UNIT 5: Developments in Dar al-Islam

Unit Essential Question: How did religious beliefs impact political and social aspects of

society?

Textbook Chapter 7: The First Global Civilization: The Rise and Spread of Islam (156-181)Textbook Chapter 8: Abbasid Decline and the Spread of Islamic Civilization to South and Southeast Asia (182-203)

World Themes: Theme 1: Humans and the Environment Theme 2: Cultural Developments and

Interactions Theme 3: Governance

Theme 4: Economic Systems Theme 5: Social Interactions and

Organizations Theme 6: Technology and Innovation

Historical Reasoning Skills targeted in Unit 5: Comparison Cause and Effect

SECTION VI: Islam1. Abbasid: Dynasty that succeeded the Umayyads as caliphs within Islam; came to power in 750 CE. 2. Abu Bakr: The first caliph or leader of the Muslim faithful elected after Muhammad’s death in 632.

Renowned for his knowledge of the nomadic tribes who then dominated the Islamic community. 3. Ali: Cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad; one of orthodox caliphs; focus of Shi’a Islam. 4. Allah: The Arab term for the high god in pre-Islamic Arabia that was adopted by the followers of

Muhammad and the Islamic faith. 5. Al-Mahdi: Third of the Abbasid caliphs: attempted but failed to reconcile moderates among Shi’a to

Abbasid dynasty; failed to resolve problem of succession.6. Baghdad: Capital of Abbasid dynasty located in Iraq near ancient Persian capital. 7. Battle of Siffin: Fought in 657 between forces of Ali and Umayyads; settled by negotiation that led to

fragmentation of Ali’s party.8. Battuta, Ibn: Born 1304; Arab traveler who described African societies and cultures in his travel

records. 9. Bedouin: Nomadic pastoralists of the Arabian Peninsula; culture based on camel and goat nomadism;

early converts to Islam. 10. Caliph: The political and religious successor to Muhammad. 11. Crusades: Series of military adventures initially launched by western Christians to free Holy Land

from Muslims. Temporary success.12. Damascus: Syrian city that was capital of Umayyad caliphate. 13. Dhimmi: Literally “people of the book”; applied as inclusive term to Jews and Christians in Islamic

territories; later extended to Zoroastrians and even Hindus. 14. Dhows: Arab sailing vessels with triangular or lateen sails; strongly influenced European ship design. 15. Five Pillars: The obligatory religious duties of all Muslims; confession of faith, prayer, fasting during

Ramadan, zakat, and hajj. 16. Hadith: Traditions of the prophet Muhammad. 17. Hajj: A Muslim’s pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca, to worship Allah at the Ka’ba.18. Harun al-Rashid: One of the great Islamic rulers of the Abbasid era

19. Hijra: The migration or journey of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina.

20. Islam: Monotheistic; second largest world religion. 21. Jihad: Struggles; often used for wars in defense of the faith, but also a term to indicate personal quests

for religious understanding. 22. Jizya: Tax paid by all nonbelievers in Islamic territories. 23. Ka’ba: Most revered religious shrine in pre-Islamic Arabia; located in Mecca; focus of obligatory annual

truce among Bedouin tribes; later incorporated as important shrine in Islam; Muslims believe it was a house of worship built by Abraham and his son Ishmael.

24. Khadijah: First wife of the prophet Muhammad, who had worked for her as a trader. 25. Maghreb: The Arabic word for western North Africa. 26. Mawali: Converts to Islam.27. Mecca: City located in mountainous region along the Red Sea in Arabian Peninsula; founded by

Umayyad clan; site of Ka’ba; original home of Muhammad; location of chief religious pilgrimage point in Islam.

28. Medina: Town located northeast of Mecca; grew date palms whose fruit was sold to Bedouin’s; became refugee for Muhammad following flight from Mecca.

29. Mosque: A place of worship for followers of Islam. 30. Muhammad: Prophet of Islam; born c. 570 to Banū Hashim clan of Quraysh tribe in Mecca; raised by

father’s family; received revelations from Allah in 610 CE and thereafter; died in 632. 31. Muslim: Term for individuals who practice the Islamic Faith. 32. Qu’ran (Koran): Recitations of revelations received by Muhammad; holy book of Islam. 33. Ramadan: Islamic month of religious observance requiring fasting from dawn to sunset. 34. Saladin: Muslim leader in the last decades of the 12th century; reconquered most of the crusader

outposts for Islam.35. Sassanian Empires: The dynasty that ruled Persia (contemporary Iran) in the centuries before the

rise of Muhammad and the early decades of Islamic expansion; mainly Zoroastrian. 36. Sect: a group with distinctive religious, political or philosophical beliefs, often an offshoot of a larger

religious group. 37. Seljuk Turks: Nomadic invaders from central Asia via Persia; staunch Sunnis; ruled in name of

Abbasid caliphs from mid-11th century. 38. Sharia: Islamic law; defined among other things that patrilineal nature of Islamic inheritance. 39. Shi’a: Also known as Shi’ites; political and theological division within Islam; followers of Ali. 40. Sunni: Political and theological division within Islam; supported the Umayyads. 41. Ulama: Orthodox religious scholars within Islam; pressed for a more conservative and restrictive

theology; increasingly opposed to non-Islamic ideas and scientific thinking.42. Umayyad: Clan of Quraysh that dominated politics and commercial economy of Mecca; clan establish

a dynasty under this title as rulers of Islam, 661 to 750. 43. Umma: Community of the faithful within Islam; transcended old tribal boundaries to create degree of

political unity. 44. Uthman: Third caliph and member of Umayyad clan; murdered by mutinous warriors returning from

Egypt; death set off civil war in Islam between followers of Ali and the Umayyad clan.45. Zakat: Tax for charity; obligatory for all Muslims

What is the Middle East?

