COMMUNICATION Introduction Meaning of communication Communication Process Models of Communication.
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Transcript of Communication
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Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension
Management (PGDAEM)
Course 102
Communication and Diffusion of
Agricultural Innovations(3 Credits)
Block I
Communication
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management(An Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India)
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India
www.manage.gov.in
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Course 102
Communication and Diffusion of
Agricultural Innovations
(3 Credits)
Block I
Communication
Unit - 1 : Concept, meaning, process and factors
affecting communication 3-30
Unit - 2 : Models and Theories of Communication 31-42
Unit - 3 : Key Communicators - Identification and
their role in Agricultural development process 43-52
Unit - 4 : Feedback - Problems in Communication 53-66
Unit - 5 : Organisational Communication 67-94
Unit - 6 : Interpersonal communication skills 95-112
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Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)
2
Published by
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra
Pradesh, India
First Published: 2007
MANAGE, 2007
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means without permission in writing from the MANAGE.
Shri K.V. Satyanarayana, IAS
Director General
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management
(MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030,
Andhra Pradesh, India
Program Coordinators
Dr. M.N. Reddy, Director (Agri. Extn. & Commn.) & Principal Coordinator (PGDAEM)
MANAGE, Hyderabad
Ph. Off: (040) 24014527, email: [email protected]
Dr. N. Balasubramani, Assistant Director (Agri. Extn.)
MANAGE, Hyderabad
Ph. Off: (040) 24016702-708 Extn. 275, email: [email protected]
Course Coordinator
Dr. P. Chandrashekara, Dy. Director
MANAGE, Hyderabad
Ph. Off: (040) 24015399, email: [email protected]
ContributorDr. G.V. Narayana Reddy
Retd. Professor, EEI
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad
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Concept, meaning, process and factors affecting communication Course - 102
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Unit 1
Concept, meaning, process and
factors affecting communication
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concepts of communication
1.3 Meaning of communication
1.4 Process of communication
1.5 Factors affecting communication
1.5.1 Communicator
1.5.2 Message
1.5.3 Channel
1.5.4 Treatment
1.5.5 Audience
1.5.6 Audience response
1.6 Let us sum up
1.7 Key words
1.8 Further Readings
1.9 Answers / Hints to check your progress exercises
Communication and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations Course - 102
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1.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, the reader should
Understand the concept and meaning of communication
Be able to know the process of communication
Explain the factors affecting communication
1.1 Introduction
Cant you see that for mighty thoughts and heroic aims, the words themselves must be
appropriate Aristophanes
But words are things and a small drop of ink, falling like dew upon a thought produces that
which makes thousands, perhaps millions think Byron Don Juan
Communication is sharing information or providing entertainment by speaking, writing or
other methods. People communicate in many ways, including talking by moving their hands and
even by making faces. People also use telephone calls and letters for personal communication. Without
communication parents would not know what their children need. Teachers could not help their
students learn. People could not share knowledge. Each person would have to learn everything for
himself or herself. Friends could not make plans with one another. Infact human beings probably
could not survive for long.
Mass communication is another important type of communication to send message to large
audience. Books are one of the oldest methods of mass communication. Television is one of the
networks. Newspaper and radio are other ways that information can be sent to many people. Modern
nations probably could not exists without mass communication.
People can communicate on many levels, for many reasons, with many people, in many
ways. Ruesch and Bateson have prepared a hypothetical example of the kinds of communication that
a typical man, Mister A, might use in an average day.
In the morning when Mr. A. enters his office he reads his incoming mail (written
communication). In sorting his mail he encounters a number of pamphlets which are designed to
describe the merits of various business machines (pictorial communication). Through the open window
the faint noise of a radio is heard, as the voice of an announcer clearly praises the quality of a brand
of toothpaste (spoken communication).
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Concept, meaning, process and factors affecting communication Course - 102
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When his secretary enters the room she gives him a cheerful good morning which he
acknowledges with a friendly nod of his head (gestural communication) while he continues with his
conversation on the telephone (spoken communication) with a business associate. Later in the morning
he dictates a number of letters to his secretary, then he holds a committee meeting (group
communication), where he gathers the advice of his associates. In this meeting a number of new
governmental regulations (mass communication) and their effect upon the policies of the firm are
discussed. Later in the meeting a resolution to the employees of the firm concerning the annual bonus
(mass and group communication) is considered.
After the committee has adjourned, Mr. A, engaged in thoughts concerning unfinished business
(communication with self), slowly crosses the street to his restaurant for lunch. On the way he sees
his friend Mr. B, who in a great hurry enters the same luncheon place (communication through
action), and Mr. A decides to sit by himself rather than to join his friend, who will probably gulp down
his coffee and hurry on (communication with self). While waiting, Mr. A studies the menu
(communication through printed word) but the odour of a juicy steak deflects his gaze (chemical
communication); it is so appetizing that he orders one for himself.
After lunch he decides to buy a pair of gloves. He enters a mens store and with the tips of his
fingers carefully examines the various qualities of leather (communication through touch). After leisurely
concluding the purchase, he decides to take the afternoon off and to escort his son on a promised trip
to the zoo. On the way there, John, watching his father drive through the streets, asks him why he
always stops at a red light and why he does not stop at a green light (communication by visual
symbol). As they approach the zoo, an ambulance screams down the street, and Mr. A pulls over to
the side of the road and stops (communication by sound). As they sit there he explains to his son that
the church across the street is the oldest in the state, built many years ago, and still standing as a
landmark in the community (communication through material culture).
After paying admission to the zoo (communication through action), they leisurely stroll over
to visit the elephants. Here John laughs at the antics of an elephant who sprays water through his
trunk at one of the spectators (communication through action), sending him into near flight. Later on
in the afternoon Mr. A yields to the pressure of his son, and they enter a movie house to see a cartoon
(communication through pictures). Arriving home, Mr. A dresses in order to attend a formal dinner
and theater performance (communication through the arts).
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Another hypothetical example on the various kinds of communication that an extension worker
might be using on a normal day is presented below:
An extension worker visits the village and meet a group of farmers. He greets (communication
through gestures) and talks to them (group communication) about SRI Cultivation and the importance
of laying the demonstrations . He also exhibits visuals on SRI cultivation (visual communication).
Further, he visits the plots (communication through action) and comes to his office and think
over (communication through self) the time, date and arrangements for training and demonstration
and discusses the same with his superiors (spoken communication)
After obtaining permission, he talks to selected farmers through telephone (spoken
communication) and informs them about the date and time for organizing the training and
demonstration.
The same is beamed through television, radio and newspaper (mass communication) and
prepares leaflets / folders / bulletins for distribution in the training.
1.2 Concepts / definitions of communication
1.2.1 Communication is the discriminatory response of an organism to stimulus (Berlo 1966).
1.2.2 Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts,
feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning,
intent and use of message (Leagans, 1960)
1.2.3 Communication is the process by which the message is transmitted from the source to
the receiver (Rogers, 1983)
1.2.4 Communication is the process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by
means of some channels in order to produce a response from the receiver in accordance with
the intention of the source (IRRI publication on communication process, 1992)
1.2.5 Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one
person to another (Brooker 1949)
1.2.6 Communication is a mutual interchange of ideas by any effective means (Thayer 1968)
1.2.7 Communication means the movement of knowledge to people in such ways that they
act on that knowledge to achieve some useful results (Winfield1967)
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Concept, meaning, process and factors affecting communication Course - 102
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1.2.8 Agricultural communication is defined as a planned transfer of farm technologies from
the research system to the farmers system through extension system and media with a view
to make desirable changes in respect of higher productivity, profitability and prosperity and
also get feedback from the clients
1.3 Meaning of communication
Everyday, everywhere, people converse with each other. They exchange ideas and information.
