Common Error in English

7/31/2019 Common Error in English

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The God is Discovered

Scientists at CERN, the European Organization forNuclear Research, discovered a new sub-atomic particle called Higgs Boson or

Gods Particle. The new discovery is being considered as a gateway to a new era in understanding the universes great mysteries

including dark matter. Scientists had predicted the existence of Higgs Boson, which is also referred to as Gods Particle, in 1964.

The particle was named Higgs Boson after Peter Higgs and Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose. Peter Higgs was one of six

authors who wrote the revolutionary papers covering what is now known as the Higgs mechanism and described the related Higgsfield and boson. The term God particle was first used by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Leon Lederman. The term is now a more

popular term for Higgs Boson which explains how the subatomic universe works and got started. Scientists have finally locked onto

Higgs boson, the God particle, a discovery that crowns the global scientific communitys most challenging and comprehensive

quest for the subatomic particle rightly regarded as the key to the cosmic riddle.

Organisation for Nuclear Research), Geneva, announced the discovery , in the presence of a tearful Peter Higgs, the British physicist

after whom the particle is named, and many other scientists. The breakthrough has been described as the biggest leap in physics.

An overwhelmed Higgs, 83, said: I certainly had no idea it would happen in my lifetime at the beginning, more than 40 years ago.

I think it shows amazing dedication by the young people involved with these colossal collaborations to persist in this way, on what

is a really a very difficult task. I congratulate them.

What Exactly is a Higgs boson?

Simply put, it enables particles in atoms to help invest them with mass, the basic building blocks of the universe, which include

everything from the lowliest of micro-organisms, through soil, water, minerals, plants, trees, insects, animals and mountains to themost complex life forms including humans, even entire planets and galaxies. Take away Higgs bosons from atoms and the results

would be chaotic. Their particles, comprising protons, electrons and neutrons, would zip through space with lightning speed, unable

to bind together to form atoms. Then all creation would be unthinkable. But if it is found, theres still lots of work ahead.

Bosons belong to a family of particles named after the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, a contemporary of Albert Einstein, his

German counterpart, who gave us the Bose-Einstein statistics (B-E statistics), one of the three systems which statistical mechanics,

a branch of physics, recognizes. bosons are characterized by their obedience to B-E statistics. This class of particles includes

photons as well as the Higgs boson. Higgs boson is named after Peter Higgs, the last of the 12 particles postulated by the Standard

Model of physics, the theory that describes the basic building blocks of the universe, excluding gravity. Higgs had predicted the

particles existence roughly 40 years ago. The discovery can been likened to that of the electron, a subatomic particle, the idea first

being floated in 1838, but its presence was confirmed only after 60 years.

Large Hadron Collider (LHC)

Central to the discovery is the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the worlds largest and most powerful particle accelerator, housed in amassive 27 km circular tunnel, some 175 metres underground near Geneva. It was built by Cern from 1998 to 2008, to detect the

presence of Higgs boson, besides addressing some of the most fundamental questions of physics. The LHC smashes beams of sub-

atomic particles such as protons virtually at the speed of light, recreating conditions that existed for a billionth of a second after the

Big Bang, heralding the birth of the universe. As the universe cooled, the theory goes, an invisible force known as the Higgs field

permeated the cosmos, made up Higgs bosons.

More than 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries, including a 150 from India, collaborated to erect the

superstructure.

The God particle

Most of the particles that result from the collisions exist for only the smallest fractions of a second. But finding a Higgs-like boson

was one of the biggest challenges in physics: Out of some 500 trillion collisions, just several dozen produced events with

significant data, said Joe Incandela of the University of California at Santa Barbara, leader of the team known as CMS, with 2,100

scientists.Each of the teams confirmed Wednesday that they had observed a new subatomic particle a boson. Heuer said the discovery

was most probably a Higgs boson, but we have to find out what kind of Higgs boson it is. He referred to the discovery as a

missing cornerstone of science. As the leaders of the two teams presented their evidence, applause punctuated their talks.

Understanding the God particle

Scientists say they have found hints of the existence of the Higgs boson, a never-before-seen subatomic particle long thought to be

a fundamental building block of the universe. In a highly anticipated press conference, researchers announced that two independent

experiments at the Large Hadron Collider in Geneva have turned up signs of the socalled God particle. While the experiments


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havent yet turned up enough data to confirm the Higgs bosons existence, experts say finding the elusive particle would rank as

one of the top scientific achievements of the past 50 years.