The Middle East is a region of the world that includes parts of southwestern Asia and Egypt in North Africa. It is generally a hot and arid (desert-like) climate, but there are fertile river valleys like those of the Nile in Egypt and the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in modern-day Iraq. 

Throughout history, the Middle East has played an important role. It was the home of two ancient advanced civilizations, Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, and the area of origin of three of the world’s largest religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In addition, the region’s location between Europe, Africa, and Asia made it a center of trade and cultural diffusion. 

This area was once known as the “Near East,” but today is most often referred to as the “Middle East.”

Both of these names for the region originated in Europe in the 19th century. What does this tell us about the influence of European scholars on history? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Though there are many different religions practiced in the region, most of the people who live in the Middle East are Muslim. They practice the religion Islam, which traces back to the 7th century CE, during the post-classical era. 

Dar-al-Islam: ______________________________________________________________________

Who is considered to be the final prophet of Islam? ______________________________________

What is the holy book of Islam? _________________________________________

What is the name of the religious law that governs members of the Islamic faith? _________________________________________

Why is the year 622 significant? ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

By which two methods did Islamic empires gain land? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Modern Middle East

Directions: Write the correct name of each country in the Middle East on the spaces below.

14

15

16

1. _________________________________________ 9. _________________________________________

2. _________________________________________ 10. _________________________________________

3. _________________________________________ 11. _________________________________________

4. _________________________________________ 12. _________________________________________

5. _________________________________________ 13. _________________________________________

6. _________________________________________ 14. _________________________________________

7. _________________________________________ 15. _________________________________________

8. _________________________________________ 16. _________________________________________

Comparing Islamic RuleTask: Complete the following chart evaluating the continuities and changes of Dar-al-Islam from the Umayyads to the Mamluks.

Area of Life

Umayyad Caliphate(c. 661-750 CE)

Describe life under the Umayyad

Dynasty

Abbasid Caliphate (c.750-1258 CE)

What changed under the Abbasids and what stayed the

same?

Seljuk Turks(c.1060-1307 CE)

What changed under the Seljuk Turks and

what stayed the same?

Mamluks(c. 1250-1517 CE)

What changed under the Mamluks

and what stayed the same?

Location(s)

ReligionSecular or not? What shifted and

why?

Gender/Social RightsHow did

the role of women

change or

stay the same?

Area of Life

Umayyad Caliphate (c. 661-750 CE)

Describe life under the Umayyad

Dynasty

Abbasid Caliphate (c.750-1258 CE)

What changed under the Abbasids and what stayed the

same?

Seljuk Turks(c.1060-1307 CE)

What changed under the Seljuk Turks and

what stayed the same?

Mamluks(c. 1250-1517 CE)

What changed under the Mamluks

and what stayed the same?

CultureHow did literature

and literacy

change or stay the same?

Education

How did education change or stay the

same between

rules?What was the focus

of education?

Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE ) After the assassination of Muhammad’s son-in-law and cousin Ali, a group called the Umayyads came to power and chose Mu’awiya as the fifth caliph. Mu’awiya ruled in a time when Muslim factions fought about the nature of their government, and how religious or secular it should be. Mu’awiya emphasized the latter, moved his capital to Damascus (in present-day Syria) in 661 and began to reform the new empire’s administration. Mu’awiya modeled his government’s organization on that of the Byzantine Empire, which had recently ruled the region, even going so far as to hire Christian administrators. Mu’awiya further changed traditional Muslim governance by identifying his son, Yazid, as his successor, instead of leaving that decision up to the respected elders of the community. The Umayyads were therefore the first dynasty to rule as an Islamic empire. 

Yazid’s son, and the greatest of the eastern Umayyad rulers, was Abd al-Malik, who reigned for 20 years and transformed Muslim lands into a unified empire. Abd al-Malik spread his grandfather’s administrative reforms across North Africa and Persia, made Arabic the common language, constructed mosques in all new lands, and perhaps most importantly, unified the coinage of the empire in 696. By standardizing financial weights and measures, Abd al-Malik ensured that trade would flow smoothly across his vast lands. Abd al-Malik made another significant change when he ended the practice of featuring the ruler’s image on coins, and instead used only text, notably verses from the Qu’ran. During his reign, the Dome of the Rock Islamic Shrine, with its distinctive golden dome and beautiful calligraphy, was constructed in Jerusalem by 691. 

Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem

Abd al-Malik’s heirs completed the expansion of the Umayyad dynasty, extending its borders from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) in the west to the Indus River in the east: a distance of nearly 6,000 miles. They conquered the Iberian Peninsula after their forces had defeated Byzantine armies across North Africa- from there, they were able to successfully invade Spain from the south. They designated the city Cordoba as their Spanish capital. Cordoba, like Damascus, became a major cultural center of learning. In both of these cities, Christians, Jews, and Muslims coexisted easily in toleration, and Christians and Jews were promoted to high positions of government, furthering the secular nature of the caliphate. Umayyad Cordoba was home to the largest library in the world, where major works on law, philosophy and the natural sciences could be found. Goods and ideas were traded using ships called dhows, which had triangular sails and thin hulls.

The Umayyad set out to create a new culture by erecting great palaces, mosques, hospitals and other public buildings and by appointing non-Muslims at various administrative positions. In addition to modernizing their government, the Umayyad dynasty also encouraged learning. To be educated during this period was a sign of luxury. Mosques gradually became the core centers of educational activities, with religion and literature as the main focuses of study during this period- all in Arabic, as the common language of the caliphate. Poetry, amongst

other literary styles, was taught. The other educational institution of the Muslims was the elementary school, which was usually situated in teachers’ houses. Here, the skills of reading and writing were developed. The curriculum of these elementary schools was based upon the Quran as a reading textbook. Along with reading, the skill of writing a text was also developed there as a part of the curriculum. These elementary schools existed in mosques as well. Palaces could also be educational centers.

