds”, “red-eye special.” The word Ex. “Red neck”, “Reds”, “red-eye special.” The word redred does not mean the color, but some definition from does not mean the color, but some definition from politics, sports, or travel. Also called politics, sports, or travel. Also called implicitimplicit meaning meaning

Denotative and ConnotativeDenotative and Connotative

It is easy to learn denotative meanings of It is easy to learn denotative meanings of symbols, but often difficult to learn symbols, but often difficult to learn connotative meaningsconnotative meanings• It is not obvious that they existIt is not obvious that they exist• Must look at how it is used in context to Must look at how it is used in context to

discern the meaningdiscern the meaning• Important to learn both sets of languageImportant to learn both sets of language

Words have Implicit as well as Explicit Words have Implicit as well as Explicit MeaningMeaning

Explicit and ImplicitExplicit and Implicit

Explicit Meanings

Implicit Meanings

Denotative Meaning Connotative Meaning

The meaning of words

Basic structure of the words as category systems

Ideas, feelings, and values consciously associated with the words

Deep beliefs, feelings and judgments unconsciously associated with the words

Cultural Differences in Symbol Cultural Differences in Symbol SystemsSystems

Different cultures have different symbolsDifferent cultures have different symbols Body motions, tones of voices, tastes and use of Body motions, tones of voices, tastes and use of

silence all can mean different silence all can mean different There are cultural variations in the symbol systemThere are cultural variations in the symbol system

• Blackfoot Indians do not talk for 5 min in greetingsBlackfoot Indians do not talk for 5 min in greetings• Gbeya (CAR) talk only after a meal, never during the Gbeya (CAR) talk only after a meal, never during the

mealmeal There are cultural variations in the symbol system There are cultural variations in the symbol system

used for different types of communicationused for different types of communication• Protestants communicate religious messages by song Protestants communicate religious messages by song

and spoken wordsand spoken words• Tribal cultures express the same through dance, drums, Tribal cultures express the same through dance, drums,

drama, bardic chants. drama, bardic chants.

TranslationTranslation

If symbols only had If symbols only had explicitexplicit, , denotativedenotative meanings, translation meanings, translation would not be too difficultwould not be too difficult

Words have Words have connotative connotative meanings, meanings, many of which are implicit—this is many of which are implicit—this is difficultdifficult

Form and MeaningForm and Meaning Initially we tend to equate the two: we associate Initially we tend to equate the two: we associate

denotative and connotative meanings to sounds, denotative and connotative meanings to sounds, within our own culturewithin our own culture

When translating to another language the When translating to another language the distinction is necessary. distinction is necessary.

If you want to communicate you must use their If you want to communicate you must use their words, and other symbols that communicate as words, and other symbols that communicate as well: gestures, architecture, worship forms and well: gestures, architecture, worship forms and dress.dress.

Some cultures communicate respect by removing a Some cultures communicate respect by removing a hat, while others, by removing their shoeshat, while others, by removing their shoes

Songs need to be written in the melodies and Songs need to be written in the melodies and rhythms native to the culturerhythms native to the culture

Even if translated correctly, if the music is foreign—Even if translated correctly, if the music is foreign—the message spoken communicates that this the message spoken communicates that this religion is for foreigners.religion is for foreigners.

Importance of the connotative Importance of the connotative meanings for translation meanings for translation

Most early missionaries emphasized on Most early missionaries emphasized on denotative meanings, thus resulting in a denotative meanings, thus resulting in a “literal” or formal translation. (shepherd, “literal” or formal translation. (shepherd, door)door)

In statements of fact, denotative meanings In statements of fact, denotative meanings are usually most importantare usually most important

With the use of analogies, allegories, With the use of analogies, allegories, metaphors, humor and idioms. etc. in metaphors, humor and idioms. etc. in connotative meaning: In societies where connotative meaning: In societies where “fathers” are seen as unfaithful, distant “fathers” are seen as unfaithful, distant and authoritarian, thus referring to God as and authoritarian, thus referring to God as “father” can be confusing“father” can be confusing

More on Connotative meanings for More on Connotative meanings for translationtranslation

To minimize misunderstandings, recent To minimize misunderstandings, recent translations emphasize “Dynamic translations emphasize “Dynamic Equivalents” to convey the same idea or Equivalents” to convey the same idea or meaning.meaning.• This may mean changing the symbol or word. This may mean changing the symbol or word. • In Bible referred to a tax collector “beating his In Bible referred to a tax collector “beating his

breast”, but in West Africa, this same action breast”, but in West Africa, this same action conveys taking pride in one’s accomplishment. conveys taking pride in one’s accomplishment. When speaking of repentance they would say, When speaking of repentance they would say, “He beat his head.”“He beat his head.”

