IntroductionThe AZ of Correct Englishis a reference book which has been written for the student and the general reader. It aims to tackle the basic questions about spelling, punctuation, grammar and word usage that the student and the general reader are likely to ask. Throughout the book there are clear explanations, and exemplar sentences where they are needed. When its helpful to draw attention to spelling rules and patterns, these are given so that the reader is further empowered to deal with hundreds of related words. The aim always has been to make the reader more confident and increasingly self-reliant. This is a fast-track reference book. It is not a dictionary although, like a dictionary, it is arranged alphabetically. It concentrates on problem areas; it anticipates difficulties; it invites cross-references. By exploring punctuation, for example, and paragraphing, it goes far beyond a dictionarys terms of reference. It is not intended to replace a dictionary; it rather supplements it. Once, in an evening class, one of my adult students said, If theres a right way to spell a word, I want to know it. On another occasion, at the end of a punctuation session on possessive apostrophes, a college student said rather angrily, Why wasnt I told this years ago?This book has been written to answer all the questions that my students over the years have needed to ask. I hope all who now use it will have their questions answered also and enjoy the confidence and the mastery that this will bring.Angela BurtThis page intentionally left blank How to use this bookFor ease of reference, all the entries in this book have been listed alphabetically rather than being divided into separate spelling, usage, punctuation and grammar sections. You will therefore find hypocrisy following hyphens; paragraphing following paraffin; who or whom? Following whiskey or whisky?; and so on.WANT TO CHECK A SPELLING?Cross-referencing will help you locate words with tricky initial letters. aquaint Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINT.Plural words are given alongside singular nouns, with crossreferencing to relevant rules and patterns.knife(singular) knives (plural). SeePLURALS(v).There is also a general section onpluralsand another onforeignplurals.If its the complication of adding an ending that is causing youtrouble, you will find some words listed with a useful crossreference.dining or dinning?dine + ing = dining (as in dining room)din + ing = dinning (noise dinning in ears)SeeADDING ENDINGS(i) and (ii).There are individual entries for confusing endings like-able/-ible;-ance,-ant/-ence,-ent; -cal/-cle; -ise or -ize? and for confusingbeginnings likeante-/anti-; for-/fore-; hyper-/hypo-; inter-/intraand many others.viiAabandon abandoned, abandoning, abandonment(not-bb-)abattoir (not-bb-)abbreviate abbreviated, abbreviating, abbreviation(not-b-)abbreviations SeeCONTRACTIONS.-able/-ible Adjectives ending in -able or -ible can bedifficult to spell because both endingssound identical. Youll always need to beon guard with these words and checkeach word individually when you are indoubt, but here are some usefulguidelines:(i) Generally use -able when thecompanion word ends in -ation:abominable, abominationirritable, irritation(ii) Generally use -ible when thecompanion word ends in -ion:comprehensible, comprehensiondigestible, digestion(iii) Use -able after hard c and hard g:practicable (c sounds like k)navigable (hard g)(iv) Use -ible after soft c and soft g:forcible (c sounds like s)legible (g sounds like j)See alsoADDING ENDINGS(ii); SOFT C ANDSOFT G.1abridgement/ Both spellings are correct. Use either but beabridgment consistent within one piece of writing.abscess This is a favourite word in spellingquizzes.(notabsess or abcess)absence absent (notabsc-)absolute absolutely (notabsoloute, absoloutely)absorb absorption. Notice how b changes to phere.abstract nouns SeeNOUNS.accept or except? We ACCEPTyour apology.Everybody was thereEXCEPTStephen.accessary If you want to preserve the traditionalor accessory? distinction in meaning between these twowords, useACCESSARYto refer tosomeone associated with a crime andACCESSORYto refer to something that isadded (a fashion accessory or caraccessories). However, the distinction hasnow become blurred and it is perfectlyacceptable to use one spelling to coverboth meanings. Of the two, accessory isthe more widely used, but both arecorrect.accessible (not-able)accidentally The adverb is formed by adding -ly toaccidental.(notaccidently)accommodation This is a favourite word in spelling quizzesand is frequently seen misspelt on paintedsigns.(notaccomodation or accommadation)accross Wrong spelling. SeeACROSS.accumulate (not-mm-)ABRIDGEMENT/ABRIDGMENT2achieve achieved, achieving, achievement (not-ei-)See alsoADDING ENDINGS(ii.); EI/IE SPELLINGRULE.acknowledgement/ Both spellings are correct but beacknowledgment consistent within one piece of writing.acquaint acquainted (notaq-)acquaintance (not-ence)acquiesce acquiesced, acquiescing (notaq-)acquiescence (not-ance)acquire acquired, acquiring, acquisition(notaq-)acreage Notethat there are three syllables here.(notacrage)across (notaccross)adapter or adaptor? Traditional usage would distinguishbetween these two words and reserve-er for the person (an adapter of novels,for instance) and -or for the piece ofelectrical equipment. However, thedistinction has become very blurred andthe two spellings are considered by manyauthorities to be interchangeable. Useeither for both meanings but be consistentwithin a single piece of writing.addendum(singular) addenda (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.adding endings Usually endings (suffixes) can be added tobase words without any complications.You just add them and that is that!e.g. iron + ing = ironingsteam + er = steamerlist + less = listlessHowever, there are four groups of wordswhich need especial care. Fortunately,there are some straightforward rulesADDING ENDINGS3TEAMFLYwhich save your learning thousands ofwords individually.(i) The 1-1-1 ruleThis rule applies to:words of ONE syllableending with ONE consonantpreceded by ONE vowele.g. drop, flat, sun, win.When you add an ending beginningwith a consonant to a l-l-l word, thereis no change to the base word:drop + let = dropletflat + ly = flatlywin + some = winsomeWhen you add an ending beginningwith a vowel to a l-l-l word, youdouble the final letter of the baseword:drop + ed = droppedflat + est = flattestwin + ing = winningsun + *y = sunny*y counts as a vowel when itsounds like i or e.SeeVOWELS.Treat qu as one letter:quit + ing = quittingquip + ed = quippedDont double final w and x. Theywould look very odd and so we havecorrectly:tax + ing = taxingpaw + ed = pawed(ii) The magic -e ruleThis rule applies to all words endingADDING ENDINGS4with a silent -e.e.g. hope, care, achieve, sincere,separate.When you add an ending beginningwith a consonant, keep the -e:hope + ful = hopefulcare + less = carelesssincere + ly = sincerelyseparate + ly = separatelyachieve + ment = achievementWhen you add an ending beginningwith a vowel, drop the -e:hope + ing = hopingcare + er = carersincere + ity = sincerityseparate + ion = separationachieve + ed = achievedDo, however, keep the -e in wordslike singeing (different from singing)and dyeing (different from dying) andwhenever you need to keep theidentity of the base word clear (e.g.shoeing, canoeing).Do remember to keep the -e withsoft c and soft g words. Its the e thatkeeps them soft (courageous,traceable). (SeeSOFT C AND SOFT G.)Dont keep the -e with these eightexceptions to the rule: truly, duly,ninth, argument, wholly, awful,whilst, wisdom.(iii) -y ruleThis rule applies to all words endingin -y. Look at the letter before the -yin the base word.It doesnt matter at all what kind ofending you are adding. When you addan ending to a word ending in aADDING ENDINGS5vowel + y, keep the y:portray + ed = portrayedemploy + ment = employmentWhen you add an ending to a wordending in a consonant + y, changethe y to i:try +al = trialempty + er = emptierpity + less = pitilesslazy + ness = lazinessDo keep the y when adding -ing. Twois together would look very odd,despite our two words ski-ing andtaxi-ing.try + ing = tryingempty + ing = emptyingDont apply the rule in these fourteencases: daily, gaily, gaiety, laid, paid,said, slain, babyhood, shyly, shyness,dryness, slyness, wryly, wryness.(iv) The 2-1-1 ruleThis rule applies to:words of TWO syllablesending with ONE consonantpreceded by ONE vowel.With this rule, it all depends onwhich syllable of the word is stressed.The 2-1-1 words below are stressedon the first syllable, and both voweland consonant endings are addedwithout any complications:gossip gossipingtarget targetedlimit limitlesseager eagernessBut note that kidnap, outfit, worship,always double their final letter:ADDING ENDINGS6kidnapped, outfitter, worshippingTake care with 2-1-1 words which arestressed on the second syllable. Thereis no change when you add aconsonant ending:forget + ful = forgetfulequip + ment = equipmentDouble the final consonant of the baseword when you add a vowel ending:forget + ing = forgettingequip + ed = equippedforbid + en = forbiddenbegin + er = beginnerThis rule is really valuable but youmust be aware of some exceptions:"2-1-1 words ending in -l seem to havea rule all of their own. Whether thestress is on the first or the secondsyllable, there is no change when aconsonantendingisadded:quarrel + some = quarrelsomeinstal + ment = instalmentDouble the -l when adding a vowelending:quarrel + ing = quarrellinginstal + ed = installedexcel + ent = excellent"Notice how the change of stress inthese words affects the spelling:confer conferred conferring conferencedefer deferred deferring deferenceinfer inferred inferring inferenceprefer preferred preferring preferencerefer referred referring referencetransfer transferred transferring transferenceSee also-ABLE/-IBLE; -ANCE,-ANT/-ENCE,-ENT;-CAL/-CLE; -FUL;-LY.ADDING ENDINGS7address (notadr-)adieu(singular) adieus or adieux (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.adrenalin/adrenaline Both spellings are correct.adress Wrong spelling. SeeADDRESS.advantageous advantage + ousKeep the -e in this instance.SeeSOFT C AND SOFT G.adverse or averse? These two words have different meanings.The ferries were cancelled owing toADVERSEweather conditions.(= unfavourable)She is notAVERSEto publicity.(= opposed)advertisement advertise + mentSeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).advice or advise? MyADVICEis to forget all about it.(noun = recommendation)What would youADVISEme to do?(verb = recommend)adviser or advisor? Adviser is the traditionally correct Britishspelling. Advisor is more common inAmerican English.advisory (not-ery)aerial Use the same spelling for the noun (atelevision AERIAL) and the adjective (anAERIALphotograph).affect or effect? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:Heavy drinking willAFFECTyour liver.