Changes within the Arab and widening Islamic community were accompanied by significant shifts in the position of women, both within the family and in society. Before the start of Islam, women in the tribal Middle East had few rights and were secluded and subordinated. However, as Islam spread and unified the region, Muhammad’s emphasis on moral and ethical marriages began to positively change women’s status there. Under the Umayyad dynasty, adultery was denounced, and female infanticide (a practice that was widespread in pre-Islamic Arabia) was prohibited. Though Muslim men could have up to four wives, the husband had to ensure that he would both support his wives and treat them all equally. Women’s rights to get an inheritance and to be able to divorce were also strengthened. Under the Umayyad period, women appear to have pursued a wide range of occupations, including scholarship, law and commerce.

The Umayyad expansion into Europe was stopped in the west by Charles Martel and his Frankish forces at the Battle of Tours in 732. Umayyad dominance in the east was challenged by a rising faction, the Abbasids, who joined others opposing the empire’s secular emphasis. The Abbasids brought down the Umayyads in 750 and sought to kill as many Umayyad family members as possible to avoid its later resurgence. One famous Umayyad who escaped was Abd al Rahman. He fled westward, finally making it to his family’s distant territory in Spain, where he established a western Umayyad dynasty with the capital at Cordoba, that lasted another three hundred years.

Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE ) In the 740s, a Persian-Arab coalition from Khorasan, in eastern Iran, challenged the Umayyad dynasty. By 750, they had seized power over Muslim lands. The Umayyads had been based in Syria and were influenced by its Byzantine architecture and administration. In contrast, the Abbasids moved the capital to Baghdad (present-day Iraq) in 762 and, although the leaders were Arab, administrators and cultural influence were primarily Persian. This eastward shift allowed some independent dynasties to form in the west, such as the Spanish Umayyad and later the Egyptian Fatimids. Abbasid expansion to the east also brought them in conflict with the Chinese at the Battle of Talas in 751. The Muslim army was victorious, and through Chinese captives, they learned about paper, which would replace papyrus and parchment, making Abbasid intellectual achievements easier to spread.

The Abbasid dynasties bureaucratized the Islamic Empire. This was evident in the growing power of the wazir, or chief administrator and head of the caliph’s inner councils. Wazirs oversaw the building of an administrative infrastructure that allowed the Abbasids to project their demands for tribute to the most distant provinces of the empire. For more than a century, the Abbasid regime was fairly effective at collecting revenue from its subjects and preserving law and order over much of the empire.

During the Abbasid era, caliphs wanted to get away from the secularism that had marked the Umayyad Dynasty. Therefore, mass conversions to Islam were encouraged for all peoples of the empire. Converts were seen as equal with first generation believers, and most were won over peacefully through the appeal of Islamic beliefs and the benefits that they enjoyed over non-Muslim peoples. For example, Muslims were exempt from paying certain taxes and had greater opportunities to get advanced schooling and launch careers as administrators, traders, or judges.

While the role of the Islamic religion increased during the Abbasid dynasty, the role of women began to decrease. The harem and the veil became the twin emblems of women’s increasing subjugation to men and confinement to the home in the Abbasid era. The harem was a creation of the Abbasid court, in which the wives and concubines of the Abbasid caliphs were restricted to forbidden areas of the imperial palace. Although women from the lower classes farmed, wove clothing and rugs, or raised silkworms to help support their families, rich women were allowed almost no career outlets beyond the home. Often married at puberty (legally set at age 9), women were raised to devote their lives to running a household and serving their husbands. Women also lost many personal rights, such as the right to refuse or consent to marriage. In addition, female infanticide reemerged in the Abbasid period. These shifts were due in part to the eastward shift of the Islamic caliphate. Because Baghdad was further east than Damascus (the capital of the Umayyad caliphate), leaders were closer to the influence of Asia’s more restrictive gender roles. Arabian gender roles from pre-Islamic times, which promoted the seclusion of and lack of rights for women also played a role in the restriction of women under the Abbasid dynasty.

The Abbasid political system gave rise to great scientific and literary achievements. This dynasty was known for overseeing a Golden Age of Islamic rule. Great achievements in the arts and sciences were achieved, supported by a bureaucracy that was flourishing due to profits

from trade. In a time when Europe was plunging into the “Dark Ages,” Muslim scholars translated, studied, and preserved Greek and Roman texts and accomplishments. Muslim scientists introduced the ideas of scientific observation and experimentation, the same system of the scientific method that is used today. Muslim advances in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were also based partly on their study of Greek and Indian knowledge. Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in the west, wrote the Canon of Medicine in 1025, an encyclopedia describing diseases and treatments that were far ahead of any medical work done in Europe. Much of the great literature of the period was written in Persian, as it represented the language of the caliphate. The Shahnameh (“Book of Kings”) was published around the year 1000 and describes the mythologized history of ancient Persian kings. In the 12th century, the stories known as A Thousand and One Nights were first compiled and printed in Arabic. The Abbasid rulers supported the scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers that its cities attracted. Scholars preserved existing knowledge and produced an enormous body of original learning. Baghdad in particular had spectacular mosques, street malls, and palaces. The city rivaled Constantinople in terms of wealth, population, and trade. In 786, the House of Wisdom was built in Baghdad as a private library for the caliphate, but quickly turned into a major intellectual center. Well-known Muslim, Christian, and Jewish scholars shared information and made many remarkable contributions in diverse fields. Many built on the legacy of previous Hellenistic empires. By the mid-800s, brilliant Muslim scholars—many Persian, but also Arab, Indian and Egyptian—shared their knowledge and writings in Baghdad. Hindu numerals were adapted, and the numbering system that we use today was developed by a man named al-Khwarizimi. He is considered the father of algebra. His works were translated into Latin in the 12th century and formed the basis of western mathematics. Scholars translated ancient Persian, Hindu and Greek texts into Arabic and then spread that knowledge across the vast Muslim lands, as far west as Spain, where they were translated into Latin. These texts helped Europeans become acquainted with the Greek thinkers, such as Aristotle.