Nida’s Guideline for Dynamic Nida’s Guideline for Dynamic EquivalenceEquivalence

Translators should not alter the original Translators should not alter the original text, when it refers to historical events. text, when it refers to historical events.

Idioms and figures of speech are more Idioms and figures of speech are more difficult: “white as snow”, “millstone”, difficult: “white as snow”, “millstone”, “camel” [“very, very white”, “a heavy “camel” [“very, very white”, “a heavy stone”, “an animal called stone”, “an animal called camel”camel”] ]

Nida warns:Nida warns:• In certain cases a literal translation is impossible In certain cases a literal translation is impossible

because of connotative meanings associated because of connotative meanings associated with certain cultural objects—In Balinese, the with certain cultural objects—In Balinese, the viper is considered a snake of paradise. The viper is considered a snake of paradise. The phrase “generation of vipers” (Mt 3:;7) is not a phrase “generation of vipers” (Mt 3:;7) is not a denunciation at all. The meaning can be denunciation at all. The meaning can be maintained by substituting a more generic term, maintained by substituting a more generic term, as “vermin.”as “vermin.”

Translating Implicit MeaningsTranslating Implicit Meanings The words in any culture have implicit meanings The words in any culture have implicit meanings

that reflect the world view of that culture. If no that reflect the world view of that culture. If no equivalent words for biblical words exists, what do equivalent words for biblical words exists, what do we do to preserve divine revelation?we do to preserve divine revelation?

It is understood that there is always some It is understood that there is always some distortion of the original message.distortion of the original message.• There is the addition of meanings not found in the originalThere is the addition of meanings not found in the original

How do we avoid the loss of meanings or of How do we avoid the loss of meanings or of addition of unintended meanings to the Bible addition of unintended meanings to the Bible Translation? (same question in Translation? (same question in preaching/teaching?)preaching/teaching?)• In a few cases a new word is created or In a few cases a new word is created or

imported from another sourceimported from another source• Must chose the most suitable word in the local Must chose the most suitable word in the local

language, then make explicit through teaching language, then make explicit through teaching and preachingand preaching

Cross-Cultural CommunicationCross-Cultural Communication

We spend most of our time in communication—We spend most of our time in communication— Only when communication breaks down do we Only when communication breaks down do we

stop to see what went wrongstop to see what went wrong The process is:The process is:

• A sender whishing to communicate a messageA sender whishing to communicate a message• Encodes the message into symbolsEncodes the message into symbols• Transmits the encoded message to a receiverTransmits the encoded message to a receiver• Receives the symbolsReceives the symbols• Decodes the symbolsDecodes the symbols• Learns the messageLearns the message• Responds to the messageResponds to the message

Many things could go wrong in the process Many things could go wrong in the process hindering communication, esp. in a cross-cultural hindering communication, esp. in a cross-cultural settingsetting

Messages and Para-messagesMessages and Para-messages

Communications occurs in each of Communications occurs in each of the 3 dimensions of culture the 3 dimensions of culture • CognitiveCognitive: transmission of information : transmission of information

and meaningand meaning• AffectiveAffective: sharing of feeling: sharing of feeling• EvaluativeEvaluative: conveyance of judgments : conveyance of judgments

such as acceptance and censuresuch as acceptance and censure

Ways of transmitting cognitive Ways of transmitting cognitive informationinformation

Rituals and dramas – enacting Rituals and dramas – enacting ideasideas

Signs – stoplights, turn signals, Signs – stoplights, turn signals, bells to transmit directionsbells to transmit directions

Language – spoken or written to Language – spoken or written to transmit abstract human transmit abstract human thoughtsthoughts

Ways of communicating feelings Ways of communicating feelings and sentiments and sentiments

Whether we like the person we are Whether we like the person we are talking to or nottalking to or not

How to indicate anger over the How to indicate anger over the subjectsubject

Whether we are joking, serious Whether we are joking, serious sarcastic, reserved or criticalsarcastic, reserved or critical

Techniques: poetry, ironic comments, Techniques: poetry, ironic comments, tongue-in-cheek statements, tongue-in-cheek statements, sermons, proposals, etc. sermons, proposals, etc.