In conversing, the one who has the information or knowledge communicates or makes it
common property. This sharing of information with one or more persons is communication.
Farm people want knowledge to improve themselves and their community. They want
knowledge to improve their ways of living and their living itself. Scientists and technicians, who are
always in the pursuit of knowledge, have what farmers want.
Farm and home advisers, extension workers and information people obtain the knowledge
from the scientists, interpret it and select out of it what the farmers want, and communicate it to them.
Today, a large number of people are engaged in this process of passing on knowledge or
diffusing it among our farmers. Their communicating ideas, thoughts, impressions, feelings, or
information to enable farmers to learn new skills and do old things in a new and better way.
In its real sense, communication involves the complete transfer of an idea or thought from
ones mind to that of another. It is not, therefore, enough if you tell the farm people about a new idea.
They must hear it, understand it and remember it. In other words, communication is telling someone
something in such a manner that he gets it.
People get an idea when they receive it through one or more of their senses when they are
seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling and tasting. When they get it, you say that your communication has
produced a stimulus in them. The stimulus leads them to think and to act. When they do that, you
say that the stimulus has brought out a response.
Communication is the process of unfolding understanding and meaning. It is about achieving
a communion of understanding a coming together in mind. If understanding has not occurred,
communication has not happened. An enthusiastic tourist in a foreign country drew a mushroom, like
this to indicate his need to the waiter for mushroom soup. The waiter nodded his head, rushed off and
returned with an umbrella. These two certainly did not come together in mind. So while ideas and
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Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)
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feelings were expressed, communication did not happen. Whatever its purpose, every communication
involves atleast two entities or people- a sender and receiver. One person or entity alone cannot
communicate. You might well ask what about a person who is talking to himself? In that case also
there is one part of his mind talking to the other:
1.4 Process of Communication
Most of us are familiar with the five-step process occurring between a sender and receiver
when they communicate :
1. The sender generates an idea in the mind.
2. The idea is then converted into words, pictures, sounds, symbols, actions. This is called
encoding the idea.
3. The encoded idea is transmitted to the receiver.
4. The receiver receives the encoded message through the senses and perceives it in the mind.
5. The receiver then decodes or converts the messages back into meaningful ideas in his / her
own mind.
Communication has been defined as a process. The process is a concept which is dynamic
and ever-changing in nature. It implies that events and relationships are seen as dynamic, flexible and
continuous and must be considered as a whole, a dynamic interaction both affecting and being affected
by many variables. Thus, process has at least four elements acts or action, a continuous change in
time, advancement or progress over time, and a goal or result. Therefore, process implies a time
dimension as well as a space dimension in which action unfolds in a continuously changing progression
towards some goal.
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The five-stepped sequence is illustrated below:
Communication being a process, requires at least two persons a sender and a receiver
irrespective of the mode of communication. The sender or source conceives the idea, gives it a shape,
decides the mode of communication which may be used to convey the idea, and conveys it. The
receiver receives it, tries to understand it, and finally takes an action which may be either to store the
information or to send the message to the original source or take any other line of action as required
by the source. The whole process, thus, may be depicted as follows:
The entire process of communication requires at least the above six steps, i.e., Ideation,
Encoding, Transmission, Receiving, Decoding and Action. These steps are discussed breifly:
Ideation: The first step in communication is ideation. Here the sender thinks of an idea which
he wants to communicate to the other party. This is the content and the basis of the message. He must
have something to say before he really says it. The sender must also keep in mind the party to whom
the message is intended to be conveyed, and also the channel to be used.
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Decoding
Decoding the
message
Ideation
Conceiving of
the idea by the
sender or
source
Transmission
Transmission
of the message
Encoding
Encoding the
message
Receiving
Receiving of
the message by
the receiver
Action
Behavior or
action on the
message
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Encoding: Under this step, messages are composed of symbols having a certain meaning for
the sender and the receiver. Encoding is, thus, translation of an already conceived idea by the sender
into a message appropriate for transmission. Encoding includes selection of the mode of communication.
The wording of the message may be different for different methods of communication to be used. A
telegram may be differently worded from a letter. A telephonic conversation may be different from a
face to face conversation. A green signal and a whistle from the guard are sufficient signals to the train
driver for starting the train, such signals are not sufficient for an aeroplane to take off.
Transmission: The third step is transmission or conveying the message as encoded by the
sender. Transmission conforms to the method selected by the sender in the preceding step. The
sender also chooses the channel or path of communication through which the message is to travel
from the sender to the receiver. The channel may be mass media such as newspapers, radio, television,
films etc., or inter-personal involving direct exchange between source and receiver such as telephone,
correspondence, or non-verbal symbols like hands or facial gesture, or other body movements. The
sender must consider the effectiveness of the channel in making his selection. A lengthy message
cannot be sent through a telegram. A channel should be such that it minimizes the possibility of
distortion of the message.
Receiving the message: The next step is the receiving the message by the receiver. The receiver
must pay due attention to the message he receives. Any neglect on the part of the receiver may make
the communication ineffective so that the message is lost. Thus, the receiver should be a good listener
in the case of an oral message; however, listening alone is not sufficient, he/she should also be willing
to understand.
Decoding: Decoding is the reverse of encoding. It means translation of symbols etc., encoded
by the sender into an idea for understanding. The receiver decodes the message by changing the
symbols into a meaning. Understanding the message sent by the sender is the key to the decoding
process. If the receiver could not decode the message correctly to make it understandable, or
misunderstands it, or pretends to misunderstand it whereas he understands it well, the communication
is rendered ineffective. This happens because perceptions of two persons may be quite different.
Action: It is the response by the receiver of the communication. He may ignore the message
completely, or may store it, or may act as directed by the sender. Thus, it is an action or reaction on
the part of the receiver in response to the message received by him from the sender. He may also send
a message to the sender in response to the original message from the sender.
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Rule of Five In Communication
In the above process of communication, out of six steps, the first three are to be taken by the
sender and the last three by the receiver. There may be two more steps Acceptance and Feedback.
which are not necessary for the completion of the communication process. Sometimes the sender
wants that his message must be accepted by the receiver for two reasons (i) to improve cooperation or
motivation, and (ii) to know whether the message has been correctly understood by the receiver.
Similarly, the sender also wants feedback. It means a message by the receiver to the sender in
response to the senders original message.
This may help the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message so that he may improve
his subsequent messages. These two steps are not necessary for completing the communication process;
however. these are essential in generating an effective long-term working relationship. When all the
expectations of the receiver in the communication process are considered they are sometimes called
the Rule of Five in communication. They represent five steps from the side of the receiver (i) receiving
(ii) understanding (iii) acceptance (iv) action and (v) feedback. If these five steps are complete from the
receivers side, the communication is effective.
Check your progress-1
1. Communication has been defined by many scholars in different ways but a look at some of
the key ideas found in most of the definitions will help to form a working definition. Thus a
working definition may be that communication is ...
2. True or false
i. Communication is the exchange of ideas and mutual understanding.
ii. Communication is mere telling.
iii. Radio, newspaper is communication.
iv. The encoder is the sender of the messages.
v. The receiver and decoder are one and the same.