(verb)TheEFFECTon her health wasimmediate. (noun)The new manager plans toEFFECTsweeping changes. (verb = to bring about)ADDRESS8afraid (notaffraid)ageing or aging? Both spellings are correct but many wouldprefer ageing as it keeps the identity ofthe base word (age) more easilyrecognised.SeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).aggravate Strictly speaking, aggravate means to makeworse.His rudenessAGGRAVATEDan alreadyexplosive situation.It is, however, widely used in the sense ofto irritate or to annoy. Be aware thatsome authorities would regard this secondusage as incorrect.aggressive (notagr-)agreeto/agreewith The choice of preposition alters themeaning of the verb:IAGREEDTOdo what he advised.IAGREEDTOall the conditions.IAGREEDWITHall they said.SeePREPOSITIONS.agreeable (notagreable)agreement For grammatical agreement, seeSINGULAROR PLURAL?.agressive Wrong spelling. SeeAGGRESSIVE.alga(singular) algae (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.allege (not-dge)alley or ally? AnALLEYis a little lane.AnALLYis a friend.alley (singular), alleys (plural)ally (singular), allies (plural)SeePLURALS(iii).ALLEY OR ALLY?9all most or almost? There is a difference in meaning. Usethese exemplar sentences as a guide:They wereALL(= everyone) MOSTkind.The child wasALMOST(=nearly) asleep.allowed or aloud? There is a difference in meaning. Usethese exemplar sentences as a guide:Are weALLOWED(= permitted) tosmoke in here?I was just thinking ALOUD(= out loud).all ready or already? There is a difference in meaning. Usethese exemplar sentences as a guide:We areALL(= everyone) READY.It is ALL(= everything) READY.She wasALREADYdead (= by then).all right or alright? Traditional usage would considerALLRIGHTto be correct andALRIGHTto beincorrect. However, the use of alright is sowidespread that some would see it asacceptable although the majority of educatedusers would take care to avoid it.all so or also? There is a difference in meaning. Usethese exemplar sentences as a guide:You areALL(= everyone) SOkind.You areALSO(= in addition) generous.all together or There is a difference in meaning. Usealtogether? these exemplar sentences as a guide:They wereALL(= everybody) huddledTOGETHERfor warmth.His situation isALTOGETHER(= totally)different from yours.allude or elude? There is a difference in meaning.ALLUDEmeans to refer to indirectly.ELUDEmeans to evade capture or recall.ALL MOST OR ALMOST?10allusion, delusion There is a difference in meaning.or illusion? AnALLUSIONis an indirect reference.ADELUSIONis a false belief (oftenassociated with a mental disorder).AnILLUSIONis a deceptive appearance.all ways or always? There is a difference in meaning.These three routes areALL(= each ofthem) WAYSinto town.SheALWAYS(= at all times) tells thetruth.almost SeeALL MOST OR ALMOST?.alot Write as two words, not as one. Bear inmind that this construction is slang andnot to be used in a formal context.aloud SeeALLOWED OR ALOUD?.already SeeALL READY OR ALREADY?.altar or alter? There is a difference in meaning.The bride and groom stood solemnlybefore theALTAR.Do you wish toALTER(= change) thearrangements?alternate or We visit our grandparents onalternative? ALTERNATESaturdays. (= every otherSaturday)I ALTERNATEbetween hope and despair.(= have each mood in turn)AnALTERNATIVEplan would be to goby boat. (= another possibility)TheALTERNATIVESare simple: work orgo hungry. (= two choices)alternatives Strictly speaking, the choice can bebetween only two alternatives (one choiceor the other).However, the word is frequently usedmore loosely and this precise definition isbecoming lost.ALTERNATIVES11altogether SeeALL TOGETHER OR ALTOGETHER?.Alzheimers disease (notAlze-)amateur (not-mm-)ambiguity Always try to anticipate any possibleconfusion on the part of your reader.Check that you have made your meaningabsolutely clear.(i) Bearinmindthatpronounscanbevery vague. Consider this sentence:My brother told his friend thatHEhad won first prize in the localphotographic exhibition.Who is he, my brother or his friend?Rewrite more clearly:(a) My brother congratulated his friendon winning first prize in the localphotographic exhibition.(b) My brother, delighted to have wonfirst prize in the local photographicexhibition, told his friend.The other possibility is rather clumsybut is otherwise clear:(c) My brother told his friend that he(his friend) had won first prize.(d) My brother told his friend that he(my brother) had won first prize.(ii) Position the adverb ONLYwith greatcare. It will refer to the word nearestto it, usually the word following. Thismay not be the meaning youintended. See how crucial to themeaning the position of only can be:ONLYSean eats fish on Fridays.(= No one else but Sean eats fish onFridays.)ALTOGETHER12SeanONLYeats fish on Fridays.(= Sean does nothing else to the fishon Fridays but eat it. He doesnt buyit, cook it, look at it, smell it . . . .)Sean eatsONLYfish on Fridays.(= Sean eats nothing but fish onFridays.)Sean eats fishONLYon Fridays.Sean eats fish on FridaysONLY.(= Sean eats fish on this one day inthe week and never on any other.)(iii) Take care with the positioning ofBADLY.This room needs cleaningBADLY.Does it? Or does it not need cleaningwell? Rewrite like this:This roomBADLYneeds cleaning.(iv) Beware of causing initial bewildermentby not introducing a comma toindicate a pause.The shabby little riverside cafe wasempty and full of wasps and flies.Empty and full?The shabby little riverside cafe wasempty, and full of wasps and flies.SeeCOMMAS(ix).(v) Avoid the danger of writing nonsense!DRIVINGslowly along the road,THECASTLEdominated the landscape.The castle is driving?Rewrite:As we drove slowly along the road,we saw how the castle dominated thelandscape.AMBIGUITY13TEAMFLYCOOKEDslowly, theFAMILYwillenjoy the cheaper cuts of meat.Rewrite:If the cheaper cuts of meat arecooked slowly, the family will enjoythem.SeePARTICIPLES.(vi) Make sure the descriptive detailsdescribe the right noun!For sale: 1995 Peugeot 205 oneowner with power-assisted steering.Rewrite:For sale: 1995 Peugeot 205 withpower-assisted steering one owner.amend or emend? Both words mean to make changes inorder to improve. UseAMENDorEMENDwhen referring to the correctionof written or printed text.UseAMENDin a wider context such asAMENDINGthe law or AMENDINGbehaviour.ammount Wrong spelling. SeeAMOUNT.among (notamoung)among/amongst Either form can be used.among or between? UseBETWEENwhen something is sharedby two people. UseAMONGwhen it isshared by three or more.Share the sweetsBETWEENthe two ofyou.Share the sweetsAMONGyourselves.However,BETWEENis used withnumbers larger than two when it meansan exact geographical location or when itrefers to relationships.AMEND OR EMEND?14Sardinia liesBETWEENSpain, Algeria,Corsica and Italy.It will take a long time before the riftBETWEENthe five main parties heals.amoral or immoral? There is a difference in meaning.AMORALmeans not being governed bymoral laws, acting outside them.(note -m-)IMMORALmeans breaking the morallaws. (note -mm-)amoung Wrong spelling. SeeAMONG.amount (notammount)amount or number? AMOUNTis used with non-count nouns:asmallAMOUNTof sugar; a surprisingAMOUNTof gossip.NUMBERis used with plural nouns: aNUMBERof mistakes; aNUMBERofreasons.analyse (not-ize as in American English)analysis(singular) analyses (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.-ance,-ant/-ence,-ent Words with these endings are difficult tospell and youll always need to be onyour guard with them. Check each wordindividually when in doubt, but here aresome useful guidelines:(i) People are generally -ant: attendant,lieutenant, occupant, sergeant, tenant(but there are exceptions likesuperintendent, president,resident . . . .).(ii) Use -ance, -ant, where the companionwords ends in -ation: dominance,dominant, domination,variance, variant, variation.-ANCE,-ANT/-ENCE,-ENT15(iii) Use -ence, -ent after qu:consequence, consequent,eloquence, eloquent.(iv) Use -ance, -ant after hard c or hard g:significance, significant (c sounds like k)elegance, elegant (hard g)(v) Use -ence, -ent after soft c or soft g:innocence, innocent (c sounds like s)intelligent, intelligence (g sounds like j)SeeSOFT C AND SOFT G.and/but Many of us have been taught never tobegin a sentence withANDorBUT.Generally speaking this is good advice.Both words are conjunctions and willtherefore be busy joining words withinthe sentence:IshouldlovetocomeANDI look forwardto the party very much.They wanted to comeBUTsadly they hadto visit a friend in hospital some miles away.However, there are some occasions whenyou may need the extra emphasis thatstarting a new sentence withANDorBUTwould give. If you have a goodreason to break the rules, do so!angsiety Wrong spelling. SeeANXIETY.angsious Wrong spelling. SeeANXIOUS.annex or annexe? ToANNEXis to take possession of acountry or part of a country.AnANNEXis another word for anappendix in an official document.AnANNEXEis a building added to themain building.annoint Wrong spelling. SeeANOINT.announce announced, announcing, announcer,announcement(not-n-)AND/BUT16annoy annoyed, annoying, annoyance(notanoy or annoied)annul annulled, annulling, annulmentSeeADDING ENDINGS(iv).anoint (not-nn-)anounce Wrong spelling. SeeANNOUNCE.anoy Wrong spelling. SeeANNOY.ante-/anti- ANTE-means before.antenatal = before birthANTI-means against.antifreeze = against freezingantecedent This means earlier in time or an ancestor.(notanti-)SeeANTE-/ANTI-.antediluvian This means very old-fashioned andprimitive, literally before the flood ofNoah. (notanti-)SeeANTE-/ANTI-.antenna This word has two plurals, each used in adifferent sense:UseANTENNAEto refer to insects.UseANTENNASto refer to televisionaerials.SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.anticlimax (notante-)SeeANTE-/ANTI-.antirrhinum (not-rh-)antisocial (notante-)SeeANTE-/ANTI-.anxiety (notangs-)anxious (notangs-)apologise/apologize Both spellings are correct. (not-pp)apology apologies (plural)SeePLURALS(iii).APOLOGY17apon Wrong spelling. SeeUPON.apostrophes (i) Apostrophes can be used to show thatletters have been omitted:"in contractionsdidntoclockyouvewont"in poetryoer vales and hillswhereer you walk"in dialectEres, Arry"in retailpick n mixsalt n vinegar(ii) Apostrophes can be used to showownership. Follow these simpleguidelines and youll never put theapostrophe in the wrong place.Singular nouns or ownersThe tail of the dogThe dogs tailWho owns the tail? the dogPut the apostropheafter the owner. the dogAdd -s. the dogsAdd what is owned. the dogs tailThe smile of the princessThe princesss smileWho owns the smile? the princessPut the apostropheafter the owner. the princessAdd -s. the princesssAdd what is owned. the princessssmileAPON18With proper names ending in -s, you havea choice, depending upon how the nameis pronounced.Keats poetry or Keatss poetryButSt Jamess Square, London, SW1St James (two syllables)St Jamess (three syllables)Plural nouns or ownersDont worry about whether you use s ors in the plural. It will sort itself out.The tails of the dogsThe dogs tailsWho owns the tails? the dogsPut the apostropheafter the owners. the dogsAdd -s if there isnt one. (no need here)Add what is owned the dogs tailsThe laughter of the womenThe womens laughterWho owns the laughter? the womenPut the apostropheafter the owners. the womenAdd -s if there isnt one. the womensAdd what is owned. the womenslaughterAnd so, when reading, you will be able todistinguish singular and plural owners.The princesss suitors.The princesses suitors.The owner is the word before theapostrophe.