Ways of communicating our Ways of communicating our judgmentsjudgments

Western-style teaching: focus on Western-style teaching: focus on ideasideas

Music, poetry, art and drama: focus Music, poetry, art and drama: focus on moods and feelingson moods and feelings

Preaching: focus is on values and Preaching: focus is on values and decisionsdecisions

Secondary or Secondary or Para-message Para-message TransitionTransition

Unconscious communication of secondary Unconscious communication of secondary message by:message by:• Facial expression, gestures, tones of voice, Facial expression, gestures, tones of voice,

body postures, standing distances, use of timebody postures, standing distances, use of time• Techniques of transmitting feelings and values, Techniques of transmitting feelings and values,

distrust, concern, disdain, indifference, distrust, concern, disdain, indifference, agreement and loveagreement and love

Determines the way the primary message Determines the way the primary message is understoodis understood• Is the primary message irony, sarcasm, humor Is the primary message irony, sarcasm, humor

or double-meaning, or straightor double-meaning, or straight• Tells what the speaker thinks of the receiverTells what the speaker thinks of the receiver

Media and Para-mediaMedia and Para-media Words, tones, gestures, space, time, etcWords, tones, gestures, space, time, etc Choice depends upon the occasion, Choice depends upon the occasion,

personal preference and culturepersonal preference and culture• Touching is way of showing affection in some Touching is way of showing affection in some

cultures, but in others it is taboocultures, but in others it is taboo• Drama and ritual and dance are important in Drama and ritual and dance are important in

some cultures, but does not communicate in some cultures, but does not communicate in othersothers

Several media normally used at same timeSeveral media normally used at same time• With one we communicate one messageWith one we communicate one message• With the other we communicate another With the other we communicate another

message simultaneouslymessage simultaneously Multimedia communication helpful for Multimedia communication helpful for

retention of message.retention of message.

Percentage of Things we Percentage of Things we RememberRemember

What we hear

What we see

What we see and hear

After 3 hours After 3 days

70%

72%

86%

10%

20%

65%

Medium to store informationMedium to store information Literates depend on the written page Literates depend on the written page

almost exclusively, with limited mental almost exclusively, with limited mental retentionretention

Oral societies depend on memory and Oral societies depend on memory and reinforce it with media techniquesreinforce it with media techniques

• Songs, poems, proverbs, riddles, chants, Songs, poems, proverbs, riddles, chants, stories stories

• Repetition and multi-media to retain their Repetition and multi-media to retain their knowledge: singing the same song over and knowledge: singing the same song over and over, reenacting their stories in drama, over, reenacting their stories in drama, dances and ritualsdances and rituals

• Icons are used in houses, temples paintings Icons are used in houses, temples paintings to recall religious beliefsto recall religious beliefs

Senders and Receivers—Senders and Receivers—in missions both are peoplein missions both are people

Usually unconscious, but when attempting to Usually unconscious, but when attempting to communicate in another language we become communicate in another language we become conscious of the encoding processconscious of the encoding process

Depends on many factorsDepends on many factors• Use of appropriate cultural symbolsUse of appropriate cultural symbols• Encoding according to our own experience: vocabulary, Encoding according to our own experience: vocabulary,

pronunciation, feelings, etc. are determined by our age, pronunciation, feelings, etc. are determined by our age, sex, position in society, past experience and present sex, position in society, past experience and present attitudesattitudes

Encoding takes into account the context (home, Encoding takes into account the context (home, court)court)

Encoding is MultilayeredEncoding is Multilayered• Encoding is almost as fast as we can thinkEncoding is almost as fast as we can think• Encoding of paramessages of attitudes and values Encoding of paramessages of attitudes and values

through tone, gestures, etc. through tone, gestures, etc.

Receivers reverse the process Receivers reverse the process

Filtered through beliefs and values of Filtered through beliefs and values of their culture and personal experiencetheir culture and personal experience

If their culture sees Christianity as an If their culture sees Christianity as an enemy, it is difficult to communicateenemy, it is difficult to communicate

If they have had a bad experience, If they have had a bad experience, Christians become stereotyped and Christians become stereotyped and most of message is blockedmost of message is blocked

Filters and FeedbackFilters and Feedback

People tend to see and hear what they People tend to see and hear what they want to see and hear!want to see and hear!

Beliefs, values and feelings act as filters Beliefs, values and feelings act as filters that open when they that open when they want to hearwant to hear the the messagemessage

They will reinterpret the meaning to fit They will reinterpret the meaning to fit their purposes, or fail to change in their purposes, or fail to change in responseresponse

The audience decide whether our message The audience decide whether our message gets through or not. gets through or not.

How do we know if we How do we know if we communicated?communicated?

Feedback—listening to those receiving the Feedback—listening to those receiving the messagemessage

Usually so intense on sending the message we Usually so intense on sending the message we ignore the responsesignore the responses

Good communication begins with the “Art of Good communication begins with the “Art of Listening”Listening”• Tune in to para-messagesTune in to para-messages• Formal methods of getting feedback: discussion, formal Formal methods of getting feedback: discussion, formal

research survey, ask key questions to see if message is research survey, ask key questions to see if message is understood and its implications.understood and its implications.