What is the Higgs boson?

The Standard Model of particle physics lays out the basics of how elementary particles and forces interact in the universe. But the

theory crucially fails to explain how particles actually get their mass. Particles, or bits of matter, range in size and can be larger or

smaller than atoms. Electrons, protons and neutrons, for instance, are the subatomic particles that make up an atom. Scientistsbelieve that the Higgs boson is the particle that gives all matter its mass. Experts know that elementary particles like quarks and

electrons are the foundation upon which all matter in the universe is built. They believe the elusive Higgs boson gives the particles

mass and fills in one of the key holes in modern physics.

How does the Higgs boson work?

The Higgs boson is part of a theory first proposed by physicist Peter Higgs and others in the 1960s to explain how particles obtain

mass. The theory proposes that a so-called Higgs energy field exists everywhere in the universe. As particles zoom around in this

field, they interact with and attract Higgs bosons, which cluster around the particles in varying numbers. Imagine the universe like

a party. Relatively unknown guests at the party can pass quickly through the room unnoticed; more popular guests will attract

groups of people (the Higgs bosons) who will then slow their movement through the room.

The speed of particles moving through the Higgs field works much in the same way. Certain particles will attract larger clusters of

Higgs bosons and the more Higgs bosons a particle attracts, the greater its mass will be.

Why is finding the Higgs boson so Important?

While finding the Higgs boson wont tell us everything we need to know about how the universe works, it will fill in a huge hole in

the Standard Model that has existed for more than 50 years, according to experts.

What next after a Higgs boson-like Particle?

The ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC Apparatus) collaboration at CERN has announced the sighting of a Higgs boson-like particle in the

energy window of 125.3 0.6 GeV. The observation has been made with a statistical significance of 5 sigma. This means the

chances of error in their measurements are 1 in 3.5 million, sufficient to claim a discovery and publish papers detailing the efforts in

the hunt. Rolf-Dieter Heuer, Director General of CERN since 2009, said at the special conference called by CERN in Geneva, It was

a global effort, it is a global effort. It is a global success. He expressed great optimism and concluded the conference say ing this

was only the beginning. Another collaboration, called CMS (Compact Muon Solenoid), announced the mass of the Higgslike

particle with a 4.9 sigma result. While insufficient to claim a discovery, it does indicate only a one- n-two-million chance of error.

The LHC will continue to run its experiments so that results revealed on Wednesday can be revalidated before it shuts down at theend of the year for maintenance. Even so, by 2013, scientists, such as Dr. Rahul Sinha, a participant of the Belle Collaboration in

Japan, are confident that a conclusive result will be out.

Why Boson

The word must surely have some European genealogy? In fact, boson is derived from Satyendra Nath Bose, an Indian physicist

from Kolkata who, in 1924, realised that the statistical method used to analyse most 19th- entury work on the thermal behaviour of

gases was inadequate. He first sent off a paper on quantum statistics to a British journal, which turned it down. He then sent it to

Albert Einstein, who immediately grasped its immense importance, and published it in a German journal. Boses innovation came to

be known as the Bose- E instein statistics, and became a basis of quantum mechanics. Einstein saw that it had profound implications

for physics; that it had opened the way for this subatomic particle, which he named, after his Indian collaborator, boson.

A win for Science over Superstition!

A lot of people dont know that many of the great discoveries in particle physics are largely exercises in statistical analys is. Flipping

a coin a dozen times will provide a very limited understanding of probability. A run of a million tosses will sharply define the limits

of probability. Getting seven heads in ten tosses is not especially noteworthy. Getting seven hundred thousand heads out of a

million tosses would reveal something real at work on the coin.

So it goes in particle physics. Small things need lots of samples to paint a complete picture. Instead of flipping coins in the air, the

physicists working on the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, use two beams of protons traveling in a vacuum at 99.9999% of the

speed of light around a 17-mile-long magnetic ring. The two beams are traveling in opposite directions and are magnetically

maneuvered to collide within a detector the size of a house. Each experimental run produces hundreds of quadrillions of collisions.


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Those collisions are individual data points that, cumulatively show the presence of... something, right where the Higgs boson, and

nothing else, ought to be. To paraphrase Joe Biden, its really kind of a big deal.