3. List out the six steps of communication process.
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1.5 Factors affecting communication
Successful communication requires a skillful communicator sending a useful message through
proper channels, effectively treated to an appropriate audience that responds as desired. The
communication task thus consists of the skillful handling of six key elements. These elements will
now be considered in the light of the guides already mentioned and in an attempt to show their
singular function, their relationship to each other and how they are to be dealt with in the total
process of communication for rural development.
1.5.1 Communicator
In the context of agriculture and rural development, extension agent is the communicator
who starts the process of communication. The extension agent and mass media like radio are sometimes
visualized as sources or originators of messages, which is not correct. Knowledge generates through
research and as such the Research Institutes, Universities are the originators of sources of message.
The extension agent obtains the required information from research and carries it to the audience, the
farmers. The extension agent is the communicator, a carrier of information. To enhance the process,
extension agents may take the help of some aids, known as audio-visual aids. They also carry back the
reactions of the farmers, their problems etc. as feedback information to research for finding out solutions
for the same.
The credibility of the communicator and the organization, the individual represents is important
for effective communication. CREDIBILITY means trustworthiness and competence. Before the
audience accepts any message he will judge whether the communicator and the organization the
individual represents, can be relied upon and is competent enough to give the information. Studies
have revealed that the scientists and extension agents having status, expertise, accomplishment, authority
and experience are perceived as highly credible by the farmers in communicating information on
agriculture and rural development, are therefore, very important in extension communication.
The characteristics of a good communicator are:
The individual knows :
i. the objectives - have them specifically defined;
ii. the audience their needs, interests, abilities, predisposition;
iii. the message its concept, validity, usefulness, importance;
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iv. channels that will reach the audience;
v. organization and treatment of the message;
vi. the professional abilities and limitations.
The individual is interested in:
i. the audience and its welfare;
ii. the message and how it can help people;
iii. the results of communication and their evaluation;
iv. the communication process;
v. the communication channels their proper use and limitations;
vi. improvement of the communication skill.
The individual prepares:
i. a plan for communication a teaching plan;
ii. communication materials and equipments;
iii. a plan for evaluation of results.
The individual has skill in:
i. selecting messages;
ii. treating messages;
iii. expressing messages verbal and written;
iv. the selection and use of channels;
v. understanding the audience;
vi. collecting evidence of results.
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Poor communicators, on the other hand:
i. Fail to have ideas to present that are really useful to the audience.
ii. Fail to give the complete story and show its relationship to peoples problems.
iii. Forget that time and energy are needed to absorb the material presented.
iv. Feel they are always clearly understood.
v. Refuse to adjust to closed minds.
vi. Talk while others are not listening.
vii. Get far too ahead of audience understanding.
viii. Fail to recognize others view-point.
ix. Fail to recognize that communication is a two-way process.
x. Let their own biases over-influence the presentation.
xi. Fail to see that everyone understands questions brought up for discussions.
xii. Fail to provide a permissive atmosphere.
xiii. Disregard the values, customs, prejudices and habits of the people, and
xiv. Fail to start where people are, with respect to knowledge, skill, interest and need.
To be a good communicator, the thumb rule is go to the village and listen to the people.
1.5.2 Message
The recommendations from research, the technology constitute the content or subject matter,
the message. Information which is relevant to particular set of audiences, constitute the messages,
otherwise for them this is noise. A good message clearly state what to do, how to do, when to do
and what would be the result.
To produce desirable changes in human behavior, the message must be motivating.
Messages which are relevant, interesting, useful, profitable, credible (latest and best, based on
research findings) and complete (neither too much, nor too little) are likely to motivate the people.
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A good message should be :
i. in line with the objective to be attained;
ii. clear understandable by the audience;
iii. in line with the mental, socio-economic and physical capabilities of the audience;
iv. significant economically, socially or aesthetically to the needs, interest and values of the
audience;
v. specific- no irrelevant material;
vi. simply stated covering only one point at a time;
vii. accurate scientifically sound, factual and current;
viii. timely - specially when seasonal factors are important and issues are current;
ix. supported by factual material covering both sides of the argument;
x. appropriate to the channel selected;
xi. appealing and attractive to the audience having utility and immediate use;
xii. applicable can apply recommendation to ones own particular situation;
xiii. adequate combining principle and practice in effective proportion and
xiv. manageable can be handled by the communicator and within the limits of time.
In contrast, poor communicators often
i. Fall to clearly separate the key message from the supporting content or subject-matter.
ii. Fail to prepare and organize their message properly.
iii. Use inaccurate or fuzzy symbols words, visuals or real objects to represent the message.
iv. Fail to select messages that are in line with the felt needs of the audience.
v. Fail to present the message objectively present the material, often biased, to support only
one side of the proposition.
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vi. Fail to view the message from the standpoint of the audience, and
vii. Fail to time the message properly within a presentation or within a total program.
1.5.3 Channel
Channel of communication constitutes the medium through which information flows from a
sender to one or more receivers. Face-to-face, word-of-mouth is the simplest and yet one of the most
widely used and effective means of communication, particularly for the developing countries. As
society changes from traditional to modern, the emphasis shifts from oral to media system of
communication. Because of the large number of audience or receivers of information and because of
physical distance of the communicator and the receivers of information, it is necessary to use different
communication channels. Even in interpersonal, face-to-face, word-of-mouth communication, it
becomes necessary to use some aids to make communication more effective.
The channels of communication may be classified into a number of ways according to different
criteria.
According to form
Spoken: Farm and home visit, farmers call, meetings, radio talk etc.,
Written: Personal letter, farm publications, newspaper etc.
According to nature of personnel involved
Personal localite: They are the local leaders and local people who belong to the receivers
own social system. Personal localite channels are important in traditional social system
Personal cosmopolite: These are the channels of communication from outside the social system
of the receiver. They are the extension agents of various organizations and are important in changing
the farmers from traditional to modern.
According to nature of contact with the people
Individual contact: The extension agent communicates with the people individually,
maintaining separate identify of each person. Examples are farm and home visit, farmers call, personal
letter etc.
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Group contact: The extension agent communicates with the people in groups and not as
individual persons. Examples are group meeting, small group training, field day or farmers day, study
tour etc.
Mass contact: The extension agent communicates with a mass of people, without taking into
consideration their individual or group identity. Examples are mass meeting, campaign, exhibition,
radio, television etc.
Many obstructions can enter channels. These are often referred to as noise that prevents the
message from being heard by or carried over clearly to the audience. Noise emerges from a wide
range of sources and causes. The following are some of them
i. Failure of channel to reach the intended audience. All people cannot or may not attend
meetings, all people may not have radio or TV, or may not tuned if they had or many people
cannot and some may not read the written materials.
ii. Failure on the part of the communicator to handle channels skillfully. In a meeting, who can
not hear what is said and see what is shown, do not receive the message.
iii. Failure to select channels appropriate to the objective of a communicator. If the objective is
to show how to do a certain thing, method demonstration and TV will be appropriate rather
than radio or newspaper.
iv. Failure to use channels in accordance with the abilities of the audience. Written materials
can not serve as useful channels of communication for an illiterate group of persons.
v. Failure to avoid physical distraction. Loud noise near a place of meeting or loadshedding at
the time of projecting visuals may cause distraction of the audience.
vi. Failure of an audience to listen or look carefully. There is a tendency of people not to give
undivided attention to the communication.
vii. Failure to use enough channels in parallel (simultaneously). Research indicates that upto five
or six channels used in combination are often necessary to get a message through to a large
number of people with enough impact to influence significant changes in behaviour; and
viii. Use of too many channels in a series. An important principle of communication is that the
more channels used in a series (communicating through several levels of line personnel) the
less chance a communicator has for getting the message through to the intended audience.