The creativity that had flowed from Abbasid-ruled Baghdad for four centuries came to a crashing halt in 1258, when a Mongol invasion reached Mesopotamia. These conquerors from the east destroyed the city of Baghdad, burning its palaces and its houses of learning. Although the Mongols would eventually convert to Islam and foster their own cultural achievements, the Golden Age of the Abbasid dynasty had come to a close.

The House of Wisdom, Baghdad

The Abbasid Golden Age of IslamBackgroundIslam began in the Arabian Peninsula in the early 7th century CE.  It quickly spread throughout the Middle East before moving across North Africa, and into Spain and Sicily.  By the 13th century, Islam spread across India and Southeast Asia.  The reasons for the success of Islam, and the expansion of its empire, can be attributed to the strength of the Arab armies, the use of a common language, and fair treatment of conquered peoples

Golden AgeIslamic civilization experienced a golden age under the Abbasid Dynasty, which ruled from the mid-8th century until the mid-13th century. Under the Abbasids, Islamic culture became a blending of Arab, Persian, Egyptian, and European traditions.  The result was an era of stunning intellectual and cultural achievements.

Arts & LiteratureAccording to the teachings of the Qur'an, Islamic artists were forbidden from using human figures in religious art. Therefore, they developed a style of geometric shapes and patterns that were used to decorate religious buildings called mosques.  These geometric patterns usually contained verses from the Qur'an written in a stylized form of decorative handwriting called calligraphy. 

Non-religious artists were allowed to use human figures.  This type of work most often appears in scholarly works of science or literature, which were lavishly illustrated. Chess was brought over from India as a way to challenge the intellect of the men and women of the empire. Rulers

would invite champions of the game to chess matches at their palace. Eventually, this was transferred to the Europeans in the thirteenth century.

Islamic architects borrowed heavily from the Byzantine Empire, which used domes and arches extensively throughout their cities. An example of this use can be seen in the Dome of the Rock, a famous mosque in Jerusalem.

There were many different styles of Islamic literature.  Most works were based on the Qur'an, but some Islamic artists wrote poetry about the joys and sorrows of love. Also, stories from other cultures were adapted and rewritten for Islamic civilization.  The most famous collection is called The Thousand and One Nights, which is a collection of tales that includes such well known stories as Aladdin and His Magic Lamp. As a result, books became more available and contributed to all styles of learning. Geometric designs and calligraphy were used to decorate books, and these became a status symbol for wealthy people throughout the empire.

PhilosophyIslamic scholars translated philosophic texts from a variety of cultures.  These include works from China, India, and Ancient Greece.  Scholarly commentary written about these texts influenced a variety of cultures, including European civilizations.

Math & ScienceIslamic scholars studied both Greek and Indian mathematics before making important contributions of their own. The most well-known Islamic mathematician was al-Khwarizimi, who pioneered the study of algebra.  His textbook on the subject became a standard in European universities for centuries, and his number system that he translated from Hindu is still the number system that we use today.

Islamic scholars were also skilled in astronomy.  They studied eclipses, the rotation of the planets, and calculated the circumference of the earth to within a few thousand feet.

Medicine Many advances were also made in the field of medicine.  Physicians and pharmacists were required to pass exams before treating patients.  They set up hospitals that had separate areas for trauma cases, which became the basis for today's emergency rooms.  Physicians developed treatments for cataracts, used a variety of herbal remedies, and were adept at treating a variety of injuries. Islamic pharmacists were the first to mix sweet tasting

syrups with medicine, ensuring that they would be easier to take.  

Ibn Sina, a famous Islamic physician, wrote a book called Canon on Medicine, which was an encyclopedia of Greek, Arabic, and his own knowledge of medicine. This book became the standard medical text in Europe for over five hundred years.

Economic AchievementsUnder the Abbasids, a vast trading network was created that helped to spread religion, culture, and technology among the different peoples of the empire.  New business practices such as partnerships, the use of credit, and banks to exchange currency, were developed to handle the increase in trade.  The establishment of such vast trading networks made the many nations within the Islamic Empire very wealthy, and helped to stimulate many of their cultural and intellectual achievements

LawIslam developed a system of law based on the Qur'an.  This system was created to help people apply the Qur'an to everyday life and situations. The book of laws, called the Sharia, regulated all aspects of life including, moral behavior, family life, business dealings, and government.

City of BaghdadBaghdad, now the capital city of Iraq, was chosen by the Abbasid rulers to be the center of their empire in the eighth century. Baghdad was an ideal choice because it lay between two rivers and was at the crossroads of great trade routes. The city was built in

concentric (one inside the other) with a deep moat surrounding the circular walls. At the very hub of the city was the Caliph’s palace of marble and stone.

House of Wisdom The House of Wisdom was an educational institution founded in Baghdad in 830. At the House of Wisdom, scholars from many parts of the world translated Greek, Persian and Indian texts into Arabic on such topics as mathematics, astronomy, and logic. Scholars who came to the House of Wisdom also translated Greek classics in the areas of Philosophy and Science into Arabic.

Directions: Please make notes of Abbasid achievements in the appropriate categories.

Political Economic

Religious

Societal Intellectual

Arts/Architecture

Please compare the golden age of the Abbasid Dynasty to another golden age that we learned about.

What led to the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate?