But there is another aspect of this discovery that has other, equally profound implications. This discovery is not merely the

validation of an important theory about the fabric of the universe. In a very big way, the discovery of the Higgs boson further

anchors us to a material universe that works on principles and parameters dictated by the very nature of its component parts. The

discovery is yet another demonstration of Scientific methodology as the scrupulous process by which humankind acquires and

authenticates all knowledge. The importance of this becomes more obvious when contrasted against the current resurgence of rabidreligionism, especially the unabashed and exuberant anti-intellectualism of those who assert that they hold special knowledge,

supplied by talkative deities, and who strive to supplant Science with bronze age origin fables.

CONCLUSION

The discovery of the Higgs boson is new high ground in that struggle and pushes our understanding of the universe out to a new

horizon. Higgs is a big win for science and for the smart people who know more than just answers, they know the right questions to

ask.

Topic: The Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAP)

THE MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME (MAB) of UNESCO was establi-shed in 1971 to promote interdisciplinary

approaches to management, research and education in ecosystem conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.

The MAB programmes primary achieve-ment is the creation of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 1977. This World

Network is more than a listing - biosphere reserves exchange knowledge and experiences on sustainable development innovations

across country and continent borders - they exist in more than 100 countries all across the world. Biosphere reserves are areas that

are supposed to develop innovative approaches, test them and share the results; more importantly to combine many different

approaches in a vast diversity of policy and management fields, towards a balanced relationship between mankind and nature.

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In order for an area to be included into the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, work on the ground has to have started,

appropriate information about the region gathered, the population needs to have agreed. Nominations then are prepared and

submitted to UNESCO by national governments, in most cases through MAB national committees. Benefits gained from being part

of the network include access to a shared base of knowledge and incentives to integrate conservation, development and scientific

research to sustainably manage ecosystems.

Owing to the MAB programmes focus to improving mankinds relationship with nature, MAB has gradually been seen as UNESCOs,

and as one of the United Nationss most important responses to international dialogues such as the 1992 United Nations Conference

on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Ahead of the 1990s, the MAB

programme was a research programme organized along 14 large research projects addressing ecosystems such as mountain areas,

arid lands, etc.

During the initial years of the MAB programme, the designation of biosphere reserves focused on research questions and on

environmental conservation. Hence, there are several national parks among the areas included in the network - these mostly

encompass isolated wilderness with outstan-ding biodiversity values. In the early 1990s, the MAB programmes focus shifted to

promoting interactions of mankind with nature in terms of sustainable living, income generation and reducing poverty. In biosphere

reserves, nature is not isolated from man, but it is conser-ved through using it. Hence, they are places where livelihood is sustained

- even urban greenbelts can be found among the biosphere reserves.

In 1995, the second World Congress of Biosphere Reserves held in Seville formally defined and designated a set of objectives and

procedures governing the recognition of potential biosphere reserves based on this strategic thrust (Seville Strategy and

the International Guidelines). Criteria have been set to ensure that the objectives of the programme will be met. A regular

evaluation of biosphere reserves is obligatory. Therefore, many biosphere reserves which had been inc luded during the 1970s and

1980s have in the meantime either been withdrawn from the World Network or redefined so as to remain relevant to this new

setting. All relevant decisions in the MAB Programme are taken by an intergovernmental committee, the MAB International Co-

ordinating Council (ICC): The 38 members of the ICC are government representatives which are elected for a four-year term by the

UNESCO General Conference. The Secretariat of the MAB Programme is located with UNESCO Headquarters Paris. To date, 580

biosphere reserves in 114 countries have been included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
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Hydrogen: Energy of The Future

Hydrogen - a colourless, odourless gas is increasingly gaining attention as a future source of energy free from environmental

pollution. Its new use has been found in the automobile and power generation sector. The biggest advantage with hydrogen is that

it has the highest energy content per unit mass among known fuels and it burns to produce water as a by-product. It is, therefore,

not only an efficient energy carrier but also an environmentally benign fuel as well. In fact, the Ministry of New and Renewable

Energy have been supporting a broad based research, development and demonstration (RD&D) programme on different aspects of

hydrogen energy for over two decades. Consequently, a National Hydrogen Energy Road Map was prepared in 2005 which provides

for various pathways for development of hydrogen energy i.e. production, storage, transport, safety, delivery and applications.