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Concept, meaning, process and factors affecting communication Course - 102
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To help overcome some of the problems of communication, one should take the following
factors into account:
i. The specific objective of the message.
ii. The nature of the message degree of directness versus abstractness, level of difficulty,
scope, timing etc.
iii. The audience size, need, interest, knowledge of the subject etc.
iv. Channels available that will reach the audience, or parts of it.
v. How channels can be combined and used in parallel.
vi. How channels that must be used in a series can be needed to the minimum, and those used
made effective.
vii. Relative cost of channels in relation to anticipated effectiveness.
viii. Time available to the communicator and to the audience.
ix. Extent of seeing, hearing or doing that is necessary to get the message through, and
x. Extent of cumulative effect or impact on the audience necessary to promote action.
1.5.4 Treatment of message
Treatment means the way a message is handled, dealt with, so that the information gets across
to the audience. It relates to the technique or details of procedure or manner of performance, essential
to effective presentation of the message. The purpose of treatment is to make the message clear,
understandable and realistic to the audience
Treatment of the message by the communicator shall depend to a great extent on choice of the
channel and the nature of audience. The task cannot be reduced to a formula or recipe. Treatment is
creative task that has to be tailor-made for each communication function. For example, treatment of
a message will be different when it is conveyed in a meeting, or published in a folder or broadcast.
Similarly, there will be difference in treatment of the message according to the level of literacy, socio-
economic status and progressive of the audience.
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Designing treatment usually requires original thinking, deep insight into the principles of
human behaviour and skill in creating and using refined techniques of message presentation. The
following are the three categories of bases useful for varying treatment
Matters of general organization
i. Repetition or frequency of mention of ideas and concepts.
ii. Contrast of ideas.
iii. Chronological compared to logical and psychological.
iv. Presenting one side compared to two sides of an issue.
v. Emotional compared to logical appeals.
vi. Starting with strong arguments compared to saving them until the end of presentation.
vii. Inductive compared to deductive.
viii. Proceeding from the general to the specific and vice-versa and,
ix. Explicitly drawing conclusions compared to leaving conclusions implicit for the audience to
draw.
Matters of speaking and acting:
i. Limit the scope of presentation to a few basic ideas and to the time allotted too many ideas
at one-time may be confusing.
ii. Be yourself you cant be anyone else, strive to be clear, not clever.
iii. Know the facts- fuzziness means sure death to a message.
iv. Dont read your speech people have more respect for a communicator who talks to the
audience.
v. Know the audience each audience has its own personality, be responsive to it.
vi. Avoid being condescending (patronizing). Do not talk or act down to people, or over their
heads. Good treatment of message results in hitting the target. Never overestimate the
knowledge of an audience or underestimate the intelligence.
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vii. Decide on the dramatic effect desired effective treatment requires sincerity, smoothness,
enthusiasm warmth, flexibility and appropriateness of voice, gestures, movements and tempo.
viii. Use alternative communicators when appropriate, as in group discussion, panels, interviews
etc.
ix. Remember that audience appeal is a psychological bridge to getting a message delivered
and,
x. Quit on time-communicators who stop when they have finished are rewarded by audience
goodwill.
Matters of symbol variation and devices for representing ideas
Spoken words, written materials, audio-visual aids etc. belong to this category
1.5.5 Audience
The audience or receiver of message is the target of communication function. An audience
may consist of a single person or a number of persons. It may comprise men, women and youth. An
audience may be formed according to occupation groups such as crop farmers, fruit farmers, dairymen,
poultry keepers, fish farmers, home makers etc. Audience may also be categorized according to farm
size such as marginal, small, medium or big farmers; or according to social criteria whether they
belong to scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, etc.,
Communication to be successful, must be target oriented. The communicator must know the
target, their needs, interests, resources, facilities, constraints and even their appropriate number and
location.
The attitude of the audience toward the message largely depends upon who gives what message
through which channel; to what extent the content of the message satisfy their needs and intentions;
to what measures the suggestions contained in the message are in line with their preheld experiences
and preexisting preferences; and how far the message is compatible with group norms and value
system to which the audience belongs. In case the audience members feel that the communicator is
trustworthy, dependable and find the person communicating the message through the medium of
their choice, they are likely to receive the message, provided the presentation of the content appear to
the audience as interesting and comprehensive (Dey. 1993)
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The communicator should, therefore, be careful in selecting message which are relevant to
the audience, choose channels compatible to their cultural pattern and make treatment of the message
appropriate to their levels of interest and understanding.
In addition to knowing the identity of an audience and some of its general characteristics,
there are other somewhat more specified aspects that help to clarify the exact nature of an audience
and how to reach it. The following are some of these
i. Communication channels established by the social organization.
ii. The system of values held by the audience what they think is important.
iii. Forces influencing group conformity custom, tradition etc.
iv. Individual personality factors change proneness etc.
v. Native and acquired abilities.
vi. Educational, economic and social levels.
vii. Pressure of occupational responsibility how busy or concerned they are.
viii. Peoples needs as they see them, and as the professional communicators see them.
ix. Why the audience is in need of changed ways of thinking, feeling and doing, and
x. How the audience views the situation.
It may be noted that the audience is not a passive recipient of message. The individuals are
rather selective in receiving, processing and interpreting messages.
Selective exposure, Klapper (1960) suggested that people expose themselves to messages
selectively. There is a tendency for individuals to expose themselves relatively more to those items of
communication that are in agreement with their ideas, beliefs, values etc.
Selective perception, Regardless of exposure to communication, an individuals perception of
a certain event, issue, person or else could be influenced by ones latent beliefs, attitudes, wants,
needs or other factors. Thus, two individuals exposed to the same message could go away with
different perceptions about it.
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Selective retention. All information is not retained by the individuals. People generally tend
to retain that information in which they have some interest and which they consider to be important.
Research showed that even recall of information is influenced by factors such as individuals needs,
wants, moods, perceptions and so on.
The social categories to which people belong, their individual characteristics, and social
relationships greatly influence their acquisition and utilization of information.
1.5.6 Audience response
Response of the audience is the ultimate objective of any communication function. Response
of an audience to messages received may be in the form of some kind of action, mental or physical.
Until the desired action results, extension communication does not achieve its most essential objective.
The possible kinds of response to messages received are almost infinite. The following gives
an idea of possible variety in response that may result when a useful message is received by a typical
village audience
i. Understanding versus knowledge: People usually do not act on facts alone, but only when
understanding of facts is gained. Understanding is attained only when one is able to attach
meaning to facts, see the relationship of facts to each other and to the problem. Communication
must promote understanding
ii. Acceptance versus rejection: Audience response may be either way. Communication should
lead to understanding and acceptance of the idea
iii. Remembering versus forgetting: When opportunity for action is not immediately available
or action is delayed, the message may be forgotten. Transmitting the right message to the
right people at right time is often a crucial factor in successful communication
iv. Mental versus physical action: Changes in the minds of the people must always precede
changes in the action by hands. People should not only understand and accept the message
but shall also act on it; and
v. Right versus wrong: The goal of communication is to promote desirable action by the audience
as specified in the objective. If the response of the audience is in line with the objective, it is
assumed to be right action. However, noise may prevent in getting the desired response
from the audience.