I) Seljuk Turks:

The Abbasids remained as caliphs until 1258, but in later centuries, they were only figureheads. The Abbasid dynasty depended on regional governors for military control and the collection of taxes. By the 11th century, this decentralized system proved too weak to defend against nomadic tribesmen from the east. In 1055, Seljuk Turkmen who had gradually moved into Abbasid territory, took control of Baghdad. Their leader, Tugrul Bey, forced the Abbasid caliph to name him sultan. From that point, the empire was ruled in name by the Abbasids, but in practice by the Seljuk Turks.

The Seljuk expanded westward, defeating the Byzantines in Turkey and even taking control of Jerusalem. These challenges to Christian rule led the pope to call the first crusade in 1096. Christian knights seized and held Jerusalem until 1187, when the city was retaken by the great Muslim general, Saladin. Europeans maintained a

II) Mongols:The Siege of Baghdad ended on February 10th, 1258.Baghdad was the seat of the Abbasid caliphs from the eighth century. In 1248, however, Genghis Khan’s grandson Möngke became great khan of the Mongols and resolved to extend his sway to the Middle East and beyond that, if possible, to Syria and Egypt. Ten years later Mesopotamia was overrun by a Mongol horde under his brother Hülegü. The Mongols advanced on Baghdad and demanded the city’s surrender.It was clear that the city had no hope of resisting the Mongol army. When it surrendered, the Mongols looted it and slaughtered thousands of the inhabitants – more than 200,000, according to Hülegü’s own estimate. They also killed the Caliph, though exactly how is uncertain. David Morgan in his book on the Mongols suggests that the most likely story, told by Marco Polo among others, is that

presence in the region until the Crusades ended in 1204 and, in spite of the conflict, trade flourished between east and west. It was partly through these exchanges that the learning of Muslim scholars in the Middle East was shared with Europe.1. Describe the events that led to the end of the Abbasid Caliphate. Be sure to mention when and where the events took place, and which groups were involved.

2. Based on this article, what can you infer about the people known as the “Mongols?”

History of Seljuk TurksThe Seljuk Turkish history spanned the period from 1060 to around 1307. The Seljuks were a tribe of Tartars from Central Asia who established a powerful empire in Persia in the 11th century. They captured Baghdad in 1055. The Caliph of Baghdad was so impressed with their strength and skill that he made their leader, Tugrul Bey his deputy and conferred on him the title of "King of East and West". The Seljuks however assumed they were the rightful owners of all land conquered during the time of Prophet Mohammed and were keen to extend their kingdom. So a

contingent of around 5000 moved into eastern Anatolia and left their mark there for some time.

The Seljuk Turkish history is significant in that they are regarded as the ancestors of the Western Turks - the modern Turks of today. The Seljuk Turks were the first people to invade Anatolia [present-day Turkey] completely. With the establishment of the Anatolian Seljuk State as part of the Great Seljuk Empire began the Islamic period in Turkey. The Seljuks played a major role in the Middle Ages in defending the Islamic world against the Crusaders, and conquering large parts of the Byzantine Empire. They also did a service to Europe by providing a barrier between them and the raiding Mongols. Finally their importance lay in the fact that they paved the way for the Ottoman Turks.

Please Gist the previous reading in 25 words or less!

Beginning of the Seljuks

In their attempt to consolidate the Islamic Empire, the Seljuks entered into negotiations with the Byzantine emperors of Constantinople, or Istanbul, but border relations between the two were never congenial. Both Seljuks and Byzantines were enrolled as private troops for the Armenian-

II) Mongols:The Siege of Baghdad ended on February 10th, 1258.Baghdad was the seat of the Abbasid caliphs from the eighth century. In 1248, however, Genghis Khan’s grandson Möngke became great khan of the Mongols and resolved to extend his sway to the Middle East and beyond that, if possible, to Syria and Egypt. Ten years later Mesopotamia was overrun by a Mongol horde under his brother Hülegü. The Mongols advanced on Baghdad and demanded the city’s surrender.It was clear that the city had no hope of resisting the Mongol army. When it surrendered, the Mongols looted it and slaughtered thousands of the inhabitants – more than 200,000, according to Hülegü’s own estimate. They also killed the Caliph, though exactly how is uncertain. David Morgan in his book on the Mongols suggests that the most likely story, told by Marco Polo among others, is that

Widest borders of the Seljuks

Byzantine landowners and there was constant dispute between them.

Towards the latter part of the 11th century, when matters had reached a critical stage, the Byzantines under Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes tried to suppress the Seljuks and re-conquer Armenia. He confronted the Seljuk army in the field of Manzikert north of Lake Van in 1071, but underestimated their military prowess. The light riding Turks overpowered his army and captured Diogenes himself. After that with no Byzantine army to stop them, the Seljuk's entry into Anatolia was easy. They took control of Central and Eastern Anatolia with Konya as their capital. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum was thus formed as a part of the Great Seljuk Empire, with other major cities like Alanya, Erzurum and Sivas under its control.

Under the Seljuk Turks, women enjoyed more freedoms than they did under the Abbasid Caliphate. Although women still did not have equal rights in terms of marriage, divorce, inheritance or ownership, women were able to wield their judicial rights and the law protected the property rights of women and those in need, such as widows and orphans. This was due largely in part to the culture of the region- Anatolia- that the Turks originated from. Tribes from this area were nomadic, which promoted a more gender-equal society, as the contributions of all were essential to survival.

Draw a picture illustrating the main idea of the previous reading

Contributions of Seljuks to Turkish HistoryThe Seljuk Turks were an enlightened lot under whom a great culture flourished. They formed a tolerant government and contrary to popular belief, were not instigated to persecute Christians by their Islamic policies. The Seljuks were tolerant of race, religion and gender and ruled over a population comprising of Greek-speaking Christians and a few Jews.

The Seljuk period in Turkish history also saw great progress in literature, architecture and religion. Poets and scholars found patronage and flourished under them. You will find a blend of Central Asian, Islamic Middle East and Anatolian influence in Seljuk art and culture.