However, the current technologies for use of hydrogen are yet to be optimized and commercialized but efforts for the same have

already started.

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A. Hydrogen Production

Hydrogen is found only in combined state on earth and therefore its production involves the process of its isolation from its

compounds, a process which itself requires energy. Globally, about 96% of hydrogen is produced presently using hydrocarbons.

About 4% hydrogen is produced through electrolysis of water. Refineries and fertilizer plants are major in-situ producers and

consumers of hydrogen in India. It is also produced as a by-product in chloroalkali industry. Hydrogen production falls into three

categories: thermal process, electrolytic processes and photolytic processes. Some thermal processes use energy resources while in

others heat is used

in combination with closed chemical cycles to produce hydrogen from feed-stocks such as water. These are known as thermo -

chemical processes. But this technology is in early stages of development. St eam Methane Reformation, gasification of coal and

gasification of biomass are other processes of production of hydrogen. The advantage with coal and biomass is that both are locally

available resources and biomass is a renewable resource too. Electrolytic processes use electricity to split water into hydrogen and

oxygen and can even reduce the emission of green house gases emission if the source of electricity is clean.

B. Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen storage for transportation is one of the most technically challenging barriers to widespread commercialization of this

technology. The most common method of storage is in gaseous state in pressurized cylinders, however, it being the lightest

element requires high pressures. It can be stored in liquid form in cryogenic systems but would require high amounts of energy. It

is also possible to store it in solid state in the form of metal hydrides, liquid organic hydrides, carbon nanostructures and in

chemicals. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is presently supporting R&D projects in this field.

C. Applications

Apart from using it as a chemical feedstock in industry, it can also be used as a clean fuel in automobile and also for power

generation through internal combustion engines and fuel cells. In the f ield of hydrogen in internal combustion engines, R&D

projects for using hydrogen blended compressed natural gas and diesel and development of hydrogen fuelled vehicles are being

implemented in India. Hydrogen fuelled motorcycles and three wheelers have been developed and demonstrated in the country.

Catalytic combustion cookers using hydrogen as fuel have also been developed.The Banaras Hindu University, BHU has modified commercially available motorcycles and three wheelers to operate on hydrogen as

fuel. With a view to provide hydrogen blended compressed natural gas as an automotive fuel, a dispensing station for the same has

been set up at Dwarka in New Delhi with partial financial support from the Ministry. This facility provides CNG fuel blended with

hydrogen up to 20% in volume in demonstration and test vehicles. A development cum demonstration project for use of H-CNG as

fuel in select vehicles (buses, cars and 3-wheelers) is also under implementation. Besides, hydrogen fuelled generator set is being

developed by BHU and IIT, Delhi.Another application of hydrogen energy is the fuel cell, an electrochemical device converting

chemical energy of hydrogen directly into electricity without combustion. It is a clean and efficient process of electricity generation.

It can be used in UPS systems, replacing batteries and diesel generators. In view of the relevance of fuel cells in automobiles and

power generation, several organizations globally are pursuing RD&D activities in this field. Portable applications are also being
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developed. The present efforts in these fuel cells are focused on reducing its cost and improving its durability. The focus of the

FuelCell programme of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has been on supporting RD&D activities on different types of fuel

cells.

COMMON ERROR IN ENGLISH

1. Articles

1. Articles: There are three articles in Englisha, an and the. A and an are called indefinite article.The is the definite article. An

article is placed before a noun. If there is an adjective before a noun, the article is placed before the adjective:

a train, a fast train, an incident, an unusual incident

Note: We can never use a singular count noun alone, that is, without a/an/the/my/some/any etc.

2. A/an: Singular count nouns take the indefinite article a/an with them:

a ball an egg a dog an elephant

Uncount nouns do not generally take an article with them. we do not generally saya milk a beauty a wisdom

for milk, beauty, wisdom cannot be counted.

3. We use a with singular count nouns beginning with a consonant sound:

a girl a map a university a union a one-sided affair a one-rupee note

Note: That the words university, union, and one begin with a vowel but no a vowel sound. University and union begin with the

yoo sound while one begins with the w sound.

Well-known words which begin with a vowel but take a with them are:

European uniform union unit

universal usual useful eau-de-cologne

4. An: An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound:

an umbrella an opportunity an honest boy an honorable person

The letter h in honest and honourable is not sounded. Common words in English which begin with an unsounded h are:

heir heiress honest honoraryhonourable hour hourly

5. In abbreviations, if consonants begin with a vowel sound, they take an before them:

an M.P. an S.P.