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Check your progress-2
1. Define the following
i. Communicator
ii. Message
iii. Channel
iv. Treatment
v. Audience
vi. Audience response
2. List out the elements of communication process you have studied
3. Mention the qualities of a good communicator
4. Classify channels according to form and nature of contact
5. State the qualities of a good message
6. You can also communicate through eyes. Here, we have three triangles. Read the words in
triangles very quickly. Dont read once again.
Have you read it. Do you find any fault. If there is no fault, you have gone wrong. Once again
read it. Still there is no fault. Once again you have gone wrong.
See answer in your check your progress exercises.
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7. The facilitator divides the group and passes the following message to a lead person who
passes it on to the next person, and the next
Message: The wolf ate the chicken at dusk under the tree
Write down the message as it finally was transmitted and analyze
8. Can you follow directions?
This is a tested test you have three minutes only
Read everything carefully before doing everything
Put your name in the upper right hand corner of this paper
Circle the word name in sentence two
Draw five small squares in the upper left hand corner
Put an X in each square
Put a circle around each square
Sign your name under the title of the paper
Put a circle completely around sentence number seven
Put an x in the low left corner of this paper
Draw a triangle around the X you just put down
One the back of this paper, multiply 703 by 66
Draw a rectangle round the word corner in sentence four
Loudly call out your first name when you get this far-a-long
If you have followed directions carefully to this point, call out I have
On the reverse side of this paper, add 8950 and 9805
In your normal speaking voice, count from ten to one backwards
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Punch three small holes in the top of this paper with your pension point
If youre the first person to reach this point, Loudly call out I AM THE FIRST PERSON TO
THIS POINT AND I AM THE LEADER IN FOLLOWING DIRECTIONS
Underline all even numbers on the left side of this paper
Now that you have finished reading everything carefully do only sentences one and two
9. Exercise: Talkathon
Ask for two volunteers. Have them sit and face each other in front of the rest of the group. The
instructions are that both should begin talking simultaneously at the instructors signal. Each may
speak on any topic he or she desires. But they must maintain eye contact with one another. Gestures
are very much in order. The loser will be the speaker that stops talking first. It is a ridiculous scene but
typical of how often listen.
10. Exercise: Listen, report, reply
Choose a controversial topic: For example is the quality of life in India improving or declining
As for two volunteers holding contrary views on the issue. Sitting face to face in front of the group they
are to conduct a discussion on the topic. The rule for the discussion is this each must report to the
others satisfaction a summary of what the other speaker has said before themselves may reply: Listen,
repeat, reply
The two speakers are told to begin and the instructor watches and enforces the rule. The
instructor may interrupt either speaker from time to time to ask whether the listener is satisfied with
the summary the other has given, whether the listener has caught the thought fully. After the conversation
has gone on in this fashion for ten minutes or after the problems of communicating have become
clear, the instructor stops the demonstration by the two volunteers. Groups of three are formed with
the remaining numbers and with one member acting as monitor these groups practice the exercise for
20 or 30 minutes, changing the role of monitor after each 10 minute period. The group is reassembled
and the instructors needs a discussion and practices that help or hinder effective communication.
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11. Exercise
The purpose of this exercise is to know how for the participants has understood the message
given by the speaker. One participant is enough to do this exercise. Hand over the paper and pencil
and asked him to sit in one of the corners of the room. The speaker explain the diagram orally and
without any hand signs and not showing the diagram to him. Fifty percent of the diagram is drawn
correctly, you can rate him a good communicator
1.6 Let us sum up
In this unit, we have briefly covered the concepts, meaning and the purpose of communication.
Communication is a popular term when a person gives a good public speech, we call him a good
communicator. If two people are talking, we say that they are communicating. Many people refer to
various media of communication viz., radio, film or television as communication. None of these is
true. Communication was a Latin root communis which means common It also requires a degree
of commonness between individuals for communication to occur. The purpose of communication is
to establish commonness. Communication, thus refers to the process of sharing information, feeling
ideas in a manner that there is common understanding of meaning, intent and use of the message.
Successful communication requires a skillful communicator sending a useful message through
proper channels effectively treated to an appropriate audience that responds as desired. The
communication task thus consists of the skillful handling of six key elements viz., communicator,
message, channel, treatment, audience and audience response.
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1.7 Keywords
Interaction : It implies that more than one element is involved and that the elements are not
static but are changing and interacting
Process : Involves movement. It is a means of getting from one place to another.
Whenever, two or more functions are performed one after another to realize a
particular objective
System : A system is a combination of two or more components or parts, put together in
an orderly way to achieve a given purpose
Encoding : It is a process of interpreting the message
Decoding : It is a process of receiving the message
Knowledge : Intimate acquaintance with facts
Understanding : Relationship between facts
Communicator : He is the person who start the process of communication. He is the sender of
message
Message : It is the information the communicator wishes his audience to receive,
understand and act upon
Channel : It is anything which connects the communicator with the communicatee or
group of people
Treatment : It is the way we put across the message through channel
Audience response : It is the response given by the audience to the message of the communicator
Credibility : Trustworthiness and competence
Fact: It is a thing done, an actual occurrence, a piece of information having objective
reality
Interpretation : It is the explanation of the meaning of a fact or statement
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Stimulus : A stimulus is any event which an individual is capable of sensing
Response : A response is anything that the individual does as a result of perceiving the
stimulus.
1.8 Further Readings
Chandrakandan. K, R. Netaji Seetharaman and R. Sathiyaseelan,1996, Communication: Perspectives
models and theories, Indian journal of Extension Education Vol.7 No.4, 1996
David K. Berlo, 1963, The process of communication An introduction to theory and practice,
Holt, Rine hart and Winston, New York
Diwan Parag and Aggarwal L.N., 1997, Business Communication, Excel books, New Delhi
Legans, J.P. 1961, The Communication Process, Extension Education in Community Development,
Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi
Mcgrath, S.J., 1994, Basic Managerial Skills for all, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Pattabhiram B.V., 2002, Communications, Emesco Books, Vijayawada
Pattabhiram B.V., 2005, Art of Communication, Emesco Books, Vijayawada
Ray, G.L., 1996, Extension communication and management, Naya Prakash, Calcutta
Rayudu CS, 1997, Communication, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai
Wakhul Arun, 1999, Managing from the heart, Unfolding spirit in people and organizations, Reponse
books, New Delhi
Wiseman Gordon and Barker Larry, 1974, Speech / interpersonal communication\ chandler publishing
company, New York and London
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1.9 Answer / Hints to check your progress exercises
Check your progress-1
1. A working definition might be that communication is process which involves a series of
interaction where relationships are discovered and integrated towards a specific objective,
that of trying to influence one another.