May mean to modify our communicationMay mean to modify our communication• Slow down, simplify the material, repeat, illustrate with Slow down, simplify the material, repeat, illustrate with

concrete examples, stop for questionsconcrete examples, stop for questions• If hostile, dubious or rejecting, must stop to build trust If hostile, dubious or rejecting, must stop to build trust

and examine our paramessagesand examine our paramessages

Static and IncongruityStatic and Incongruity

Static barriers to distract people from receiving Static barriers to distract people from receiving messagemessage• Classroom conditions, environment noise, Classroom conditions, environment noise,

distracting mannerisms of the teacher (sender) or a distracting mannerisms of the teacher (sender) or a heavy accentheavy accent

• Foreign clothing and behavior of sender, magic of Foreign clothing and behavior of sender, magic of his technology or poor mastery of local languagehis technology or poor mastery of local language

IncongruityIncongruity• When sender speaks of sacrifice and simple When sender speaks of sacrifice and simple

Christian living, but drives an expensive car or Christian living, but drives an expensive car or dresses in tailored suitsdresses in tailored suits

• Missionary talks of loving people, but will not let Missionary talks of loving people, but will not let them into his housethem into his house

• Foreignness is a type of incongruity: though Foreignness is a type of incongruity: though message is understood, sender’s mannerisms (dress message is understood, sender’s mannerisms (dress or stinginess) nullify the value of the message.or stinginess) nullify the value of the message.

Two-Way CommunicationTwo-Way Communication

Best communication is a dialogueBest communication is a dialogue Both parties listen and learnBoth parties listen and learn Danger is that neither side really Danger is that neither side really

listens to the otherlistens to the other The more we listen and learn, the The more we listen and learn, the

more we are trusted, thus the more more we are trusted, thus the more possible we can communicate our possible we can communicate our messagemessage

Reinterpretation and ResponseReinterpretation and Response

Receivers interpret messages within their Receivers interpret messages within their culture and personal contextculture and personal context• Discard what they dislike or do not understand Discard what they dislike or do not understand

– usually without trying to understand– usually without trying to understand• Even within the same culture people only Even within the same culture people only

understand about 70% of what is saidunderstand about 70% of what is said• In cross-cultural settings the level seldom rises In cross-cultural settings the level seldom rises

above 50% is understoodabove 50% is understood• Must be clear, explicit, concrete and redundant Must be clear, explicit, concrete and redundant

if we hope to be understoodif we hope to be understood

New information leads to decisions New information leads to decisions Information is not the only factor in decision-Information is not the only factor in decision-

making: feeling is very importantmaking: feeling is very important Feelings influenced by the manner and context of Feelings influenced by the manner and context of

how the message is senthow the message is sent Feelings are influenced by the degree of trust in Feelings are influenced by the degree of trust in

the communicatorthe communicator• If messenger lacks credibility in their eyes, the message If messenger lacks credibility in their eyes, the message

is rejectedis rejected• If they sense the sender accepts and loves them, they If they sense the sender accepts and loves them, they

are more openare more open Deepest decisions tend to change lives: Deepest decisions tend to change lives:

evaluative determinations from the core of evaluative determinations from the core of conversionconversion• Changes in knowledge and feeling are not enoughChanges in knowledge and feeling are not enough• Only when decisions lead to shifts in allegiances and Only when decisions lead to shifts in allegiances and

behavior can we speak of lordship of Christ and Christian behavior can we speak of lordship of Christ and Christian discipleshipdiscipleship

Post decision evaluation Post decision evaluation

Peer pressures can be greatPeer pressures can be great If there is little support for their new If there is little support for their new

beliefs from the local community, beliefs from the local community, without reinforcement from peers, without reinforcement from peers, then reevaluation of new faith often then reevaluation of new faith often results in a weakening of their faithresults in a weakening of their faith

Communication and the Communication and the MissionaryMissionary

1.1. Effective communication is essential to our Effective communication is essential to our tasktask

2.2. Need to be more aware of the implicit Need to be more aware of the implicit elements of communicationelements of communication

3.3. Must become receptor-oriented in our Must become receptor-oriented in our thinking – if not understood, it is we who thinking – if not understood, it is we who must changemust change

4.4. As we communicate the gospel it is God who As we communicate the gospel it is God who works through His Spirit in the hearts of the works through His Spirit in the hearts of the listeners, equipping them to hear and listeners, equipping them to hear and understand the Gospel. Without this divine understand the Gospel. Without this divine work, conversion is impossible. work, conversion is impossible.