(iii) Apostrophes are also used incondensed expressions of time.The work of a moment.Amomentswork.APOSTROPHES19The work of three years.Three years work.If you follow the guidelines in (ii) above,you will never make a mistake.appal appalled, appalling (not-aul-)See alsoADDING ENDINGS(iv).appearance (not-ence)appendix This word has two plurals, each used in adifferent sense.UseAPPENDIXESin an anatomical sense.UseAPPENDICESwhen referring tosupplementary sections in books or formaldocuments.See alsoFOREIGN PLURALS.appologise/-ize Wrong spelling. SeeAPOLOGISE/APOLOGIZE.appology Wrong spelling. SeeAPOLOGY.appreciate There are three distinct meanings of thisword.I APPRECIATEyour kindness(= recognise gratefully).I APPRECIATEthat you have had adifficult time lately (= understand).My cottageHAS APPRECIATEDin valuealready (= increased).Some people would choose to avoid thesecond use above (understand, realise) butthe verb is now widely used in this senseand this has become acceptable.approach approached, approaching (notapr-)aquaint Wrong spelling. SeeACQUAINT.aquaintance Wrong spelling. SeeACQUAINTANCE.aquarium(singular) aquaria or aquariums (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.APPAL20aquiesce Wrong spelling. SeeACQUIESCE.aquiescence Wrong spelling. SeeACQUIESCENCE.aquire Wrong spelling. SeeACQUIRE.arange Wrong spelling. SeeARRANGE.arbiter or arbitrator? AnARBITERis a judge or someone withdecisive influence (an arbiter of fashion).In addition, an ARBITERmay interveneto settle a dispute (-er).AnARBITRATORis someone who isofficially appointed to judge the rights andwrongs of a dispute (-or).arbitrator or mediator?AnARBITRATORreaches a judgementbut is not necessarily obeyed.AMEDIATORattempts to bring twoopposing sides together and to settle adispute.archipelago There are two interchangeable pluralforms: archipelagoes, archipelagos.arctic (notartic, although frequentlymispronounced as such)argument (notarguement)arrange arranged, arranging, arrangement (not-r-)SeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).artic Wrong spelling. SeeARCTIC.article (not-cal)See-CAL/-CLE.artist or artiste? Traditionally, anARTISTis skilled in oneor more of the fine arts (painting, forexample, or sculpture).Traditionally, the termARTISTEisreserved for a performer or entertainer (amusic-hallARTISTE). However, ARTISTis now being used to cover both meaningsin the sense of skilled practitioner, andARTISTEis becoming redundant.ARTIST OR ARTISTE?21as or like? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:You lookASif you have seen a ghost.You lookASthough you have seen aghost.ASI expected, hes missed the train.You lookLIKEyour mother.asma Wrong spelling. SeeASTHMA.asphalt (notashphalt, as it is frequentlymispronounced)aspirin (notasprin, as it is frequentlymispronounced)assassin (notassasin or asassin)assma Wrong spelling. SeeASTHMA.assume or presume? ToASSUMEsomething to be the case isto take it for granted without any proof.ToPRESUMEsomething to be the case isto base it on the evidence available.assurance Insurance companies distinguish betweenor insurance? these two terms.ASSURANCEis the technical term givenfor insurance against a certainty (e.g.death) where payment is guaranteed.INSURANCEis the technical term givenfor insurance against a risk (such as fire,burglary, illness) where payment is madeonly if the risk materialises.asthma (notasma or assma)astrology ASTROLOGYis the study of theor astronomy? influence of the stars and planets onhuman life and fortune.ASTRONOMYis the scientific study ofthe stars and planets.athlete (not athelete)athletics (notatheletics)AS OR LIKE?22attach attached, attaching, attachment (not-tch)audible (not-able)audience (not-ance)aural or oral? AURALrefers to the ears and hearing.ORALrefers to the mouth and speaking.In speech these words can be veryconfusing as they are pronouncedidentically.authoritative (notauthorative)autobiography or AnAUTOBIOGRAPHYis an account ofbiography? his or her life by the author.ABIOGRAPHYis an account of a lifewritten by someone else.automaton(singular) automata, automatons (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.avenge or revenge? The words are very close in meaning butAVENGEis often used in the sense of justretribution, punishing a wrong done toanother.Hamlet felt bound toAVENGEhis fathersdeath.REVENGEis often used in the sense ofgetting ones own back for a pettyoffence.averse SeeADVERSE or AVERSE?.awkward Notice-wkw-. The spelling itself looksawkward!axis(singular) axes (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.AXIS23TEAMFLYBbabyhood (not-i-)This word is an exception to the -y rule.SeeADDING ENDINGS(iii).bachelor (not-tch-)bacillus(singular) bacilli (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.bacterium(singular) bacteria (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.badly This word is often carelessly positionedwith disastrous effects on meaning.SeeAMBIGUITY(iii).banister/bannister banisters, bannisters (plural)Although the first spelling is more widelyused, both spellings are correct.bargain (not-ian)basically basic + ally (notbasicly)batchelor Wrong spelling. SeeBACHELOR.bath or bathe? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:IhaveaBATHevery morning (= I havea wash in the bath).I BATHthebabyeveryday(=washinabath).I have had a new BATHfitted.WeBATHEevery day (= swim).BATHEthe wound with disinfectant(= cleanse).We have aBATHEwhenever we can(= a swim).beach or beech? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:Budleigh Salterton has a stonyBEACH.BEECHtrees shed their leaves in autumn.24beautiful Use your knowledge of Frenchbeautohelp you.before (notbefor)begin Notethese forms and spellings:I begin, I am beginning.I began, I have begun.beginner (not-n-)beige (not-ie-)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.belief (not-ei)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.believe believed, believing, believerSeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.SeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).benefit benefited, benefitingIt is a common mistake to use -tt-.berth or birth? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:We have a spareBERTHon our boat.We are proud to announce theBIRTHofadaughter.beside or besides? UseBESIDEin the sense of next to, bythe side of:Your glasses areBESIDEyour bed.May I sitBESIDEyou?UseBESIDESin the sense of also, as wellas:BESIDES, I cant afford it.BESIDESbeing very clever, Ann alsoworks hard.between SeeAMONG OR BETWEEN?.between you and I Incorrect. Write: between you and me.SeePREPOSITIONS.BETWEEN YOU AND I25bi- This prefix means two.Hence bicyclebifocalsbigamy, and so on.Note, however, that some wordsbeginning with bi can be ambiguous.SeeBIMONTHLYandBIWEEKLY.See alsoBIANNUAL OR BIENNIAL?.biannual or biennial? BIANNUALmeans twice a year (not-n-).BIENNIALmeans every two years (abiennial festival) or lasting for two years(horticultural, etc). (not-ual)bicycle bi + cycle(notbycycle or bycicle)bidding or biding? bid + ing = biddingTheBIDDINGat the auction was fast andfurious.BIDDINGfarewell, the knight canteredaway.bide + ing = biding.Her critics were justBIDINGtheir time.SeeADDING ENDINGS(i) and (ii).biege Wrong spelling. SeeBEIGE.biennial SeeBIANNUAL OR BIENNIAL?.bimonthly Avoid usingBIMONTHLYas it has twoconflicting meanings. It can mean bothevery two months and also twice amonth. (CompareBIWEEKLY.)binoculars (not-nn-)biography SeeAUTOBIOGRAPHY OR BIOGRAPHY?biscuit (not-iu-)biulding Wrong spelling. SeeBUILDING.bivouac bivouacked, bivouackingSeeSOFT C AND SOFT G.BI-26biweekly This word has two conflicting meaningsand is perhaps best avoided. It can meanboth every two weeks (i.e. fortnightly)and also twice a week. (CompareBIMONTHLY.)bizarre (not-zz-)blond or blonde? BLONDis used to describe mens hair.BLONDis used to describe womens hair.ABLONDEis a woman.board or bored? ABOARDis a piece of wood, also acommittee or similar group of people.ToBOARDmeans to get on (train, etc.)and also to pay for living in someoneshouse and having food provided.BOREDmeans uninterested.boarder or border? ABOARDERis a person who pays to livein someones house.ABORDERis the edge or boundary ofsomething.boisterous (notboistrous, although oftenmispronounced as two syllables)boney/bony Both spellings are correct, although thesecond spelling is more commonly used.border SeeBOARDER OR BORDER?.bored SeeBOARD OR BORED?.bored by, bored with (notbored of)born or borne? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:Dickens wasBORNin Portsmouth.She hasBORNEfive children.He hasBORNEa heavy burden of guilt allhis life.borrow or lend? May IBORROWyour pen? (= use yourpen temporarily)PleaseLENDme your pen. (= pass it tome and allow me to use it)BORROW OR LEND?27both . . . and Take care with the positioning of eachhalf of this paired construction. Each mustintroduce grammatically similar things:He isBOTHcleverANDhardworking.(not: He both is clever and hardworking!)HeBOTHpaintsANDsculpts.He boughtBOTHthe gardening toolsANDthe DIY kit.Notice, however, the ambiguity in the lastexample. It could mean that there werejust two gardening tools and he boughtboth of them. In the case of possibleconfusion, always replace:He bought the gardening tools and alsothe DIY kit.He bought the two gardening tools andalso the DIY kit.He bought both of the gardening tools andalso the DIY kit.bought or brought? BOUGHTis the past tense of to buy.SheBOUGHTeggs, bacon and bread.BROUGHTis the past tense of to bring.TheyBROUGHTtheir books home.bouncy (not-ey)SeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).brackets Round brackets enclose additionalinformation which the writer wants tokeep separate from the main body of thesentence.Jane Austen (born in 1775) died inWinchester.My neighbour (have you met her?) haswon 250,000.Notice how sentences in brackets are notfully punctuated.BOTH...AND28They dont begin with a capital letter orhave a full stop at the end if they occurwithin another sentence as in the exampleabove. They do, however, have a questionmark or an exclamation mark, ifappropriate.Square brackets indicate the material hasbeen added to the original by anotherwriter:When I [Hilaire Belloc] am dead, I hope itmay be said:His sins were scarlet, but his books wereread.breath or breathe? BREATHis the noun, and rhymes withdeath.He called for help with his dyingBREATH.BREATHEis the verb and rhymes withseethe.BREATHEdeeply and fill those lungs!brief, briefly (not-ei-)Britain (not-ian)Brittany (notBritanny)broach or brooch? YouBROACHadifficulttopicorBROACHabottle.You wear aBROOCH.broccoli (notbrocolli)broken (notbrocken)brought SeeBOUGHT OR BROUGHT?.buffalo(singular) buffaloes (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).building (not-iu-)buisness Wrong spelling. SeeBUSINESS.BUISNESS29bureau bureaux, bureaus (plural)Both forms are correct.SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.bureaucracy (not-sy)burglar (notburgular, as often mispronounced)burned/burnt Both forms are correct.business (notbuisness)but SeeAND/BUT.buy/by Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:IneedtoBUYsome new jeans.The book isBYCharlotte Bronte.WaitBYthe gate.The children rushedBY.BUREAU30Ccactus(singular) cactuses or cacti (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.caffeine (not-ie-)-cal/-cle Adjectives end in -cal.Nouns end in -cle.e.g. critical articlelogical bicyclemagical circlemusical cubiclenautical cuticlephysical miraclepractical particletheatrical spectacletropical unclewhimsical vehiclecalculator (not-er)calendarcalf(singular) calves (plural)SeePLURALS(v).callous or callus? CALLOUSmeans cruel, insensitive, notcaring about how others feel.CALLUSmeans a hard patch of skin ortissue.Interestingly, skin may be CALLOUSED(made hard) or CALLUSED(havingcalluses).can or may? Strictly speaking,CANmeans being ableandMAYmeans having permission. It isbest to preserve this distinction in formalcontexts. However, informally,CANisused to cover both meanings:31YouCANgo now (= are permitted).caning or canning? cane+ing=caningCANINGis now banned in all schools.Can + ing = canningTheCANNINGfactory is closing down.