2. i. True ii. False iii. False iv. True v. True
3. i. Ideation ii. Encoding iii. Transmission iv. Receiving v. decoding vi. Action
Check your progress-2
i. Communicator is the individual who starts the process of communication Eg. VLW, Extension
Workers etc.
ii. Message is the information, the extension worker wishes his audience to receive, understand
and act upon
iii. Channel is the medium through which the messages travels to and fro
iv. Treatment is the way the information is put across the audience
v. Audience is the receiver of message. He is the consumer of message
vi. Audience response is the response of audience to the message given by the audience
2. Elements of communication process are:
i. Communicator ii. Message iii. Channel iv. Treatment v. Audience vi. Audience response
3. See section 1.5.1. and answer
4. See section 1.5.3 and answer
5. See section 1.5.2. and answer
6. In three triangles, one word is extra. This is eye illusion
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Unit-2
Models and Theories of Communication
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concepts of model
2.3 Purpose of models
2.4 Models of communication
2.4.1 Aristotles model
2.4.2 Shanon-Weavers model
2.4.3 Berlos model
2.4.4 Schramms model
2.4.5 Leagans model
2.4.6 Rogers and shoemakers model
2.4.7 Westley and Macleans model
2.4.8 Model on Extension communication system
2.5 Theories of communication
2.5.1 Theories of interpersonal communications
2.5.2 Theories of mass communication
2.5.3 Theories of communication distortion
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2.6 Let us sum up
2.7 Key words
2.8 Further Readings
2.9 Answers / Hints to check your progress exercises
2.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, the student should
Be able to define what is a model
Know the purposes of models
Explain the different models of communication
Explain the theories of communication
2.1 Introduction
Models are symbolic representations of structures, objects or operations. They are useful
theoretical constructs that are frequently used in social sciences for explanatory purposes. They may
be used to show the size, shape or relationship of various parts or components of an object or process.
A model may also be useful in explaining the working of a system.
2.2 Concepts of model
i. It is representation of the process of communication in the same sense that a blueprint is a
representation of house
ii. Models are symbolic representations of structures, objects or operations
2.3 Purpose of models
Communication models serve three main purposes
i. they describe the process of communication.
ii. they visually show relationship among the variables involved in communication and
iii. they aid in finding and in correcting communication problems
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2.4 Models of communication
2.4.1 Aristotles model
According to Aristotle, communication has three ingredients
1. Speaker the person who speaks
2. Speech the speech that the individual produces
3. Audience the person who listens
Audience Speech Speaker
Aristotles Model
2.4.2 Shannon- Weavers model
The Shannon-weaver (1949) model is consistent with Aristotles proposition. According to
them, the ingredients of communication are:
1. Source
2. Transmitter
3. Signal
4. Receiver
5. Destination
Source Transmitter Signal Receiver Destination
Shanmon and Weavers Model
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Compared with the Aristotelian model, the source is the speaker, the signal is the speech and
the destination is the audience, plus two added ingredients, it transmits which sends out the sources
message and a receiver which catches the message for the destination.
2.4.3 Berlos model
According to Berlo (1960) the model of communication consists of
1. Source
2. Encoder
3. Message
4. Channel
5. Decoder
6. Receiver
Communication
Source
Berlos Model
Code is a system of signals for communication. Encode means to put the message into code.
Channel means the medium through which the signals move, the decoder means which converts the
message in the code into ordinary language which may be easily understood.
He further elaborated that all human communication has some source, some person or group
of persons with a purpose. The purpose has source has to be expressed in the form of message. The
communication encoder is responsible for taking the ideas of the source and putting them in a code,
expressing the sources purpose in the form of a message. A channel is a medium, a carrier of message.
For communication to occur there must be somebody at the other end, who can be called the
communication receiver, the target of communication.
2.4.4 Schramms model
According to Schramm (1961), the communication process involves
1. Source
Encoder ChannelMessage DecoderCommunication
Receiver
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2. Encoder
3. Signal
4. Decoder
5. Destination
Schramms Model
This model of communication is preferably relevant for the mass media. In human
communication it is most important whether people can properly encode or decode the signal (message),
and how they interpret in their own situations.
2.4.5 Leagans model
The communication model forwarded by Leagans (1963) has the following elements-
1. Communicator
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Treatment
5. Audience
6. Response
Leagans Model
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The task of communication, according to him is to provide powerful incentives for change.
Success at this task requires thorough understanding of the six elements of communication, a skillful
communicator sending useful message through proper channel, effectively treated, to an appropriate
audience that responds as desired.
2.4.6 Rogers and shoemakers model
Rogers and shoemaker (1971) thought of the communication process in terms of the
S-M-C-R-E model, the components of which are
1. Source
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Receiver
5. Effects
Rogers and shoemakers model
According to them a source (S) and message (M) via certain channels (C) to the receiving
individual (R), which causes some effects (E) i.e., changing the existing behaviour pattern of the
receiver.
2.4.7 Westley and Macleans model
A is source (Eg., ANGRAU), B is receiver or public, C is the mass media channel (eg., E-TV
Annadata), A gets feedback from the public refines the message and C also gets feedback and
refines and the total refinements are carried out by the interpreting source that is C and then refined
messages are transmitted to the users. This is typical in a TV channel broadcast. Eg., Annadata of E-TV
does similar to explained above.
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2.4.8 Model on extension communication system
Communication in extension may also be thought of as two-way stimulus response (S-R)
situation in which the necessary stimulus is provided by the communicator, the extension agent, in
the form of a message which produces certain response on the audience, the farmers and vice-versa.
A favourable response by the audience reinforces learning. A diagrammatic representation of the
extension communication system on the basis of the model suggested by Leagans (1963) is presented
in the below figure.
Extension Communication System
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Check your progress-1
1. What is model?
2. List out the purpose of models in communication
3. Mention the elements in Paul Leagans model of communication
2.5 Theories of communication
The theories of communication can be classified into three groups namely
Theories about any phenomenon in general will highlight the key concepts involved in it.
These theories of communication will be useful for a person who is trying to understand a given
communication event by way of providing a framework which suggests what he should look for.
These theories should be viewed based on the basic assumptions that communications is a transitive,
multidimensional, multipurpose process.
Obviously, no theory or model is going to do all we ask of it. All the models / theories to be
surveyed, atleast fail one or more of the criteria. It is the purpose of a theory or model to reduce reality
to a manageable number of elements and relationships among those elements. The students of
communication should be familiar with a variety of communication theories and models so that he or
she can use that one which is appropriate for the analysis of a given situation. The theories of
interpersonal communication as stated by various authors were:
2.5.1 Theories of interpersonal communications
1. Kelman paradigm, 2. Bauers scheme 3. Festingers scheme, 4. Attribution theory, 5. Game
theory, 6. Social comparison theory, 7. New combs theory 8. Stimulus response theory 9. Linguistic
theory, 10. Psycholinguistic theory and 11. Socio-linguistic theory.
In general, the theories of interpersonal communication explains it as the face to face interaction
between people who are consistently aware of each other. Here the mutual pressure of the message
generator and receiver is required. Each person assures the rules of sender and receiver of message
who are independent and interchangeable. The behavior of the participants in interpersonal
communication are so intertwined in the process that it is difficult to separate the sender from receiver.
Attribution theory gives stress to the psychological state, motives and intensions of the
individuals involved in communication.
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Game theory views interpersonal communication as the process of transaction between the
people to balance possible gains and losses. Social comparison theory states that persons communicate
in order to verify their perceptions of the world assumptions about themselves. New combs theory
explains the thinking processes of people who are reacting to one another simultaneously linguistic
theory deals with a description of language systems. Psycholinguistic theory focuses attention on the
behaviour of an individual in the use of language. Socio-linguistic theory explains patterns of variation
in language across different people, stimuli relationship, context and competence.