But if consonants begin with a consonant sound, they take a before them:

a Ph.D. a B.Ed.

6. Note the use of a in the following phrases:

a pity a shame

a pleasure a noise

a rage a nuisance

a headache a toothache

a bad cold in a whisper

in a low voice in a loud voice

to be at a loss7. The definite Article the: The, the definite article, is a weakended form of that. It is pronounced as (di:) when it preceded a

vowel sound and as do before a consonant sound. In meaning also, it is weaker than that. Instead of pointing out, it defines,

particularises or singles out:

I have read the book you are talking of. (not any book but a particular book that is being referred to) The artists who came to seem

me today are quite accomplished. (not any artists but the ones who came to see me today)

8. In the examples given in 7, the book and the artists are particularised by two adjective clauses. In certain cases, a noun's

being particular may be clear from the context and it may not have any defining expression with it. The is also prefixed to such a

noun:


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Shut the door. (the door of the room in which we are sitting) He was brought before the Principal. (The Principal of the institution in

which he was studying) The king pardoned him. (the king we are talking about at the moment)

9. If I am looking at the picture of a room, I can talk about the ceiling, the floor, because there is only one ceiling and one floor,

but I cannot talk about the wall if there are more than one walls in the picture because I would not be talking about the only one. I

can, however, talk about the left wall and the right wall because there is only one left wall and one right wall in the picture.

10. More about the: We use the definite article the

1. with superlatives and the words used in the superlative sense:the best student in the class

the Chief Justice

the PrimeMinister

2. when special emphasis almost equivalent to the use of the superlative is intended:He is the leader today. (the greatest leader)

This is just the thing. (the right thing)

This is the way to solve this problem. (the proper way).

3. even in comparative degrees when one of the two items is singled out in preference to the other:He is the moon, the world, (But not: He is the finer batsman than others. The correct form would

be : He is a finer bats man than others.)

4. with things of which there is only one in our world, or th ings which are otherwise well known but donot begin with a capital letter:the sun, the moon, the world, the equator, the north, the east.

5. in place of possessive adjectives:I hit him on the head. (= his head) Disappointment stared him in the face.( = his face)

6. with common nouns when one noun is used to represent the whole class or species:The horse is a faithful animal.

The lion is the king of animals.

7. with an adjective with a plural notion to indicate a class of persons:The rich should help the poor. (We can say: Rich men should help poor men But not: The rich men should help the poor

men.)

8. as an adverb in case of certain comparatives: The more we get, the more we want.The harder you work, the better it will be.

9. to suggest distribution: (= each)We can buy oranges by the dozen.Cloth is sold by the metre.

Exercise

Fill in the blanks with a, an or the where necessary:

1. more you read, more you know.2. stone hit him on head.3. fox is very clever animal.4. Only rich can afford comforts ofmodern times.5. I have elder brother and younger sister. sister is wiser of the two.6. If you are looking for entertaining as well as educative magazine, this is magazine for you.7.

sun rises in east and sets in west.

8. India is a little to north of equator.9. oranges are sold by dozen.

11. Articles with Proper Nouns

1. Proper nouns, as a rule, do not take articles with them:

Shakespeare was a great playwright. (Shakespeare)

Samudragupta was a great warrior. (Samudragupta)


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2. But if a proper noun is used as a common noun, it may take with it some article:

He is a good playwright but not a Shakespeare. (not as great a playwright as Shakespeare)

Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India. (as great a playwright for India as Shakespeare is for England)

3. We need the definite article the with the names of:

Rivers the Ganga, the Yamuna

Seas and oceans the Red Sea, the Atlantic Ocean Mountain ranges the Alps, the Himalayas Holy books the Bible, the Ramcharit Manas Trains, ships the Himgiri Express, the Ashoka (the name of a ship). Newspapers and the Pioneer, magazines the Hindustan Times, the Filmfare, the portstar Well-known the Gateway of India, buildings the Red Fort, the Qutub Minar Countries (if their name contains a common noun) the U.S.A., the U.K. (In United States of America, States is a common

noun.)