(See ADDING ENDINGS(i) and (ii).)canister (not-nn-)cannon or canon? ACANONis a cleric.ACANNONis a large gun.cannot or can not? Both forms are acceptable but the secondis rarely seen.canoe canoed, canoeing, canoeistSeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).canon SeeCANNON OR CANON?.cant Contraction ofCANNOT.canvas or canvass? CANVASis a rough cloth.ToCANVASSis to ask for votes.capital letters Use a capital letter in these circumstances:"to begin a sentence:My father will be fifty tomorrow."to begin sentences of direct speech:You will be sorry for this in themorning, she said.She said, You will be sorry for this inthe morning. You never learn."for the pronoun I wherever it comesin the sentence:You know that I have no money."for all proper nouns names of:people (Mary Browne)countries (Malta)CANING OR CANNING?32languages (French)religious festivals (Easter, Diwali)firms (Express Cleaners)organisations (the British BroadcastingCorporation)historical periods (the Renaissance)(the Neolithic Period)days of the week (Monday)months of the year (September)but not usually theseasons.Notethese adjectives derived from propernouns also have a capital letter:a Jewish festival; a German poetHowever, the capital is dropped when theconnection with the proper noun becomeslost:venetian blinds, french windowsNotealso that titles are capitalised onlywhen part of a proper noun:Bishop Christopher Budd, otherwise thebishopAunt Gladys, otherwise my auntCaptain Llewellyn, otherwise the captain"to begin lines of poetry (althoughsome poets like e.e. cummingsdispense with this convention)"to mark the first word and thesubsequent key words in titles:The Taming of the ShrewAn Old Wives Tale"for emphasis:And then BANG!"for some acronyms and initialisms:CAPITAL LETTERS33TEAMFLYNATOUNESCOCAFODOXFAMPTORSVPNotethat some acronyms have nowbecome words in their own right andare no longer written in capitals: laser,sauna, radar.Notealso that some initialisms areusually written in lower case: i.e.,e.g., c/o, wpm."for the Deity as a mark of respect andfor sacred books:God, Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit, theAlmighty, Allah, Jehovah, Yahwehthe Bible, the Koran, the Vedas"for each word of an address:Mrs Anna Sendall10 Furze CrescentALPHINGTONHants PD6 9EF"for the salutation in a letter (firstword and key words only) and for thefirst letter of the complimentary close:Dear SirDear Mrs HughesMy dear nieceYours faithfullyYours sincerelyWith much loveWith best wishescapital punishment or CAPITAL PUNISHMENT=deathcorporal punishment? CORPORAL PUNISHMENT= beatingcappuccino (not-p-)CAPITAL PUNISHMENT OR CORPORAL PUNISHMENT?34capsize This is theonlyverb in the Englishlanguage of more than one syllable thatmustend in -ize.captain (not-ian)capuccino Wrong spelling. SeeCAPPUCCINO.career (not-rr-)cargo(singular) cargoes (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).Caribbean (not-rr-, not-b-)carreer Wrong spelling. SeeCAREER.carrying carry + ingSeeADDING ENDINGS(iii).cast or caste? UseCASTfor a group of actors in a playand for a plasterCASTand aCASTin aneye.UseCASTEwhen referring to a socialgroup in Hindu society.caster or castor? Both caster sugar and castor sugar arecorrect.Both sugar caster and sugar castor arecorrect.Both casters and castors can be used whenreferring to the little wheels fixed to thelegs of furniture.But castor oil,notcaster oil.catagorical Wrong spelling. SeeCATEGORICAL.catagory Wrong spelling. SeeCATEGORY.catarrh (not-rh)catastrophe (not-y)categorical categorically (notcata-)category(singular) categories (plural) (notcata-)cauliflower (not-flour)CAULIFLOWER35ceiling (not-ie-)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.Cellophane (notSello-)censer, censor ACENSERis a container in which incenseor censure? is burnt during a religious ceremony.ACENSORis a person who examinesplays, books, films, etc. before deciding ifthey are suitable for public performanceor publication.ToCENSORis to do the work of aCENSOR.CENSUREis official and formaldisapproval or condemnation of an action.ToCENSUREis to express thiscondemnation in a formal written orspoken statement.centenarian ACENTENARIANis someone who is ator centurion? least 100 years old.ACENTURIONis the commander of acompany of 100 men in the ancientRoman army.century(singular) centuries (plural) (notcentua-)SeePLURALS(iii).cereal or serial? CEREALis food processed from grain.ASERIALis a book or radio or televisionperformance delivered in instalments.ceremonial or Both adjectives come from the nounceremonious? CEREMONY.CEREMONIALdescribes the ritual usedfor a formal religious or public event (aCEREMONIALoccasion).CEREMONIOUSdescribes the type ofperson who likes to behave over-formallyon social occasions. It is not altogethercomplimentary (aCEREMONIOUSwaveof the hand).CEILING36ceremony(singular) ceremonies (plural)SeePLURALS(iii).certain or curtain CERTAINmeans sure.Are youCERTAINthat he apologised?CURTAINSare window drapes.Do draw theCURTAINS.Notethat the c sounds like s in certainand like k in curtain.SeeSOFT C AND SOFT G.changeable (not-gable)SeeSOFT C AND SOFT G.chaos chaoticcharacter (notcharachter)chateau/chateau chateaux or chateaux (plural)(singular) See FOREIGN PLURALS.check or cheque? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:AlwaysCHECKyour work.May I pay byCHEQUE?(notcheck as inthe United States)cherub(singular) This word has two plurals.Cherubim is reserved exclusively for theangels often portrayed as little childrenwith wings.Cherubs can be used either for angels orfor enchanting small children.chestnut (notchesnut, as it is often mispronounced)chief(singular) chiefs (plural)SeePLURALS(v).childish or childlike? The teenager was rebuked by themagistrate for hisCHILDISHbehaviour.(i.e. which he should have outgrown)The grandfather has retained his sense ofCHILDLIKEwonder at the beauty of theCHILDISH OR CHILDLIKE?37natural world. (i.e. marvellously direct,innocent and enthusiastic)chimney(singular) chimneys (plural)SeePLURALS(iii).chior Wrong spelling. SeeCHOIR.chocolate (notchoclat although oftenmispronounced as such)choice (not-se)choir (not-io-)choose I CHOOSEmy words carefully.IamCHOOSINGmy words carefully.I CHOSEmy words carefully yesterday.IhaveCHOSENthem carefully.chord or cord? CHORDis used in a mathematical ormusical context.CORDrefers to string and is generallyused when referring to anatomical partslike the umbilical cord, spinal cord andvocal cords.Note: you will occasionally see CHORDused instead ofCORDin a medicalcontext but it seems very old-fashionednow.Christianity (notCr-)Christmas (notCristmas or Chrismas)chronic (notcr-)This word is often misused. It doesntmean terrible or serious. It means longlasting, persistent, when applied to anillness.chrysanthemum (notcry-)chrystal Wrong spelling. SeeCRYSTAL.cieling Wrong spelling. SeeCEILING.cigarette (not-rr)CHIMNEY38cite, sight or site? ToCITEmeans to refer to.SIGHTis vision or something seen.ASITEis land, usually set aside for aparticular purpose.clarity SeeAMBIGUITY.clothes or cloths? CLOTHESare garments.CLOTHSare dusters or scraps of material.coarse or course? COARSEmeans vulgar, rough:COARSElanguage, COARSEcloth.COURSEmeans certainly:OF COURSECOURSEalso means a series of lectures, adirection, a sports area, and part of ameal:an advancedCOURSEto change COURSEagolfCOURSEthe main COURSEcodeine (not-ie-)colander (not-ar)collaborate collaborated, collaboratingcollaborator collaborationcollapse collapsed, collapsingcollapsible (not-able)colleaguescollective nouns SeeNOUNS.college (notcolledge)colloquialcollossal Wrong spelling. SeeCOLOSSAL.colonel or kernel? ACOLONELis a senior officer.AKERNELis the inner part of a nut.COLONEL OR KERNEL?39colons (i) Colons can introduce a list:Get your ingredients together:flour, sugar, dried fruit, butter andmilk.Notethat a summing-up word shouldalways precede the colon (hereingredients).(ii) Colons can precede an explanation oramplification of what has gone before:The teacher was elated: at last thepupils were gaining in confidence.Notethat what precedes the colonmust always be able to standon its own grammatically. It must bea sentence in its own right.(iii) Colons can introduce dialogue in aplay:Henry (with some embarrassment): Itsall my own fault.(iv) Colons can be used instead of acomma to introduce direct speech:Henry said, with some embarrassment:Its all my own fault.(v) Colons can introduce quotations:Donne closes the poem with themoving tribute:Thy firmness makes my circle justAnd makes me end where I began.(vi) Colons can introduce examples as inthis reference book.CompareSEMICOLONS.colossal (not-ll-)colour (notcolor, as in American English)COLONS40colourfulcomemorate Wrong spelling. SeeCOMMEMORATE.comfortable (four syllables, not three)coming come+ing=coming(notcomming)SeeADDING ENDINGS(ii)comission Wrong spelling. SeeCOMMISSION.commands (i) Direct commands, if expressedemphatically, require an exclamationmark:Stop, thief!Put your hands up!Stop talking!If expressed calmly andconversationally, however, a full stopis sufficient:Just wait there a moment and Ill bewith you.Tell me your story once again.(ii) Reported commands (indirectcommands) never need anexclamation mark because, when theyare reported, they become statements.He ordered the thief to stop.She told him to put his hands up.The teacher yelled at the class tostop talking.commas Commas are so widely misused that it isworth discussing their function in somedetail. First, let us make it very clearwhen commascannotbe used.(a) A comma should never divide asubject from its verb. The two gotogether:My parents, had very strict views.My parents had very strict views.COMMAS41Take extra care with compoundsubjects:The grandparents, the parents, andthe children, were in some ways toblame.The grandparents, the parents, andthe children were in some ways toblame.(b) Commas should never be used in anattempt to string sentences together.Sentences must be either properlyjoined (and commas dont have thisfunction) or clearly separated by fullstops, question marks or exclamationmarks.Commas have certain very specific jobs todo within a sentence. Let us look at eachin turn:(i) Commas separate items in a list:I bought apples, pears, and grapes.She washed up, made the beds, andhad breakfast.The novel is funny, touching, andbeautifully written.The final comma before and in a listis optional. However, use it to avoidany ambiguity. See (ix) below.(ii) Commas are used to separate terms ofaddress from the rest of the sentence:Sheila, how nice to see you!Can I help you, madam?I apologise, ladies and gentlemen, forthis delay.Notethat a pair of commas is neededin the last example above because theterm of address occurs mid-sentence.It is a very common error to omitCOMMAS42one of the commas.(iii) Commas are used to separateinterjections, asides and sentence tagslike isnt it? dont you? havent you?.Youll notice in the examples belowthat all these additions could beremoved and these sentences wouldstill be grammatically sound:My mother, despite her goodintentions, soon stopped going to thegym.Of course, Ill help you when I can.Youve met Tom, havent you?