Arabic was the language of the scholars; Persian was the official state language while the common man in the street spoke Turkish. The great mathematician and poet Omar Khayyam

belonged to this period. Another prominent figure of this time was Jelaleddin Rumi - the Muslim mystic, theologian and poet. His spiritual leadership was noteworthy and he had a large following. He was known as the Rumi Mevlana. He graced the court of Alaadin Keykubat I, the Sultan of Rum from 1220-1237, and initiated the Sufi order of "whirling dervishes".

Seljuk power was at its zenith during the reigns of Sultans Alp Arslan (1063-72) and Malki Shah (1072-92) who helped revive Sunni Islamic administrative and religious institutions. They developed armies of slaves (mamelukes) to replace the Nomad warriors, as well as an elaborate bureaucratic hierarchy that provided the foundation for governmental administration in the Middle East until modern times. The Seljuks revived and reinvigorated the classical Islamic educational system, developing universities (madrasahs) to train Bureaucrats and religious officials.

Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Seljuks to Turkish history has been towards Turkish architecture. Because of a tolerant government and their inclination towards religious and cultural development, huge mosques, theological seminaries, hospitals and caravanserais were built during this period.

The Central Asian tradition of mummifying the dead and keeping them in a tent for six months gave rise to the construction of domed tombs and turbe, which you find scattered in Anatolia. Seljuk architecture is characterized by its use of brickwork. The buildings were decorated with relief work, which created a beautiful interplay of light and shade in the sunlight. So beautiful was the effect that Seljuk architecture is often described as 'poetry in stone'. The famous Seljuk tiles were the most significant product of the times. When the Seljuks inter-married they made small Christian states their vassals and small Muslim states thrived all over east and central Anatolia. That is why you will find plenty of Seljuk architecture in Turkey even today.

The common motifs in Seljuk artwork were lions, bulls, double-headed eagles, dragons and astrological motifs like planets or the tree of life.

During the Seljuk period, cities prospered in wealth and population. The Seljuks had a well-organized system of international trade and for the first time introduced insurances for the losses of traders. Realizing the importance of transit trade, they developed caravanserais, or inns, for the needs of the tradesmen on the account of the state.

Draw a picture illustrating the main idea of the previous reading:

Decline of the SeljuksThe Seljuk Empire in Persia was at its peak during the reign of Alp Arsalan and his son Malik Shah. With the death of Malik Shah, began the decline of this great empire. The borders of the Seljuk Sultanate were under constant pressure from the Crusaders in the west, the Arabs in the south and the Mongols in the east. A quarrelling and faction-ridden Seljuk dynasty was unable to withstand the onslaught and by 1192, it ended in obscurity.

Once the decline of the great Seljuks began, the lesser Seljuk clans established their own principalities throughout Anatolia. But on June 26th, 1243, the Seljuk army was defeated at Kose Dagi, outside the city of Siva by the Mongol descendants of Genghis Khan. Subsequently, the remaining Turkish clans were reduced to the role of vassals. The Mongols however, withdrew just as suddenly as they came, leaving behind many small states led by obscure chieftains. One among them - Osman was to later found an extensive empire that came to be known as the Ottoman Empire.

Please Gist the previous reading – 20 words or less!

Causes of the Crusades

   

Based on the excerpt from Pope Urban II’s, Council of Clermont speech, what did many European Christians think of the Muslims at this point in history? Why did they think of the Muslims in this way?  _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

 Pre-AP/IB REVIEW  

____________________________________ is a holy city containing some of the most significant religious sites of all three monotheistic faiths: __________________, ____________________________, and ___________________________.   

As Muslim armies began to conquer new lands in the 600s, they captured the region of _______________________ containing the city of Jerusalem from the ___________________________________ Empire.   

In the year 1054, Christianity split over its leadership with ______________________ allegiant to the ______________________ in Rome, and ________________________________________ allegiant to the Patriarch of Constantinople.   

During the Middle Ages, ________________________________ was the dominant religion of feudal Europe, and _____________________________ was the dominant religion of the Middle East. 

 

What were the Crusades? ___________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Causes and Goals:  

 Religious motives: The Seljuk Turks (Muslims) took control of ______________________ (the Holy Land) in 1071, and reduced the access that European Christians had enjoyed to these lands.  European Christians had been making pilgrimages to the holy sites associated with Jesus for centuries.   

 

Social trends of the 11th century also added to the motives of Europeans.  Typically, the eldest son of a noble inherited the family’s entire estate.  This left a generation of younger sons without access to ____________________________ and _________________________.  Landed nobles saw a military campaign as a way to divert the ambitions of these younger nobles who often pillaged the lands of neighboring lords.   

Economic motives:  Merchants began to desire access to the trade routes through the Middle East to without interruption from the Turks who charged tariffs (taxes) on goods or to pass through lands.   

In 1095, the ______________________ Emperor Alexius I reached out to Pope Urban II requesting soldiers to help him combat the Seljuk Turks, who continued to threaten the borders and stability of the empire.   News of persecutions and massacres of Christian pilgrims by the Seljuk Turks only heightened the alarm of Alexius and the Patriarch of Constantinople.   

Pope Urban II had two objectives: to reclaim _______________________________________________, and to potentially _________________ the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches after the Schism that occurred forty years earlier.   

The Pope appealed to Christians by promising __________________________________________________________ for all who joined.   Knights felt ____________ enthusiasm and wanted ___________, ___________, and _____________________.   __________ joined, hoping to gain more rights, freedoms, or property. 

Merchants from Italian cities along the Mediterranean, such as Venice, hoped to gain control of key ___________________________ from Muslim traders.  