Peoples, parties the English, the French, the Whigs The whole families the Khans, the Kapurs

2. Prepositions

Prepositions of Time

A number of prepositions may be used to denote time: fromMonday; after my return; during the night; till tomorrow; before the

bell rings; a quarter to ten.

In most cases, it is easy to decide which preposition to use. The following prepositions, however, need special attention.

1. At, on, in

(a) At usually denotes a definite point of time but can also be used for indefinite periods:

at 7 p.m.; at this moment; (Definite at midnight; point of time)

at the end of the class; at night; at dawn; (indefinite at Durga Puja; at Diwali. periods)

(b) On is used with days and dates:

on Monday; on 1st May;

on the annual day; on a May afternoon.

(c) In is used with parts of the day, and with months, years, seasons:

in the morning; in September;

in 2004; in winter.

(d) In is also used with the future tense to show the period in which an act ion will happen:

in a week; in four hours.

(5) In and within. In means at the end of; within means before the end of:

I shall be back in a week. (when a week is over)

I shall be back within a week. (before a week is over)

2. By

By refers to a point of future time and denotes the latest time at which an action will be over:

The competition will be over by 6 p.m.

(It should be over before it is 6 p.m., but the latest time at which it can be over is 6 p.m.)

They will have declared the result by tomorrow evening.

3. For

For is used with periods of time to show the duration of an action. It is mostly used with perfect continuous tenses though it may be

found with other tenses as well:

This discussion has been going on for two hours.

I have worked in this office for two years.

For may sometimes be omitted also:

I have been busy the whole morning.(for the whole morning)

4. Since


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Since marks the point of time at which an action began. It is used only if the action has continued till the time of speaking; hence it

is found with perfect continuous tenses. Unlike for, it can never be ommitted:

She has been teaching in this college since 2001.

A cool breeze has been blowing since morning.

5. From

From denotes the starting point of an action and is used in all cases except when the action has continued till the moment ofspeaking. It is almost invariably used with to or till:

The examination will be held from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m.

He was the Chief Minister of the state from 1999 to 2002.

6. At, in

(a) At has the idea of an exact point and is, therefore, used with houses, villages, small towns. In has the idea of a larger area and

is used while speaking of bigger towns, states, countries, etc.:

at Karol Bagh in New Delhi;

at Ambala; in England;

at the end; in the middle.

(b) At conveys the idea of a general neighbourhood; in conveys the idea of something contained:

We say at the table to take our lunch.

Please wait for me at the Regal PVR.Turn left at the next crossing.

There are two Pepsi bottles in the refrigerator.

You will find the stapler in the drawer.

7. On, upon

On is used while speaking of things at rest; upon is used with things in motion:

The file is on the table.

The dog sprang upon the table.

8. Above, over

Both above and over mean higher than. Sometimes we can use either of them:

The flags waved over our heads.

The flags waved above our heads.But over can also mean coverning, or vertically above:

My father put a blanket over me.

There is a fan exactly over the table.

9. Below, under

Both below and under mean lower than and sometimes we can use either of them. But under means

vertically below. It also has the idea of contact:

There was a beautiful lake below us in the valley.

His shoes were lying under the table.

She put the keys of the wardrobe under her pillow.

10. Into

Into denotes movement towards the interior of something:

He jumped into the well.

One stream flows into another.

Figuratively: We have entered into an agreement to export handicrafts to some European countries.

11. For

For is used to denote direction when the verb shows the beginning of a movement:

The children leaves for the school at 7 a.m.

We shall soon set off for Mumbai.


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12. Against

Against shows pressure or contact:

He threw the goods against the wall.

Prepositions of direction from. Most common among these are: from, off, out of:

13. From

From is used with the point of departure:

He brought these books from the market.

He had already gone from home.

14. Out of

It is the opposite of into. It means from the interior of:

He took a few books out of the almirah.

3. Common Errors

Section ICOMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF NOUNS

Number

1. Nouns having the Same Form in Singular as well as in Plural

(a) Nouns expressing number: two hundred people; three dozen eggs; four score oranges. But note: scores of organes; hundreds

of people.

(b) Nouns in expressions like a ten-rupee note; a five-year old child; a five-kilometre walk.

(c) Names of some animals: sheep, deer, swine.