2.5.2 Theories of mass communication (message flow models) :
1. Hypodermic needle model, 2. One step flow model, 3. Two step flow model, 4. Multistep
flow model, 5. Theory of mass media effects, 6. Theory of individual difference, 7. Psychodynamic
model of persuasion process, 8. Theory of social categories, 9. Theory of social relationship, 10.
Socio-cultural model of persuasion process, 11. Free press theory, 12. Social responsibility theory,
13. Development media theory, 14. Democratic participant media theory
Several models have been conceptualized to explain the flow of message from the
communicator to the mass audience. Based on the number of ways involved in the flow of message
between sender and receiver theories like hypodermic needle, one step flow, two step flow, and
multistep flow are conceived. The response to mass media message is said to occur in line with the
psychological makeup of the individuals was taken as the assumption as per the theory of individual
differences. Psychodynamic model explains about the relationship between internal processes and
manifest overt behaviour of the persuader. Theory of social category emphasises that people who
have a number of similar characteristics are likely to have similar orientation and behaviour resulting
in a fairly uniform response to mass media. Free press theory stresses that the act of publication and
distribution should be open to the audience and no restriction should be placed on the publication of
new items, social responsibility theory states that media should accept and fulfil certain obligations to
society. Development media theory states that media should accept and carryout positive development
tasks in line with nationally established policy. The central point of the democratic participant media
theory lies with the needs, interests and aspiration of receiver in a political theory.
2.5.3 Theories of communication distortion
1. Theory of communication distortion and 2. Theory of communication distortion in transit.
The first one states that larger the volume of communication, larger would be the communication
distortion. Increasing the volume of communication increases more chances for misunderstanding,
mis-interpretation, less concentration and low priorities.
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The second one emphasizes that messages pass through many layers in an organization.
Therefore repetition and reproduction of the same message is multiplied into many which reduces the
efficiency of communication.
The overview of communication theories suggests that communication can be described in
terms of networks, which give the observer some indication of who is communicating with whom it
can also be described in terms of the types of interactions which are occurring among communicators.
Further, it can be described in terms of message transactions, which indicate how the elements of
communication combine to produce a unique unrepeatable event. It can be also viewed from the
point view of an individual gathering information as he passes through his environment.
Check your progress-II
1. State the different theories of interpersonal communications
2. What is distortion?
3. Mention the theories of mass communication
2.6 Let us sum up
Models are symbolic representations of structures, objects or operations. They are useful
theoretical constructs that are frequently used in social sciences for explanatory purposes.
Some of the models of communication are Aristotles model, Shannm-Weavers model, Berlos
model, Sehramm model and Rogers and Shoemakers model
In examining the evolution of communication models, three phases become identifiable. In
the first phase, the emphasis was clearly on linear, one way manipulative communication.
In the second phase, communication models began to place emphasis on the organic nature
of communication. As a result, most of the models of this phase are circular, two-way and contextualized,
placing an enormous impact on knowledge generation and utilization activities.
In the third phase, communication models see communication as interactional in specific
socio-cultural contexts through shared meaning.
Thus, from the technology transfer viewpoint, it may be stated that human communication is
a complex, continuous circular, two-way process, in which certain key elements such as the source,
message, channel and receiver(s) are involved in some kind of dependence, co-orientation and
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interaction through mutually understandable signs or symbols, including feedback and certain wanted
or unwanted effects in both the communicator and the receiver.
The theories of communication can be classified into three groups viz., theories of interpersonal
communication, and theories of mass communication and theories of communication distortion.
2.7 Keywords
Transmitter: It is sending coded messages along a selected medium
Signal: It is the actual message
Source: It is the speakers mind. It is the source of idea
Theory: Relationship between facts or the ordering them in some meaningful way.
Technology: Application of science to the practical aim of human life
Destination: It is the listeners mind. It is the target of the message.
2.8 Further Readings
Chandrakandan K., Neetaji Seetharaman R and Sathiyaseelan R., 1996,Communication, perspectives,
models and theories, Indian journal of Extension Education. Vo1. 7 No.4, 1996
Dipak De and Srinivasa Rao M., 2000, Techniques of theory building, Ganga Kaveri Publishing
House, Varanasi
Ray G.L., 1996, Extension communication, and management Naya Prakash, Calcutta
Wiseman Gorden and Barker larry, 1974, Speech interpersonal, Communication, Chandler
publishing company, Newyork
2.9 Answers / Hints to check your progress exercises
Check your progress-1
1. It is representation of the process of communication in the same sense that a blue print is a
representation of house
2. Purpose of models are
a. They describe the process of communication
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b. They visually show relationship among the variables involved in communication and
c. They aid in finding and in correcting communication problems
3. See section 2.4.5. and answer
Check your progress-2
1. See section 2.5.1. and answer
2. Different interpretation given to the original message is known as distortion
3. See section 2.5.2 and answer
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Communication and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations Course - 102
Unit-3
Key communicators Identification and their role in
Agricultural development process
Structure
3.0 Objective
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Identification methods of key communicators
3.2.1 Socio-metric method
3.2.2 Self designation technique
3.2.3 Information ratings
3.3 Characteristics
3.4 Role of key communicators
3.5 Let us sum up
3.6 Key words
3.7 Further Readings
3.8 Answers / Hints to check your progress exercises
3.0. Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to
Define who is a key communicator
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Be able to know the identification methods in a social system
Explain the role of key communicators in agriculture development process
3.1 Introduction
To be a leader you have got to lead human beings with affection J.R.D. TATA.
The key is to select good people, be accessible to them when need you but leave them free
to operate Russi Modi
Key communicators or opinion leaders are persons in any social system who are sought out
for information and advice on general or specific topics. Rogers and Kincoid (1981) define opinion
leadership as the degree to which an individual is able to informally influence others knowledge,
attitudes, or overt behaviour in a desired way with relative frequency. It is assumed that such persons
are respected persons in each social system to whom some people look for advice and information
and who through such consultations, influence their behaviour and actions.
The concept of key communicator was first developed by Katz & Lazarfield etal (1944). Since
then they have been variously called as fashion leaders, influencers, information leaders, opinion
leaders, spark plugs, style-setters, taste- makers etc. However, all these names have been used more or
less for individuals operating in a social system who are more important in the communication of
information than others. Research evidence suggests that each social system has it s own opinion
leaders.
3.2 Identification methods of key informants
Three methods are in common use for identifying key-informants. These methods are (i)
Sociometric method, (ii) self-designation technique and (iii) information ratings.
3.2.1 Sociometric method
In this method, members of a social system are asked to name the person(s) to whom they go
for advice and information on a particular topic. It has several advantages over other methods in so
far as sociometric questions are easy to administer and are adaptable to different situations This method
has also relatively higher validity. However, the use of this method requires a large number of
respondents and complex statistical analysis.
This is concerned primarily with obtaining choices in interpersonal relations, such as with
whom one would like to work, play, etc. or to whom one would go for advice on farming or other
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problems. It attempts to describe social phenomena is quantitative terms. It may be used in selecting
both professional and lay leaders, but a greater use of it is made in the latter case.
It is necessary that the persons involved in a sociometric test known one another. It is also to
be emphasized that the grouping of individuals upon the basis of sociometric tests is in terms of
choices relative to specific popularity. In a sense, the persons chosen by several others are popular,
but it is popularity or acceptance in terms of specific activities. Sociograms for the same individuals
will manifest differences when the choices are in relation to different activities.