 Answer the following   b ased on the excerpt from Mankind: A Story of All of Us:

 1) What was your reaction to the video? What stood out to you? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________  2) In the excerpt, it is stated that the different groups of people in Palestine “have more in common than they have differences.”  If this is the case, why do you think the Crusades continued for nearly 200 years? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

 3) What changes over time do you think the first Crusade will bring? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Analyzing Primary Sources from the Crusades

A. Pope Urban IIIn 1095, Pope Urban II issued a plea that resulted in the First Crusade. The pope assured his listeners that God

was on their side.

B. SaladinSaladin wrote this letter to a European monarch after

Muslims had recaptured Jerusalem between the Second and Third Crusades. Saladin assured his listeners that

God was on the side of the Muslims.

C. Solomon bar Simson

In 1140 Simson, a Jew living in Palestine documents atrocities during the First Crusade.

Let the holy sepulcher (tomb) of our Lord and Saviour, which is possessed by the unclean nations, especially arouse you…This royal city [Jerusalem], situated at the center of the earth, is now held captive by the enemies of Christ and is subjected, by those who do not know God, to the worship of the heathen. Accordingly, undertake this journey eagerly for the remission (elimination) of your sins, with the assurance of the reward of imperishable glory in the kingdom of heaven.

Whenever your armies are assembled…we will meet you in the power of God. We will not be satisfied…we will cross over with God’s good pleasure and take from you all your lands in the strength of the Lord…And when the Lord, by His power, shall have given us victory over you, nothing will remain for us to do but to freely take your lands by His power and with His good pleasure…By the virtue and power of God we have taken possession of Jerusalem and its territories; and of the three cities that still remain in the hands of the Christians…we shall occupy them also.

In the year four thousand eight hundred and fifty-six (1096 in the Christian calendar)…inflicted upon the Jewish people were the many evils related in all the admonitions. At this time an arrogant people, a people of strange speech, a nation bitter and impetuous, Frenchmen and Germans, set out for the Holy City, which had been desecrated by barbaric nations, there to seek their house of idolatry and banish the Jews and other citizens of the land and conquer the land for themselves. They decorated themselves prominently with their signs, placing a profane symbol- a horizontal line over a vertical one- on the vestments of every man and woman whose heart yearned to go on the stray path to the grave of their Messiah. When the Jewish communities became aware of their intention, they resorted to the custom of our ancestors, repentance, prayer, and charity.

1. Examine the point of view of each of the sources. What is the purpose of each speaker, and how is his point of view reflected in the language used in his accounts? Pope Urban II:

Saladin:

Solomon bar Simon

2. What similarities exist between the speeches of Pope Urban II and Saladin? Support at least two, citing specific text-based evidence.

What were the effects of the Crusades?Directions : Use the pictures and your knowledge of the Crusades to try and figure out the effects the Crusades had on Europe, and the Middle East.

1. 2. The Eurasian and African World System in the 15th Century

The power of Kings _________________________________._____________________________________________ while the power of future popes ______________________.

_____________________________________________

*The rift between the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox also widened.

3. 4. Italian Trade Routes

____________________________________________ ____________________________________________

____________________________________________ ____________________________________________

____________________________________________ ____________________________________________

5. 6. The Byzantine Empire After the Crusades

____________________________________________ __________________________________________________________

____________________________________________ __________________________________________________________

7. 8.

The Holy Land

“See ya!”

__________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

The Slave Warriors Who Saved The Muslim World: The Mamluk Sultanate Of Egypt

Source: Muhammad Yousuf Shuwekh, June 11, 2017

The Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo is a standout epoch in Islamic history and is perhaps the grandest example of a rags-to-riches story. The Mamluks left behind a fascinating legacy, fraught with controversy, political assassination and factional conflict - the perfect plot for the next blockbuster TV series. The Mamluks of Egypt would rise from mere servants to commanders of a vast empire which would eventually encompass Egypt, Hijaz (Arabian Peninsula) and the Levant (the Holy Land).  

The word Mamluk (singular) or Mamalik in the Arabic language means “something that is owned” and can be used more generally to refer to slaves who were used for military purposes by various Islamic empires throughout history including in the Abbasid period and also emerging in India.

The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt lasted in an intermittent form between 1250 and 1517. The Mamluks were mostly made up of ethnic Turks who had ancestral ties with the Turkic Kipchaks, they were originally acquired as slaves but were given a higher status within the empires they served, being provided extensive military training and education in the Islamic sciences. Their emergence begins within the 10th century under the famed Ayyubid dynasty founded by Salahuddin Al Ayubi. Under the Ayyubids the Mamluks were given extensive military positions and were an integral part of the military structure. After the final substantive Sultan As-Salih Ayyub passed away following his successful campaign against the 7th crusade, a convoluted series of events resulted in the Mamluks effectively inheriting the seat of power.

The first of the Mamluk Sultans was Izz al-Din Aybak who also happened to marry Shajar al-Durr the widow of the final Ayyubid Sultan As-Salih Ayyub. Aybak inherited power as a result of Shajar's abdication as the Sultana (Female Sultan) of Egypt. In a bizarre turn of events, Aybak was murdered by Shajar after his decision to strategically marry the daughter of the Emir of Mosul. Aybak's reign lasted a mere 7 years and his adolescent son inherited power being put in place by an assembly of loyalist Mamluks known as the Mu'iziyya Mamluks who

were principally led by the renowned Saif ad-Din Qutuz. Following in the tradition of his father Aybak's son ruled for a meagre two years and thereafter Saif ad-Din Qutuz ascended to power.

Qutuz is perhaps the most illustrious Sultan of the entire Mamluk period despite ruling for an even shorter period than his predecessors. Qutuz was a Kipchak originally enslaved by the Mongols and later sold to Aybak the Ayyubid Sultan. As the leader of the Mamluks, Qutuz led the first ever army to defeat the Mongols on the battlefield an achievement that has cemented his vestige in Islamic history centuries on. His reign was followed by that of Baibars who reigned for 54 years, under Baibars the Mamluks firmly established their government and made significant territorial gains wiping out Crusaders in the Levant and unifying Egypt and Syria.