(iv) Commas are used to mark off phrasesin apposition:Prince Charles, the future king, has anolder sister.The phrase the future king is anotherway of referring to Prince Charlesand is punctuated just like an aside.(v) A comma separates any material thatprecedes it from the main part of thesentence:Although she admired him, she wouldnever go out with him.If you want to read the full story, buyThe Sunday Times.Notethat if the sentences are reversedso that the main part of the sentencecomes first, the comma becomesoptional.(vi) Commas mark off participles andparticipial phrases, whenever theycome in the sentence:Laughing gaily, she ran out of theroom.He flung himself on the sofa,COMMAS43TEAMFLYovercome with remorse.The children, whispering excitedly,crowded through the door.For a definition of participles seePARTICIPLES.(vii) Commas mark off some adjectivalclauses. Dont worry too much aboutthe grammatical terminology here.Youll be able to decide whether youneed to mark them off in your ownwork by matching them against theseexamples.Can you see the difference inmeaning that a pair of commas makeshere? Read the two sentences aloud,pausing where the commas indicatethat you should pause in the firstsentence, and the two differentmeanings should become clear:The firemen, who wore protectiveclothing, were uninjured. (= nobodyinjured)The firemen who wore protectiveclothing were uninjured. (but thosewho didnt wear it...)(viii) Commas are used to mark a pause atasuitablepointinalongsentence.This will be very much a question ofstyle. Read your own work carefullyand decide exactly how you want itto be read.(ix) Commas are sometimes needed toclarify meaning. In the examplesbelow, be aware how the readercould make an inappropriateconnection:She reversed the car into the mainroad and my brother waved goodbye.COMMAS44She reversed the car into the mainroad and my brother??She reversed the car into the mainroad, and my brother waved goodbye.In the skies above the stars glitteredpalely.In the skies above the stars??In the skies above, the stars glitteredpalely.Notice how the comma cansometimes be essential with and in alist:We shopped at Moores, Browns,Supervalu, Marks and Spencer andLeonards.Is the fourth shop called Marks, orMarks and Spencer?Is the fifth shop called Leonards, orSpencer and Leonards?A comma makes all clear:We shopped at Moores, Browns,Supervalu, Marks and Spencer, andLeonards.commemorate (not-m-)comming Wrong spelling. SeeCOMING.commission (not-m-)commit committed, committing, commitmentSeeADDING ENDINGS(iv).committeecommon nouns SeeNOUNS.comparative comparatively (notcompari-)comparative and (i) Use the comparative form ofsuperlative adjectives and adverbs whencomparing two:COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE45John is TALLERthan Tom.John works MORE ENERGETICALLYthan Tom.Use the superlative form whencomparing three or more:John is the TALLESTof all theengineers.John works THE MOSTENERGETICALLYof all theengineers.(ii) There are two ways of forming thecomparative and superlative ofadjectives:(a) Add -er and -est to short adjectives:tall taller tallesthappy happier happiest(b) Use more and most with longeradjectives:dangerous more dangerous most dangeroussuccessful more successful most successfulThe comparative and superlativeforms of adverbs are formed inexactly the same way:(c) Short adverbs add -er and -est.You runFASTERthan I do.He runs theFASTESTof us all.(d) Use more and most with longeradverbs.Nikki worksMORECONSCIENTIOUSLYthan Sarah.Niamh worksTHE MOSTCONSCIENTIOUSLYof them all.(iii) There are three irregular adjectives:good better bestbad worse worstCOMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE46many more mostThere are four irregular adverbs:well better bestbadly worse worstmuch more mostlittle less least(iv) A very common error is to mix the twomethods of forming the comparative andthe superlative:more simpler simplermore easiest easiest(v) Another pitfall is to try to form thecomparative and superlative ofabsolute words like perfect, unique,excellent, complete, ideal. Somethingis either perfect or it isnt. It cant bemore perfect or less perfect, mostperfect or least perfect.compare to/ Both constructions are acceptable butcompare with many people still prefer to use comparewith.comparitive Wrong spelling. SeeCOMPARATIVE.competition competitive, competitively.compleatly Wrong spelling. SeeCOMPLETELY.complement or COMPLEMENT= that which completescompliment? Half the shipsCOMPLEMENTwererecruited in Norway.ToCOMPLEMENT=togowellwithsomethingHer outfit wasCOMPLEMENTEDby wellchosen accessories.COMPLIMENT= praise, flatteringremarksToCOMPLIMENT=topraise.complementary or UseCOMPLEMENTARYin the sense ofcomplimentary? completing a whole:COMPLEMENTARY OR COMPLIMENTARY?47COMPLEMENTARYmedicineCOMPLEMENTARYjobsUseCOMPLIMENTARYin two senses:(a) flattering(b) free of chargeCOMPLIMENTARYremarksCOMPLIMENTARYticketscompletely complete + ly (notcompletly, completleyor compleatly)SeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).complex Both words mean made up of manyor complicated? different intricate and confusing aspects.However, useCOMPLEXwhen you meanintricate, and COMPLICATEDwhen youmean difficult to understand.compliment SeeCOMPLEMENT OR COMPLIMENT?.compose/comprise The reportIS COMPOSED OFtensections. (= is made up of)The reportCOMPRISESten sections. (=contains)Never use the construction is comprisedof. It is always incorrect grammatically.comprise (not-ize)compromise (not-ize)computer (not-or)concedeconceive conceived, conceiving, conceivableSeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.conciseconfer conferred, conferring, conferenceSeeADDING ENDINGS(iv).confidant, confidante ACONFIDANT(male or female) or aor confident? CONFIDANTE(female only) is someoneCOMPLETELY48to whom one tells ones secrets inconfidence.CONFIDENTmeans assured.connection or Both spellings are correct, but the firstconnexion? one is more commonly used.connoisseur Used for both men and women.conscientiousconsist in or For Belloc, happinessCONSISTED INconsist of? laughter and the love of friends. (consistin = have as its essence)LunchCONSISTED OFbread, cheese andfruit.consistent (not-ant)consonant There are 21 consonants in the alphabet,all the letters except for the vowels:bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyzNote, however, that y can be both avowel and a consonant:y is a consonant when it begins a word ora syllable (yolk, beyond);y is a vowel when it sounds like i or e(sly, baby).contagious or Both refer to diseases passed to others.infectious? Strictly speaking,CONTAGIOUSmeanspassed by bodily contact, andINFECTIOUSmeans passed by means ofair or water.Used figuratively, the terms areinterchangeable:INFECTIOUSlaughter, CONTAGIOUSenthusiasm.contemporary (notcontempory, as often mispronounced)Nowadays, this word is used in twosenses:CONTEMPORARY49(a) happening or living at the same time(in the past)(b) modern, currentBe aware of possible ambiguity if boththese meanings are possible in a givencontext:Hamletis being performed incontemporary dress (sixteenth-century ormodern?).contemptible or A person or an action worthy of contemptcontemptuous is CONTEMPTIBLE.A person who shows contempt isCONTEMPTUOUS.continual continuallycontinual or CONTINUALmeans frequently repeated,continuous? occurring with short breaks only.CONTINUOUSmeans uninterrupted.contractions Take care with placing the apostrophe incontractions. It is placed where the letterhas been omitted and not where the twowords are joined. These happen tocoincide in some contractions:Id (I would)they arent (they are not)it isnt (it is not)you hadnt (you had not)you wouldnt (you would not)she wont (she will not)we havent (we have not)Ishant(Ishallnot)ItwascommoninJaneAustenstimetouse two apostrophes in shant (shant) toshow that two sets of letters had beenomitted but this is no longer correct today.control controlled, controllingcontroller (not-or)CONTEMPTIBLE OR CONTEMPTUOUS50convenience (not-ance)convenient conveniently (notconvien-)cord SeeCHORD OR CORD?.corporal punishment SeeCAPITAL OR CORPORAL PUBLISHMENT?.correspond (not-r-)correspondence (not-ance)correspondent or ACORRESPONDENTis someone whoco-respondent? writes letters.ACO-RESPONDENTis cited in divorceproceedings.could of This is incorrect and arises from anattempt to write down what is heard.Write couldve in informal contexts andcould have in formal ones.I COULD HAVEgiven you a lift.I COULDVEgiven you a lift.Beware also: should of/would of/must of/might of. All are incorrect forms.couldnt SeeCONTRACTIONS.council or counsel? ACOUNCILis a board of electedrepresentatives.COUNSELis advice, also the term usedfor a barrister representing a client incourt.councillor or ACOUNCILLORis an electedcounsellor? representative.ACOUNSELLORis one who givesprofessional guidance, such as a studyCOUNSELLOR, a marriageCOUNSELLOR, a debt COUNSELLOR.counterfeit This is one of the few exceptions to theIE/EI spelling rule.SeeIE/EI SPELLING RULE.courageous (not-gous)SeeSOFT C AND SOFT G.COURAGEOUS51course SeeCOARSE OR COURSE?.courteous courteously, courtesycredible or credulous? If something is CREDIBLE, it is believable.If someone is CREDULOUS,theyaregullible (i.e. too easily taken in).crisis(singular) crises (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.criterion(singular) criteria (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.criticise/criticize Both spellings are correct.criticism This word is frequently misspelt.Remember critic + ism.cronic Wrong spelling. SeeCHRONIC.crucialcry cried, cryingSeeADDING ENDINGS(iii).crysanthemum Wrong spelling. SeeCHRYSANTHEMUM.crystal (notchr-)cupboard (notcub-)curb or kerb ToCURBones temper means to controlor restrain it.ACURBis a restraint (e.g. a curb bit for ahorse).AKERBis the edging of a pavement.curiouscuriosity (not-ious-)curly (not-ey)currant or current? ACURRANTis a small dried grape usedin cooking.ACURRENTis a steady flow of water, airor electricity.CURRENTcan also mean happening atCOURSE52the present time (as in CURRENTaffairs,CURRENTpractice).curriculum(singular) curriculums/curricula (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.curriculum vitae (abbreviation: CV)curtain SeeCERTAIN OR CURTAIN?.CURTAIN53TEAMFLYDdaily (notdayly)This is an exception to the -y rule.SeeADDING ENDINGS(iii).dairy or diary? We buy our cream at a localDAIRY.Kate writes in herDIARYevery day.dangling participles SeePARTICIPLES.dashes Dashes are used widely in informal notesand letters.(i) A dash can be used to attach anafterthought:IshouldlovetocomethatsifIcanget the time off.(ii) A dash can replace a colon before alist in informal writing:The thieves took everything video,television, cassettes, computer,camera, the lot.(iii) A dash can precede a summary:Video, television, cassettes, computer,camera the thieves took the lot.(iv) A pair of dashes can be used like apair of commas or a pair of bracketsaround a parenthesis:Geraldine is as you know veryshy with strangers.(v) A dash can mark a pause before theclimax is reached:There he was at the foot of the stairsdead.54(vi) Dashes can indicate hesitation inspeech:I er dont um know what what to say.