This method is very useful to the Extension Workers in finding out the natural or local or
informal leaders in the villages, who are the influential persons that help in the introduction and
popularization of new, improved practices in their communities or neighbourhoods. As extension
workers goes into a given area and asks the farmers to indicate whom they ordinarily consult for
advice on farming (or any particular aspect of farming in which the extension worker wants to introduce
some improvement). Usually after a few interviews, it becomes apparent which farmer is the influential
person or natural leader. Figure (sociogram) illustrates this type of test.
Sociogram
When H is interviewed he may indicate that he generally goes to B for advice on farming.
G , F and D may also say that B is the one whose advice they take on farming. Then B is the
operational or potential, natural leader for these people and therefore if the extension worker succeeds
in inducing B to take up certain new practice, it is quite likely that others will be influenced by his
behaviour. It should be remembered that B is the natural leader or the one who initiates action for
the others. B may or may not hold an office or leadership position in organizations in this area. He
may not even think of himself as a leader and may insist that he is not a leader. However, so far as
these farmers are concerned, B is the operational leader in relation to farming practices.
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3.2.2 Information ratings
In this method, some members of a social system are purposively or randomly selected and
asked to designate persons giving advice and information on a general or particular topic. This
method is economical and quick as it saves cost and time. However, it is limited to the extent each
informant is thoroughly familiar with the social system.
3.2.3 Self-designating method:
In this method, each selected person is asked a series of questions designed to determine the
degree to which he perceives himself to be a key-communicator. This method has one important
advantage in so far as it also measures the individuals perception of his being a key-communicator,
which in turn influences his behaviour. However, its accuracy is limited to the extent the respondents
can identity and report their self-image correctly.
3.3 Characteristics
Key-communicators have been found to have distinctive characteristics. On the basis of a
review of a large number of research studies, Rogers and Shoemarker (1971) drew the following
conclusions regarding characteristics of key-informants.
(i) External communication
a. Key-communicators have greater exposure to mass media than their followers
b. Key-communicators are more cosmopolitan than their followers.
c. Key-communicators have greater change agent contact than their followers
(ii) Accessibility:
Key-communicators exercise relatively greater social participation than their followers in a
social system
(iii) Social status:
Key communicators enjoy a relatively higher social status than their followers as far as conditions
in that social system exists.
(iv) Innovativeness
a. Key-communicators are more innovative than their followers
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b. When the social systems norms favour change, key-communicators are more innovative but
otherwise not especially so.
c. When the norms of a system are more modern, key-communicators are more monographic.
Monography is the tendency of a key-communicator to act as such for only one topic.
(v) Relationship to the social systems:
According to Shankaraiah (1969), the key-communicators under Indian conditions are:
a. Perceived as the best farmers when the social system is actively modern
b. Social stars when the social system is relatively traditional
On the basis of a review made by Sandhu (1970) of a large number of research conducted
under Indian conditions, no specific conclusions could be drawn regarding age, education, farm size,
etc., although, key-communicators tend to belong to the middle-age group i.e. 30 to 50 years, be
somewhat better educated and own relatively larger farms than their followers.
Check your progress-1:
1. Mention different methods of identification of key communicators
2. Sociometric method means..
3. List out characteristics of key communicators
3.4 Role of key communicators
1. Communication of the new technology to other villages
2. Keeping in touch with the scientists, other institutions, media and sources of information
3. Coordinating the functions of the village organizations and the institutions and channelizing
them towards the adoption of technologies for greater production
4. Assisting the villagers in securing the supplies and services required by them
5. Guiding and helping people in getting assistance from government
6. Helping the fellow villagers in the preparation of the action plans
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7. Giving constant guidance and acting as the local consultants
8. Focusing on the problems of villager and helping the extension workers and
9. Serving as the demonstrator in the case of agricultural innovations
Check your progress-2
1. State the roles of key communicators you have studied
2. Legitimisation means..
3. Leadership quiz
Leadership Quiz
All of us have some basic notions and assumptions about leadership. What are yours? Do you
agree or disagree with the following?
1. An effective leader varies their use of authority according to the
group and situation. Sometimes they merely announce their
decision, at other times they persuade, consult or leave the decision
to the group, all depending on the group and situation.
2. An effective leader sees more clearly than a less effective one the
strengths and weaknesses of individual members of their team.
3. An effective leader realizes people have mixed feelings towards
authority; i.e., they both like it and do not like it.
4. To be an effective leader one must decide whether they are going
to be democratic or autocratic and then stick to it.
5. Effective leaders tend to smooth over or avoid conflicts between
members of the group rather than confront them.
6. An effective leader thinks in terms of duties and activities rather
than results and objectives.
7. An effective leader is one who keeps their desk neat and clean.
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Agree Disagree
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( ) ( )
Agree Disagree
8. An effective leader puts a great value on humour and uses it to keep
a sense of perspective when the group is struggling with a problem.
9. Besides the authority of their position, an effective leader tries to
develop other forms of influence, i.e., personality, competence and
character.
10. An effective leader is one who leads a group to its goals
11. An effective leader encourages honest disagreement in order to find
better solutions.
12. An effective leader treats each member of the group in the same
way.
13. An effective leader is one who usually gets his or her way in a
group discussion.
14. An effective leader builds on the strengths of the group, doing the
things they do well and omitting those they cannot
15. An ineffective leader often gets lost in the jungle of duties and
loses track of objectives.
16. An effective leader considers their men, their quality and
development, to be the most important resources - far more
important than materials or money.
17. An effective leader is sensitive both to group and individual needs
as well as the demands of the situation
18. Leadership should be shared in a group, moving from one member
to another, according to the competence required in the situation.
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3.5 Let us sum up
Key Communicator or opinion leaders are persons in any social system who are sought out for
information and advice on general or specific topics. They have been also called as fashion leaders,
influence, information leaders, opinion leaders, spark plugs, style-setters, taste makers etc. Three
methods are in common use for identifying key-communicators. They are 1) Sociometric method 2)
Self-designation technique 3) Information ratings
Key-communicators have been found to have distinctive characteristics viz., external
communication, accessibility, social status, innovativeness.
Key-communicators play a large variety of roles within their social system viz., spokesman,
harmonizer, planner, organizer, educator, symbol of group ideals, legitimizer, motivator, etc., facilitator
of extension activities etc.
3.6 Key words
1. Innovation - Innovation is an idea, practice that is perceived as new by an individual
2. Innovativeness - It is the degree to which an individual is earlier in adoption when compared
with the other members of society
3. Self Image - It is the way we see ourselves
4. Legitimization - Certain people or groups that seem to have the right authority and prerogative
to pass on things to make them legitimate ideas. Ex. Village Officers, Panchyat,
President etc.
3.7 Further Readings
Dubey, V.K., 1972, Identification of opinion leaders and their characteristics. Indian journal of
Extension Education, VIII 76-83
Mcgrath, S.J.,1994,Basic managerial skills for all, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,
Narasimhaiah, 1996, A critical study on farm leaders with special reference to their characteristics
and roles for agricultural development, Ph.D. thesis, Acharaya, N.G. Ranga Agricultural
University, Hyderabad, 1996
Sahay B.N.,1996,Communication Strategy for Rural Development, Kurukshetra (Indias Jounral of
Rural Development, Vol. XLIV, Nos.4-5, Jan Feb.
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Sandhu, A.S., 1993 Textbook on agricultural communication process and methods oxford and
IBH
3.8 Answers / Hints to check your progress exercises
Check your progress-1
1. i. Sociometric method i