The Mongols And The Mamluks

The Battle of Ain Jalut was a defining moment in the formation of the Mamluk state and is also the reason behind Qutuz and Baibars renown in relation to other Mamluks Sultans. The Battle of Ain Jalut was initiated after the sacking of Baghdad and the continued advance of the Mongol army. At the time Baghdad was considered the ‘capital’ of the Islamic world and numerous tales tell of the devastating attack when the Tigris river ran red with blood and the ink of books turned the water black. The attack on the Islamic capital of Baghdad which also contained the House of Wisdom library (Bayt al-Hikma) sent shockwaves throughout the empire, and this sentiment was further exacerbated by a letter sent by the Mongol leader Hulagu to the Mamluk leadership.  

“From the King of Kings of the East and West, the Great Khan. To Qutuz the Mamluk, who fled to escape our swords. You should think of what happened to other countries and submit to

us. You have heard how we have conquered a vast empire and have purified the earth of the disorders that tainted it. We have conquered vast areas, massacring all the people. You

cannot escape from the terror of our armies. Where can you flee? What road will you use to escape us? Our horses are swift, our arrows sharp, our swords like thunderbolts, our hearts as

hard as the mountains, our soldiers as numerous as the sand. Fortresses will not detain us, nor armies stop us. Your prayers to God will not avail against us. We are not moved by tears nor touched by lamentations. Only those who beg our protection will be safe. Hasten your

reply before the fire of war is kindled. Resist and you will suffer the most terrible catastrophes. We will shatter your mosques and reveal the weakness of your God and then

will kill your children and your old men together. At present, you are the only enemy against whom we have to march.”

Qutuz’s response to the letter was damning and he responded by killing the two envoys who had delivered the message, placing their decapitated heads on spikes outside the entrance of the city of Cairo. The Mongols swept through the Muslim lands taking Baghdad as well as cities in Syria such as Damascus and Aleppo. With the Mongol advance threatening the centre of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt the Mamluks were pressed to make a decision and Qutuz eventually led an army through the Levant region to meet the Mongols on the battlefield. Both Qutuz and Baibars participated in the battle and through skilful military tactics which included a carefully orchestrated attack and retreat manoeuvre the Muslims were able to conclusively defeat the Mongols and halt the western advance. A landmark achievement at the time as the Mongols had never previously lost in combat.

A Mamluk Soldier at Ain Jalut

Qutuz had successfully done what many other commanders before him had failed to do but unfortunately for him, his attainment was not enough to spare him his life. While returning to Cairo he was assassinated by the very men he had led in battle. There are debates around who exactly was responsible for his death however evidence seems to suggest Baibars was involved in Qutuz’s demise. Baibars then went on to reign for 54 years, it was under his rule that the Mamluks firmly established their government and made significant territorial gains wiping out Crusaders in the Levant and unifying Egypt and Syria.

The Mamluk Sultanate is described as an 'intermittent empire' due to it having two unique periods of existence. The Sultanate can be characterised under two forms, the early Bahri period (1250 - 1382) and the Burji dynasty (1382 – 1517). Generally, the Bahri period is seen to be the more stable and successful period whereas the Burji dynasty was fraught with controversy and infighting.  

Religion

In regards to the long-term contributions of the Mamluk sultanate one area which can not be dismissed was the cultivation of religious scholarship. The Sultanate generally adhered to the Shafite school of thought. However, under the rule of Baibars, multiple schools of thought were facilitated for, creating a hub of Islamic scholarship. The emergence of the Mamluk

Sultanate created a breadth of scholarship of which the Muslim world is indebted to till this day. This era saw the works of figures such Imam Nawawi, Jalaluddin Suyuti, Ismail Ibn Kathir, Taj al-Din Subki, Al Dhahabi, Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn Hajar and Ibn Al Qayyim to name but a few.

The Sultan Hassan Mosque in Cairo, construction began in 757 AH and it is still operational to this day.

The relationship between religious clergy and government was not always a smooth one. Although Ibn Taymiyyah is perhaps one of the most renowned scholars of this time his views were not representative of the Sultanates conventional ideas and he often found himself in conflict with the judicial system.

The Mamluks did not consider themselves Caliphs of the Muslim Ummah rather they held in great esteem the Khalifa of the former Abbasid empire. Although the Abbasids had fallen into decline and the Mamluk sultans had acquired total political control, as a general policy they never took up the position of Khalifas of the Muslim world. Instead, the members of the Abbasid family held the symbolic title of Khalifa and were used to legitimise the Sultans control over the Muslims.

The Fall

Towards the end of the Burji dynasty, a series of events including poor military decisions and infighting resulted in the weakening of the Mamluk state and a new Muslim dynasty was rising in the North. The Ottoman Turks after a successful campaign against the Safavids made their way through Syria and after successfully defeating the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj Dabiq they were able to annexe Syria, paving the way for a final attack on the Mamluk heartland of Cairo. The Mamluks finally lost control of Egypt in 1517 at the hands of Ottoman Sultan Selim I. Similar to the Mamluk-Ayyubid relationship after their ascension to power the Ottomans kept the Mamluks in control of Egypt but as subordinates to the ultimate power in Constantinople.  

Looking back at this point in Islamic history the Mamluks contribution to Islam was incredibly important. If the battle of Ain Jalut was lost the Mongol advance would have been orchestrated with relative ease, crushing the Mamluk capital in Cairo and making its way to North Africa. If it weren’t for the efforts of the Mamluks against Mongol and Crusader armies, Islam in Africa and the Levant may have been under severe threat. The lessons one can take

from the Mamluks is one of perseverance and dedication, the Mamluks fought as loyal servants and were able to rise to the honoured position of leaders of an empire that saved the Islamic world.