(vii) Dashes can indicate missing letters oreven missing words where proprietyor discretion require it:c l (ship of the desert)Susan L- comes from Exeter.He swore softly, it.data(plural) datum (singular)Strictly speaking,DATAshould be usedwith a plural verb:TheDATAhave been collected byresearch students.You will, however, increasingly seeDATAused with a singular verb and this use hasnow become acceptable.TheDATAhas been collected by researchstudents.dates SeeNUMBERSfor a discussion of how toset out dates.deceased or diseased? DECEASEDmeans dead.DISEASEDmeans affected by illness orinfection.deceit (not-ie)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.deceivedecent or descent? DECENTmeans fair, upright, reasonable.DESCENTmeans act of coming down,ancestry.decide decided, deciding (notdecied-)deciet Wrong spelling. SeeDECEIT.DECIET55decieve Wrong spelling. SeeDECEIVE.decisiondecolletage (notde-)decrepit (not-id)defective or deficient? DEFECTIVEmeans not working properly(a DEFECTIVEmachine).DEFICIENTmeans lacking something vital(a diet DEFICIENTin vitamin C).defer deferred, deferring, deferenceSeeADDING ENDINGS(iv).deffinite Wrong spelling. SeeDEFINITE.deficient SeeDEFECTIVE OR DEFICIENT?.definate Wrong spelling. SeeDEFINITE.definite (not-ff-, not-ate)definitelydeisel Wrong spelling. SeeDIESEL.delapidated Wrong spelling. SeeDILAPIDATED.delusion SeeALLUSION, DELUSION OR ILLUSION?.denouement/ Both spellings are correct.denouementdependant or The adjective (meaning reliant) is alwaysdependent? -ent.She is a widow with fiveDEPENDENTchildren.IamabsolutelyDEPENDENTon apension.The noun (meaning someone who isdependent) has traditionally been spelt-ant. However, the American practice ofwriting either -ant or -ent for the nounhas now spread here. Either spelling isnow considered correct for the noun butDECIEVE56be aware that some conservative readerswould consider this slipshod.She has fiveDEPENDANTS/DEPENDENTS.descent SeeDECENT OR DESCENT?.describe (notdis-)description (not-scrib-)desease Wrong spelling. SeeDISEASE.desert or dessert? ADESERTis sandy.ADESSERTis a pudding.desiccated (notdess-)desirable (notdesireable)SeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).desperate (notdesparate)The word is derived fromspes (Latinword for hope). This may help you toremember the e in the middle syllable.dessert SeeDESERT OR DESSERT?.dessiccated Wrong spelling. SeeDESICCATED.destroy destroyed, destroying (notdis-)SeeADDING ENDINGS(iii).detached (notdetatched)deter deterred, deterringSeeADDING ENDINGS(iv).deteriorate (notdeteriate, as it is oftenmispronounced)deterrent (not-ant)develop developed, developing (not-pp-)development (notdevelopement)device/devise DEVICEis the noun.A padlock is an intriguingDEVICE.DEVICE/DEVISE57DEVISEis the verb.Try toDEVISEa simple burglar alarm.diagnosis(singular) diagnoses (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.diagnosis or DIAGNOSISis the identification of anprognosis? illness or a difficulty.PROGNOSISis the forecast of its likelydevelopment and effects.diarrhoeadiary(singular) diaries (plural)SeePLURALS(iii).SeeDAIRY OR DIARY?.dictionary(singular) dictionaries (plural) (not-nn-)SeePLURALS(iii).didnt (notdidnt)SeeCONTRACTIONS.diesel (notdeisel)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.dietician/dietitian Both spellings are correct.differcult Wrong spelling. SeeDIFFICULT.difference (not-ance)different (not-ant)different from/to/than Different from and different to are nowboth considered acceptable forms.My tastes areDIFFERENT FROMyours.My tastes areDIFFERENT TOyours.Conservative users would, however, muchprefer the preposition from and this iswidely used in formal contexts.Different than is acceptable inAmerican English but is not yet fullyacceptable in British English.difficult (notdiffercult,notdifficalt)DIAGNOSIS58dilapidated (notdelapidated)dilemma This word is often used loosely to meana problem. Strictly speaking it means adifficult choice between two possibilities.dinghy or dingy? ADINGHYis a boat (plural dinghies).SeePLURALS(iii).DINGYmeans dull and drab.dingo(singular) dingoes or dingos (plural)dining or dinning? dine + ing = dining (as in dining room)din + ing = dinning (noise dinning inears)SeeADDING ENDINGS(i) and (ii).diphtheria (notdiptheria as it is often mispronounced)diphthong (notdipthong as it is often mispronounced)direct speech SeeINVERTED COMMAS.disagreeable dis + agree + abledisappear dis + appeardisappearance (not-ence)disappoint dis + appointdisapprove dis + approvedisassociate or Both are correct, but the second is moredissociate? widely used and approved.disasterdisastrous (notdisasterous, as it is oftenmispronounced)disc or disk? Use disc except when referring tocomputer disks.disciple (notdisiple)disciplinediscover or invent? YouDISCOVERsomething that has beenthere all the time unknown to you (e.g. astar).DISCOVER OR INVENT?59YouINVENTsomething if you create itfor the first time (e.g. a time machine).discreet or discrete? You areDISCREETif you can keepsecrets and behave diplomatically.Subject areas areDISCRETEif they arequite separate and unrelated.discrepancy(singular) discrepancies (plural)discribe Wrong spelling. SeeDESCRIBE.discribtion Wrong spelling. SeeDESCRIPTION.discription Wrong spelling. SeeDESCRIPTION.discuss discussed, discussingdiscussiondiseasediseased SeeDECEASED OR DISEASED?.dishevelleddisintegrate (notdisintergrate)disinterested or Careful users would wish to preserve auninterested? distinction in meaning between these twowords. Use the wordDISINTERESTEDtomean impartial, unselfish, acting for thegood of others and not for yourself.My motives are entirelyDISINTERESTED;itisjusticeIamseeking.UseUNINTERESTEDto mean bored.His teachers say he is reluctant toparticipate and is clearlyUNINTERESTEDin any activities the school has to offer.Originally,DISINTERESTEDwas used inthis sense (= having no interest in,apathetic), and it is interesting that thismeaning is being revived in popularspeech.DISCREET OR DISCRETE?60Avoid this use in formal contexts,however, for it is widely perceived asbeing incorrect.disiple Wrong spelling. SeeDISCIPLE.disk SeeDISC OR DISK?.displace or misplace? To displace is to move someone orsomething from its usual place:ADISPLACEDhip; aDISPLACEDperson.To misplace something is to put it in thewrong place (and possibly forget where itis):AMISPLACEDapostrophe;MISPLACEDkindness.dissappear Wrong spelling. SeeDISAPPEAR.dissappoint Wrong spelling. SeeDISAPPOINT.dissapprove Wrong spelling. SeeDISAPPROVE.dissatisfied (dis + satisfied)dissociate SeeDISASSOCIATE OR DISSOCIATE?.distroy Wrong spelling. SeeDESTROY.divers or diverse The first is rarely used nowadays exceptjokingly or in mistake for the second.DIVERSmeans several, of varyingtypes: DIVERSreference books.DIVERSEmeans very different:DIVERSEopinions,DIVERSEinterests.does or dose? DOEShe take sugar? HeDOES.(pronounced duz).Take aDOSEof cough mixture everythree hours.doesnt (notdoesnt)SeeCONTRACTIONS.DOESNT61domino(singular) dominoes (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).dont (notdont)SeeCONTRACTIONS.dose SeeDOES OR DOSE?.double meaning SeeAMBIGUITY.double negatives The effect of two negatives is to canceleach other out. This is sometimes donedeliberately and can be effective:I am not ungenerous. (= I am verygenerous.)He is not unintelligent. (= He is quiteintelligent.)Frequently, however, it is not intentionaland the writer ends up saying theopposite of what is meant:I havent had no tea. (= I have had tea.)You dont know nothing. (= You knowsomething.)Be particularly careful with barely,scarcely, hardly. These have a negativeforce.IwasntSCARCELYawake when yourang. (= I was very awake.)Be careful too with constructions like this:I wouldnt be surprised if he didnt come.Sayeither:Iwouldntbesurprisedifhecame.or: I would be surprised if hedidnt come.Sometimes writers put so many negativesin a sentence that the meaning becomestoo complicated to unravel:Mr Brown denied vehemently that it wasDOMINO62unlikely that no one would come to theconcert.Does Mr Brown think that the concertwill be popular or not?Rewrite as either:Mr Brown was certain the concert wouldbe well attended.Or: Mr Brown feared that no one wouldcome to the concert.doubling rule SeeADDING ENDINGS(i) and (iv).doubt (notdout)The word is derived from the Latin worddubitare, to doubt. It may help you toremember why the silent b is there.Downs Syndrome (notDownes)downstairs (one word)draft or draught? ADRAFTis a first or subsequent attemptat a piece of written work before it isfinished.ADRAUGHTis a current of cool air in aroom.One also refers to aDRAUGHTof ale, agame ofDRAUGHTSand a boat having ashallowDRAUGHT.drawers or draws? DRAWSis a verb.SheDRAWSvery well for a young child.DRAWERSis a noun.TheDRAWERSof the sideboard are verystiff.dreamed/dreamt Both spellings are correct.drier or dryer? DRIERis generally used for thecomparative form (DRIER=moredry).DRYERis generally used for a dryingmachine (hairDRYER, clothes DRYER).DRIER OR DRYER?63TEAMFLYHowever, both spellings areinterchangeable.drunkenness drunken + nessdryness (exception to the -y rule)SeeADDING ENDINGS(iii).dual or duel? DUALmeans two (e.g.DUALcontrols,DUALcarriageway).DUELmeans fight or contest.duchess (notdutchess)due to/owing to Strictly speaking, due to should refer toanoun:HisabsencewasDUE TOsickness. (noun)ThedelaywasDUE TOleaves on theline. (noun)Owing to, strictly speaking, should referto a verb:The marchwas cancelledOWING TOthestorm. (verb)OWING TOan earlier injury, helimpedbadly. (verb)However, in recent years, the use of dueto where traditionally owing to wouldbe required has become widespread.Nevertheless, some careful writerscontinue to preserve the distinction andyou may wish to do so too in a formalcontext.duel SeeDUAL OR DUEL?.duly (notduely)This is an exception to the magic -e rule.SeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).dutchess Wrong spelling. SeeDUCHESS.dwelled/dwelt Both spellings are correct.DRUNKENNESS64dyeing or dying? DYEINGcomes from the verb to dye.She wasDYEINGall her vests green.DYINGcomes from the verb to die.She cursed him with herDYINGbreath.DYEING OR DYING?65Eearnest or Ernest? EARNEST= serious and sincereERNEST= masculine first nameecho(singular) echoes (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).economic or ECONOMIC= related to the economy ofeconomical? the country, or industry or businessECONOMICAL= thrifty, avoidingextravaganceecstasy(singular) ecstasies (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).Ecstasy illegal drugeczema-ed or -t? These can be either:burned burntdreamed dreamtdwelled dweltkneeled kneltleaned leantleaped leaptlearned learntsmelled smeltspelled speltspilled spiltspoiled spoilteerie or eyrie? EERIE= strange, weird, disturbingEYRIE= an eagles nesteffect SeeAFFECT OR EFFECT?.effective, effectual EFFECTIVE=abletoproducearesultor efficient? anEFFECTIVEcureanEFFECTIVEspeech66EFFECTUAL= likely to be completelysuccessful:EFFECTUALprayerEFFECTUALlegislationEFFICIENT= working well withoutwasting time, money or effort:anEFFICIENTsecretaryanEFFICIENTengineei/ie spelling rule Remember the jingle:i beforeeexcept aftercor when sounded likeaas in neighbour and weigh.Here are some examples which follow therule. There are plenty of others.ie ei after cachieve ceilingbelieve conceitedchief conceivefield perceivefriend receivehygiene ei sounding like apriest eightrelief reignretrieve reindeershield skeinshriek sleighthief vein18 exceptionscaffeine forfeit seizecodeine heifer sheikhcounterfeit height sovereigneither leisure surfeitFahrenheit neither weirforeign protein weirdEI/IE SPELLING RULE67Proper names (e.g. of people or countries)dont follow the rule: Deirdre, Keith, Neil,Sheila, Madeira, etc.eighth (notice-hth)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.either (not-ie-) An exception to the EI/IE SPELLINGRULE.either . . .or (i) Take care with singular and pluralverbs.Use these exemplar sentences as aguide:Either Jack or Tomwasthere.