2. Nouns used as Singular

The following nouns are generally used in the singular: alphabet, bedding, clothing, furniture, information, luggage, machinery ,

offspring, poetry, scenery, physic etc.:

3. Nouns Plural in Form but used as Singular

(a) Branches of learning: Mathematics, Physics, Mechanics, Statistics

(b) Diseases: Mumps, measles

(c) Games and sports: Billiards, draughts, gymnastics.

(d) News, summons, innings, wages:

4. Nouns always used as Plural

(a) Articles of dress: shoes, socks, trousers, pyjamas, shorts.

But a pair of shoes is singular:

Leather shoes are very costly in Russia.

A pair of shoes is all I need.

(b) Names of instruments: scissors, tongs, bellows, Spectacles, shears:

These scissors are very sharp.

My spectacles have been lost.

(c) Other nouns like alms, annals, ashes, assets, intestines, thanks, proceeds, spirits, tidings, savings, belongings, contents,

credentials, nuptials:

The proceeds of this show are being donated to the National Defence Fund.

5. Nouns Singular in Form but used as Plural

Cattle, gentry, peasantry, poultry, clergy:

The cattle are grazing in the field.

If the peasantry flourish, the country prospers.

The gentry were found uncooperative.

6. Nouns with Two Plural Forms which Differ in Meaning

Singular Plural

Brother Brothers (Sons of the same parents)

Cloth Cloths (kinds or pieces of cloth) Clothes (garments)

Genius Geniuses (persons of great talent) Genii (spirits)


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Index Indexes (tables of contents)

Indices (signs used in Algebra)

7. A pronoun must have the same gender, number and person as the noun it represents:

The girl has deposited her books at the counter. She is now coming to the library.

Mohan's son has lost his watch. He needs a new one.

8. When a personal pronoun is used as the object of a verb or a preposition, it is placed in the objective case:

I accused him of theft. (objects of a Let me do it. verb)

How long did you wait for me? (object of a preposition)

Besides him,

many others voted in my favour (object of a preposition)

9. When a pronoun is used as the complement of the verb to be, it is placed in the nominative case:

It is I. In informal conversation, they often say it is me, but if the pronoun is followed by a clause, nominative case must be used:

It is I who scored the goal.

10. The pronouns governed by than and as can be placed either in the nominative case or in the objective case depending upon the

meaning to be conveyed:

I love you more than he. (than he loves you)

I love you more than him. (than I love him)

You helped me as much as she. (as much as she helped me)

You helped me as much as her. (as much as you helped her)11. Comparison of Adjective

The comparative degree of an adjective is used to compare two things, the superlative to compare more than two things. If no

comparison is implied, we use positive degree:

Mayur is a tall boy. (No comparison, hence the positive degree of the adjective tall)

Mayur is taller than Shubham. (Comparison between two persons, hence the comparative degree of the adjective tall)

Mayur is the tallest boy in the class. (Comparison among all the boys of the class, hence the superlative degree of the adjective

tall)

Note: Comparative degree is usually followed by than; superlative degree takes with it the definite article the. See the examples

given above.

12. Double comparatives and superlatives must not be used.

Incorrect. He is more cleverer than his cousin.

Correct. He is cleverer than his cousin.

Incorrect. Mount Everest is the most highest peak in the world.Correct. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world.

13. Other

Mercury is heavier than any other metal.

Mercury is the heaviest of all metals.

In the first sentence, mercury is to be excluded from the metals, with which it is being compared. In the

second sentence it is one of them. It would be incorrect to say:

Mercury is heavier than any metal.

Mercury is the heaviest of all other metals.

14. Comparatives ending in or, superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, are followed by to and not by than. We do not use with them

more also:

He is senior to me by three years.

My pen is superior to yours.

15. Very, much(i) Very qualifies adjectives or adverbs in the positive degree, much qualifies them in the comparative degree:

She is a very intelligent girl.

Today she is looking much weaker than usual.

She runs very fast.

She runs much faster than Soumya.

(ii) Very is used with present participles when they are used as adjective; much is used to modify past participles when they have

their full verbal function:

The scenery is very charming.

The foreign policy of the government was much criticised in Parliament.


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However, if a past participle is used purly as an adjective, it is modified by very and not by much:

I felt very tired.

I am very satisfied to see your work.

Other such participle adjectives are: pleased, surprised, delighted, grieved, pained, annoyed, experienced, contented, concerned,

disappointed, interested,worried, bored, shocked, astonished, excited,

etc.