(singular verb to match Jack (singular)and Tom (singular))Either Jack or his brotherswerethere.(plural verb to match brothers(plural) which is closer to it thanJack (singular) )Either his brothers or Jackwasthere.(singular verb this time because Jack(singular) is closer to the verb thanbrothers)(ii) Be careful to place each part of theeither...or construction correctly. I have decided either that I have tobuild an extension or I have to move. I have decided that either I have tobuild an extension or I have to move.In the example above, there are thesetwo possibilities:I have to build an extension.Ihavetomove.Either precedes the first one and orprecedes the second.EIGHTH68The second one could be shortened:I have decided that either I have tobuild an extension or (I have to)move. I have decided that either I have tobuild an extension or move.It is important that the twoconstructions following either andor should be parallel ones:either meat or fisheither green or redeither to love or to hateeither with malice or with kindness.If the second construction isshortened to avoid repetition, this isfine. The missing words are obviousand can be supplied readily.elf(singular) elves (plural)SeePLURALS (v).eligible or legible? ELIGIBLE= suitably qualifiedLEGIBLE=abletobereadeloquentelude SeeALLUDE OR ELUDE?.embargo(singular) embargoes (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).embarrass embarrassed, embarrassing (not-r-)embarrassmentemend SeeAMEND OR EMEND?.emergency(singular) emergencies (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).emigrant or AnEMIGRANTleaves his or her countryimmigrant? to live in another.AnIMMIGRANTmoves into a country tolive permanently.EMIGRANT OR IMMIGRANT?69eminent or imminent? EMINENT=famousIMMINENT= about to happenemperoremphasise/emphasize Both spellings are correct.encyclopaedia/ Both spellings are correct.encyclopediaendeavourend stops There are three end stops: a full stop (.),an exclamation mark (!), and a questionmark (?).Use a full stop to end a statement.There are five eggs in the fridge.Use an exclamation mark with a commandor an exclamation.Get out!Use a question mark to end a question.Where do you live?See EXCLAMATION MARKS.FULL STOPS.QUESTION MARKS.endings SeeADDING ENDINGS.enemy(singular) enemies (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).enormity This means a grave sin or a crime, ordescribes something that is a grave sin ora crime or a disaster on a huge scale.We gradually realised the fullENORMITYof the tragedy.It is often used in popular speech to meanenormousness, hugeness, immensity.This should be avoided in a formalcontext.EMINENT OR IMMINENT?70enquiry or inquiry? Both spellings are correct and there is nodifference in meaning. British Englishfavours the first and American English thesecond.Some writers reserve the first for ageneral request for information and thesecond for a formal investigation, but thisis by no means necessary.enrol enrolled, enrolling(British English enrol; American English enroll)enrolment (British English enrolment; AmericanEnglish enrollment)ensure or insure? to ENSURE=tomakesureto INSURE= to arrange for financialcompensation in the case of loss, injury,damage or deathenthusiasm (not-ou-)enthusiasticenvelop enveloped, enveloping, envelopment(stress on second syllable)envelope(singular) envelopes (plural) (stress on third syllable)environment (notenviroment)epigram or epitaph? EPIGRAM= a short witty sayingEPITAPH= an inscription on atombstoneequip equipped, equipping, equipmentSeeADDING ENDINGS(iv).Ernest SeeEARNEST OR ERNEST?.erratum(singular) errata (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.erring err + ing (not-r-)erupt (not-rr-)ERUPT71especially or specially?The two words are very close in meaningand sometimes overlap. However, usethese exemplar sentences as a guide toexclusive uses:I bought the car ESPECIALLYfor you (=for you alone).We are awaiting aSPECIALLYcommissioned report (= for a specialpurpose).estuary(singular) estuaries (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).etc. (note.t.c. or ect.)(i) etc. is an abbreviation of the Latin etceterawhich means and otherthings. It is therefore incorrect towrite and etc..(ii) Avoid using etc. in formal writing.Either list all the items indicated bythe vague and lazy etc., or introducethe given selection with a phrase likeincluding, such as or for example.eventually eventual + ly (noteventully)exaggerate (notexagerate)examinationexausted Wrong spelling. SeeEXHAUSTED.excellent (not-ant)except SeeACCEPT OR EXCEPT?.exceptionable or EXCEPTIONABLE= open to objectionexceptional? EXCEPTIONAL=unusualexcercise Wrong spelling. SeeEXERCISE.excite excited, exciting, excitementSeeADDING ENDINGS(ii).exclaim exclaimed, exclaimingESPECIALLY OR SPECIALLY?72exclamation (not-claim-)exclamation mark Use an exclamation mark:(i) with exclamationsOuch! Oh! Hey!(ii) with vehement commandsStop thief! Help! Jump!SeeCOMMANDS.exercise (notexcercise)exhausted (notexausted)exhausting or EXHAUSTING= tiringexhaustive? EXHAUSTIVE= thorough, fullycomprehensiveexhibitionexhilarated (not -er-)expedition (notexpidition)The second syllable is derived from theLatin wordpes, pedis(foot, of the foot).This may help you to remember -ped-.The words pedal, pedestrian, pedometerall come from this same Latin root.expendable (not-ible)expenseexpensiveexperience (notexpierience,not-ance)The second syllable is derived from theLatin wordper, meaning through.(Experience is what we gain from goingthrough something.)explain explained, explainingexplanation (not-plain-)explicit or implicit? EXPLICIT= stated clearly and openlyIMPLICIT= implied but not actuallystatedEXPLICIT OR IMPLICIT?73TEAMFLYexspense Wrong spelling. SeeEXPENSE.exspensive Wrong spelling. SeeEXPENSIVE.exstremely Wrong spelling. SeeEXTREMELY.extraordinary extra + ordinaryextravagance (not-ence)extravagant (not-ent)extremely extreme + lyextrordinary Wrong spelling. SeeEXTRAORDINARY.exuberance (not-ence)exuberant (not-ent)eyrie SeeEERIE OR EYRIE?.EXSPENSE74Ffacetious (All five vowels occur in this word onceonly and in alphabetical order.)facilities or faculties? FACILITIES= amenitiesFACULTIES= mental or physicalaptitudesfacinate Wrong spelling. SeeFASCINATE.factory(singular) factories (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).Fahrenheit (not-ie-)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.faithfully faithful + lySeeSINCERELYfor guidelines whenpunctuating a complimentary close to aletter (fully blocked and also traditionallayout).familiar (notfammiliar)family(singular) families (plural) (not-mm-)farther or further? Both words can be used to refer tophysical distance although some writersprefer to keep farther for this purpose.I can walk FARTHERthan you.I can walk FURTHERthan you.FURTHERis used in a figurative sense:Nothing wasFURTHERfrom my mind.FURTHERis also used in certainexpressions:FURTHEReducationuntilFURTHERnoticefascinate (notfacinate)75favourite (not-ate)feasible (not-able)February Noticethe word has four syllables and notthree as it is often mispronounced.fewer or less? FEWERis the comparative form of few.It is used with plural nouns:FEWERvegetablesFEWERresponsibilitiesFEWERchildrenLESSis the comparative form of little.It is used in the sense of a small amountrather than a fewer number of :LESSenthusiasmLESSsugarLESSpetrolLESS THANis used with number alone,and expressions of time and distance:LESS THANathousandLESS THANten secondsLESS THANfour milesIt is considered incorrect to use lessinstead of fewer although such confusionis frequent in popular speech.As a rule of thumb, remember:FEWER=notsomanyLESS=notsomuchfiance or fiancee? FIANCE = masculineFIANCEE= feminineNotetheaccentinbothwords.fictional or fictitious? FICTIONAL= invented for the purposeof fiction, related to fictionFICTIONALtextsFICTIONALwritingFAVOURITE76FICTITIOUS= false, not trueaFICTITIOUSreportaFICTITIOUSname and addressEither word can be used to describe acharacter in a work of fiction: aFICTIONALorFICTITIOUScharacter.fiery (notfirey)fifteen fifteenthfifthfifty fiftiethfinally final + ly (not-aly)finish finished, finishing (not-nn-)firey Wrong spelling. SeeFIERY.flamingo(singular) flamingoes or flamingos (plural)flammable or Both words mean easily bursting intoinflammable flame. People often think thatinflammable is the negative form but theprefix in here means into.The opposite of these two words isnon-flammable or non-inflammable.flee they fled, have fled, are fleeingflexible (not-able)flu or flue? FLU= influenza (notflu although anabbreviation)FLUE= a pipe or duct for smoke andgasesfluorescent (notflourescent)fly they flew, have flown, are flyingfocus focused or focussed (both correct)focusing or focussing (both correct)for- or fore-? A useful rule of thumb is to remember theusual meaning of the prefixes:FOR- OR FORE-?77FOR-= not, or something negative(forbid, forfeit, forget, forsake)FORE-=before(foreboding, forecast, forefathers)See individual entries forFORBEAR OR FOREBEAR?FOREWORD OR FORWARD?.forbear or forebear? FORBEAR(stress on second syllable) =restrain oneselfFORBEARorFOREBEAR(stress on firstsyllable) = ancestorforbid forbad or forbade (both correct),forbidden, forbiddingforcible (not-able)forecast (notforcast)forefend/forfend Either spelling can be used.foregather/forgather Either spelling can be used.forego/forgo Either spelling can be used.foreign An exception to the rule.SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.foreign plurals Some foreign words in English haveretained their foreign plurals. Some haveboth foreign and English plurals. Takecare, however, with the words that areasterisked below because the foreign pluralof these is used in a different sense fromthe English plural. Check these wordsunder individual entries for the distinctionin meaning.singular -a foreign plural English pluralalga algae antenna antennae antennas*formula formulae formulas*larva larvae nebula nebulae nebulasvertebra vertebrae vertebrasFORBEAR OR FOREBEAR?78singular -eau foreign plural English plural-euadieu adieux adieusbureau bureaux bureauschateau chateaux milieu milieux milieusplateau plateaux plateaustableau tableaux singular -ex-ixappendix appendices appendixes*index indices indexes*matrix matrices matrixesvortex vortices vortexessingular -isanalysis analyses axis axes crisis crises diagnosis diagnoses hypothesis hypotheses parenthesis parentheses synopsis synopses singular -ograffito graffiti libretto libretti librettostempo tempi temposvirtuoso virtuosi virtuosossingular -onautomaton automata automatonscriterion criteria ganglion ganglia ganglionsphenomenon phenomena singular -umaquarium aquaria aquariumsbacterium bacteria curriculum curricula curriculumsdatum data erratum errata memorandum memoranda memorandumsmillennium millennia millenniumsreferendum referenda referendumsstratum strata ultimatum ultimata ultimatumsFOREIGN PLURALS79singular -um foreign plural English pluralovum ova singular -usbacillus bacilli cactus cacti cactusesfungus fungi funguseshippopotamus hippopotami hippopotamusesnucleus nuclei radius radii radiusesstimulus stimuli syllabus syllabi syllabusesterminus termini terminusestumulus tumuli The Hebrew plural -im is found in these threewords:cherub cherubim cherubskibbutz kibbutzim seraph seraphim This list is by no means comprehensivebut it does contain most of the words thatare commonly used.foresake Wrong spelling. SeeFORSAKE.forest (notforrest)foreword or forward? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:The Poet Laureate had written aFOREWORDfor the new anthology.I am looking FORWARDto the holiday.Will you pleaseFORWARDthis letter?forfeit (not-ie-, exception to the rule)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.forfend SeeFOREFEND/FORFEND.forgather SeeFOREGATHER/FORGATHER.forgo SeeFOREGO/FORGO.formally or formerly? FORMALLY= in a formal mannerFORMERLY= previously, at an earliertimeFORESAKE80formula (singular)There are two plurals.Use formulae in a scientific ormathematical context.Use formulas in all other cases.forrest Wrong spelling. SeeFOREST.forsake (notfore-)SeeFOR OR FORE?.fortunately fortunate + ly (not-atly)SeeADDING ENDINGS(iii).forty (notfourty)forward SeeFOREWORD OR FORWARD?.franticfrantically frantic + ally (notfranticly)freind Wrong spelling. SeeFRIEND.frequent (not-ant)Use as an adjective (stress on firstsyllable):There wereFREQUENTinterruptions.Use as a verb (stress on second syllable):TheyFREQUENTthe most terrible pubs.fresco(singular) frescoes or frescos (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.friend (not-ei-)frieze (not-ei-)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.frighten frightened, frightening(notfrightend, frightning)frolic frolicked, frolicking, frolicsomeSeeSOFT C AND SOFT G.fuchsia (named after Leonhard Fuchs, Germanbotanist)FUCHSIA81-ful When full is used as an ending to a word,it is always spelt -ful:beautifulcarefulwonderfulhopeful, etc.fulfil fulfilled, fulfilling, fulfilmentSeeADDING ENDINGS(iv).full stops SeeEND STOPS.SeeCOMMAS(b).fungus(singular) fungi or funguses (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.further SeeFARTHER OR FURTHER?.fuschia Wrong spelling. SeeFUCHSIA.-FUL82Ggaiety gay + ety an exception to the y ruleSeeADDING ENDINGS(iii).gaily gay + ly an exception to the y ruleSeeADDING ENDINGS(iii).gallop galloped, galloping (not-pp-)SeeADDING ENDINGS(iv).ganglion(singular) ganglia or ganglions (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.gaol An alternative spelling is jail.garagegastly Wrong spelling. SeeGHASTLY.gateau(singular) gateaus or gateaux (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.gauge (notguage)genealogical (notgeneo-)generosity (not-ous-)generousget they get, have got, are gettingghastly (notgastly)gipsy/gypsy Both spellings are correct.gipsies or gypsies (plural)SeePLURALS(iii).glamorous (not-our-)glamourgood will or goodwill? Always write as one word when referringto the prestige and trading value of abusiness.83TEAMFLYHe bought theGOODWILLfor fivethousand pounds.Use either two words or one word whenreferring to general feelings of kindnessand support.As a gesture ofGOOD WILL,shecancelled the fine.gorgeous (not-gous)SeeSOFT C AND SOFT G.gorilla or guerilla? AGORILLAis an animal.AGUERILLAis a revolutionary fighter.gossip gossiped, gossiping (not-pp)SeeADDING ENDINGS(iv).gourmand or gourmet?AGOURMANDis greedy and overindulges where fine food is concerned.AGOURMETis a connoisseur of finefood.government (notgoverment as it is oftenmispronounced)governor (not-er)gradualgradually gradual + ly (notgradully)graffiti This is increasingly used in a general sense(like the word writing) and its pluralforce is forgotten when it comes tomatching it with a verb:TherewasGRAFFITIall over the wall.A few conservative writers would like aplural verb (There wereGRAFFITIallover the wall).graffito(singular) graffiti (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.GORGEOUS84grammar (not-er)gramophone (notgrama-)grandad/granddad Both spellings are correct.grandchildgranddaughtergrandfathergrandmagrandmothergrandparentgrandsongrate or great? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:The fire was burning brightly in theGRATE.GRATEthe potato coarsely.Christopher Wren was aGREATarchitect.grateful (notgreatful)grief (not-ei-)grievance (not-ence)grievous (not-ious)grotto(singular) grottoes or grottos (plural)guage Wrong spelling. SeeGAUGE.guaranteeguardianguessguestguttural (not-er-)GUTTURAL85Hhadnt (nothadnt)haemorrhage (not-rh-)half(singular) halves (plural)SeePLURALS(v).halo(singular) haloes or halos (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).handkerchief(singular) handkerchiefs (plural) (not-nk-)SeePLURALS(v).hanged or hung? People areHANGED.Things like clothes and pictures areHUNG.happen happened, happening (not-nn-)harass (not-rr-)hardly SeeDOUBLE NEGATIVES.hasnt (nothasnt)havent (nothavent)headquarters (notheadquaters)hear or here? YouHEARwith your ear.UseHEREto indicate place:Come overHERE.heard or herd? WeHEARDtheir voices outside.We photographed theHERDof deer.heifer SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.height SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.heinous SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.herd SeeHEARD OR HERD?.86here SeeHEAR OR HERE?.hero(singular) heroes (plural)SeePLURALS(iv).heroin or heroine? HEROINis a drug.AHEROINEis a female hero.hers No apostrophe is needed.This is mine; this isHERS.HERShas a yellow handle.hiccough or hiccup? Both words are pronounced hiccup andeither spelling can be used. The secondspelling (hiccup) is more usual.hiccup hiccuped, hiccuping (not-pp-)hieroglyphicshigh-tech or hi-tec? Both spellings are correct for the adjectivederived from high technology:AHI-TECfactoryAHIGH-TECHcomputer systemWithout the hyphen, each word can beused as a noun replacing hightechnology:A generation familiar withHIGH TECHThe latest development inHI TEChindrance (nothinderance)hippopotamus(singular) hippopotami or hippopotamuses (plural)SeeFOREIGN PLURALS.historic or historical? HISTORICmeans famous in history,memorable, or likely to go down inrecorded history:aHISTORICmeetingHISTORICALmeans existing in the pastor representing something that could havehappened in the past:HISTORIC OR HISTORICAL?87aHISTORICALnovelaHISTORICALfactNoteIt would not be wrong to say orwriteanhistoric meeting,anhistoricalnovel,anhistorical fact. However, thisusage ofanbefore words like hotel,historic and historical is becoming muchless common, now that the h beginningthese words is usually voiced.hoard or horde? ToHOARDis to save something in asecret place.AHOARDis a secret store.AHORDEis a large group of people,insects or animals.hoarse or horse? HOARSEmeans croaky, sore or rough (aHOARSEwhisper).HORSEis an animal.hole or whole? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:She ate theWHOLEcake by herself.You have aHOLEin your sock.homeoepathy/ Both spellings are correct.homeopathyhonest (notonnist or honist)honorary (Note: this word has four syllables notthree.)AnHONORARYsecretary of anassociation is one who works voluntarilyand receives no payment.honour honourablehoof(singular) hoofs or hooves (plural)SeePLURALS(v).hoping or hopping? hope + ing = hopinghop + ing = hoppingSeeADDING ENDINGS(i) and (ii).horde SeeHOARD OR HORDE?.HOARD OR HORDE?88horrible (not-able)horse SeeHOARSE OR HORSE?.human or humane? HUMANbeings are naturally competitive.There must be a moreHUMANEway ofslaughtering animals.humour humorous (nothumourous)humourlesshundred (nothundered)hung SeeHANGED OR HUNG?.hygiene (not-ei-)SeeEI/IE SPELLING RULE.hyper- or hypo-? The prefix hyper comes from a Greekword meaning over, beyond. Hence wehave words like these:hyperactive (= abnormally active)hypermarket (= a very large self-servicestore)hypersensitive (= unusually sensitive)The prefix hypo comes from a Greekword meaning under. Hence we havewords like these:hypochondria (the melancholy associatedwith obsession with ones health wasoriginally believed to originate in theorgans beneath the ribs)hypodermic (= under the skin)hypercritical or HYPERCRITICAL= excessively criticalhypocritical? HYPOCRITICAL= disguising ones truenature under a pretence of being betterthan you really areSeeHYPER- OR HYPO-?.hyperthermia or HYPERTHERMIA= having anhypothermia? abnormally high body temperatureHYPOTHERMIA= having an abnormallylow body temperatureSeeHYPER- OR HYPO-?.HYPERTHERMIA OR HYPOTHERMIA?89hyperventilate or HYPERVENTILATE= to breathe at anhypoventilate abnormally rapid rateHYPOVENTILATE= to breathe at anabnormally slow rateSeeHYPER- OR HYPO-?.hyphens (i) Hyphens are used to indicate wordbreaks where there is not space tocomplete a word at the end of a line.Take care to divide the word at anappropriate point between syllables sothat your reader is not confused andcan continue smoothly from the firstpart of the word to the second part.There are dictionaries ofhyphenation available that willindicate sensible places to breakwords. They dont always agree witheach other! You will also notice adifference in practice between BritishEnglish and American English.Increasingly, however, the trend istowards American English practice, i.e.being guided by the way the word ispronounced. Break the word in such away as to preserve the overallpronunciation as far as possible. It isreally a matter of common sense. Forthis reason you will avoid breaking:father into fat-herlegend into leg-endtherapist into the-rapistmanslaughter into mans-laughternotable into not-ableand so on!Note: that the hyphen should beplaced at the end of the first line (toindicate that the word is to becontinued). It is not repeated at thebeginning of the next.HYPERVENTILATE OR HYPOVENTILATE90The children shouted enthusiastically as they raced towards the sea.If you are breaking a word that isalready hyphenated, break it at theexisting hyphen:Both my parents are extremely absentminded.Breaking a word always makes it looktemporarily unfamiliar. You willnotice that in printed books for veryyoung readers word-breaks are alwayscarefully avoided. Ideally, you alsowill try to avoid them. Anticipate howmuch space a word requires at theend of a line and start a new line ifnecessary. Whatever happens, avoidbreaking a word very close to itsbeginning or its end, and never breaka one-syllabled word.(ii) Hyphens are used to join compoundnumbers between 21 and 99:twenty-one twenty-fivefifty-five fifty-fifthninety-nine ninety-ninthHyphens are also used to joinfractions when they are written aswords:three-quartersfive-ninths(iii) Hyphens are used to join compoundwords so that they become one word:my son-in-lawa twenty-pound noteher happy-go-lucky smileYou will sometimes need to check ina dictionary whether a word isHYPHENS91hyphenated or not. Sometimes wordswritten separately in a ten-year-olddictionary will be hyphenated in amore modern one; sometimes wordshyphenated in an older dictionary willnow be written as one word.Is it washing machine or washingmachine, wash-basin or washbasin,print-out or printout?Such words need to be checkedindividually.(iv) Hyphens are used with some prefixes:co-author, ex-wife, anti-censorshipCheck individual words in a dictionaryIf you are in doubt.Always use a hyphen when you areusing a prefix before a word thatbegins with a capital letter:pro-British, anti-Christian, un-AmericanSometimes a hyphen is used for thesake of clarity. There is a difference inmeaning between the words in thesepairs:re-cover and recoverre-form and reformco-respondent and correspondent(v) Hyphensarealsousedtoindicatearange of figures or dates:There were 12 - 20 people in theroom.He was killed in the 1914 - 18 war.hypocrisy (not-asy)hypocritehypocritical SeeHYPE