(iii) Very is used with an adjective in the superlative degree for emphasis:He is the very best student in the class.

Much is used with an adjective in the superlative degree to intensify the meaning: You are much the brightest (by the brightest)

student in the class.

16. Too

(i) Too denotes a higher degree than is desirable, natural, proper or expected. It should never be used instead of very or much. It

is incorrect to say: 'The water is too cold'. Instead, one should say: 'The water is very cold'.

(ii) Too preceded by only has a positive sense:

He is only too glad to meet his friends.

(He is extremely glad to meet his friends.)

(iii) Too much is generally used before a noun:

He take too much sugar in his tea.

You take too much care of your health.

(iv) Too means also:Have you been to the party, too?

This, too, is very important.

In speech, we use too more often than also.

17. Enough

Enough means sufficient and is always used in the positive sense. It is placed after the adjective or adverb but before the noun:

He was tall enough to reach the shelf.

I ran fast enough to overtake her.

There isn't enough room to sit down.

18. Wrong use or Omission of Prepositions

Make a careful note of the following wrong use of prepositions:

A. Where a preposition should not have been used

Incorrect Correct

1. I have ordered for dinner. I have ordered dinner.

2. The younger brother resembles to the elder. The younger brother resembles the elder.

3. I want the police to investigate into the case. I want the police to investigate the case.

4. He deeply loved with me. He deeply loved me.

5. I reached at Delhi only this morning. I reached Delhi only this morning.

6. The teacher has not yet entered into the classroom. The teacher has not yet entered the classroom.

7. Why have you picked up a quarrel with him? Why have you picked a quarrel with him?

B. Where a preposition should not have been omitted

Incorrect Correct

1. He will not listen what you say. He will not listen to what you say.

2. Have you disposed the old furniture you wanted to? Have you disposed of the old furniture you wanted to?

3. Your fault does not admit any excuse. Your fault does not admit of any excuse.

4. Could you lend me your pen to write a letter? Could you lend me your pen to write a letter with?

C. Where a wrong preposition has been used

Incorrect Correct


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1. I could not understand why he was angry upon me. I could not understand why he was angry with me.

2. Our examination begins from 1st May. Our examination begins on 1st May.

3. You are required to sign with ink. You are required to sign in ink.

4. I enquired from him where he lived. I enquired of him where he lived

D. Make a careful study of the following sentences in which the use of the infinitive is erroneous and should be

replaced by a preposition followed by a gerund or a noun:

Incorrect Correct

1. He insisted to leave immediately. He insisted on leaving immediately.

2. You should refrain to tell lies. You should refrain from telling lies.

3. The policeman prevented him to park The policeman prevented him from his car parking his car there. there

4. The invigilator prohibited the student to copy. The invigilator prohibited the student from copying.

19. That. That should not be used before interrogative adverbs or pronouns in indirect narration:

Incorrect. He asked me that when he could come to see me.

Correct. He asked me when he could come to see me.

20. Since. Since shows 'from which time'. It is preceded by present perfect tense (sometimes present indefinite tense) and followed

by past indefinite tense:

Three months have passed since he last wrote to me.

It is about a month since I met her.

21. Unless, if. Unless means if not. It should not be confused with if:

Incorrect. Unless he does not apologies, he should not be allowed to sit in the class.

Correct. Unless he apologies, he should not be allowed to sit in the class.

22. Lest. Lest means 'in order that ..... not'. It always takes should with it:

Cover your head properly lest you should catch cold.

Note. The clause beginning with lest should not be negative.

Incorrect. Let us catch a taxi lest we should not get late.

Correct. Let us catch a taxi lest we should get late.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS INCLUDING AMBIGUITIES AND INDIANISMS

Incorrect Correct

1. I hope you are keeping good health. I hope you are enjoying good health.

2. These days he is enjoying bad health. These days he is keeping bad health.

3. Many homes are lying vacant. Many houses are lying vacant

4. Are you going to your house straight from the office? Are you going home straight from the office?

5. The roads of this town are narrow. The streets of this town are narrow.

6. Let us sit in the shadow of the tree. Let us in the shade of the tree.

7. How many individuals were present in the meeting? How many persons were present in the meeting?

8. He made an interesting lecture. He delivered an interesting lecture.

9. My leg is paining. I am feeling pain in my leg.

10. The captain of our team made four goals The captain of our team scored four goals.

Common Error in English

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