Combating Desertification: Traditional Knowledge and Modern ...

COMBATING DESERTIFICATION

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND MODERNTECHNOLOGY

FOR THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OFDRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOPELISTA, REPUBLIC OF KALMYKIA,

RUSSIAN FEDERATION23–27 June 2004

UNESCO–MAB Drylands Series No. 4

This workshop was organized by:

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB)

Kalmyk Institute for Humanities Research

MAB National Committee of Russia

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOPELISTA, REPUBLIC OF KALMYKIA,

RUSSIAN FEDERATION23–27 June 2004

COMBATING DESERTIFICATION

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND MODERNTECHNOLOGY

FOR THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OFDRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinionsexpressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO or any of the specialized agencies of the United Nations

system.The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expressionof any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UNESCO Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city

or area or of its authorities, or the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

UNESCO–MAB Drylands Series No. 4Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Elista, Republic of Kalmykia, Russian Federation

23–27 June 2004

First Published 2005UNESCO

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should be addressed to UNESCO, Division of Ecological and Earth Sciences, 1, rue Miollis, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France

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Contents

Preface by N. Ishwaran, Secretary, Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, ixDirector, Division of Ecological and Earth Sciences, UNESCO

Opening session

Welcoming address xiPresident of the Republic of Kalmykia, Kirsan N. Ilumzhinov

Introductory address xiiiDeputy Chair of the Russian MAB Committee, Valery M. Neronov

Introductory address xvChair of the Southern Research Centre of RAS, Gennadiy G. Matishov

Traditional knowledge and modern technology for the sustainable xviimanagement of marginal drylandsDr Driss Fassi, President of the MAB International Coordinating Council

Keynote address

Traditional knowledge as a factor of ecological consciousness: xixformation and conservation of the environment. The Republic of Kalmykia experienceNina G. Ochirova

Session 1: General problems and management of agricultural systems

1 Traditional knowledge and modern technology for the sustainable management 1of dryland ecosystems: UNESCO’s objectives for the workshopThomas Schaaf

2 Local knowledge systems and the management of dryland agro-ecosystems: 5some principles for an approachDavid Boerma and Parviz Koohafkan

3 Poverty of the environment and the environment of poverty: constraints on adopting 17modern technology and promoting traditional knowledge in combating land degradation and povertyMohammed A. Kishk

4 Reinventing the wheel: floodwater management for the rehabilitation of 23degraded landsSayyed A. Kowsar

5 Traditional knowledge and modern technology for sustainable development of 29dryland ecosystems: the Indian experienceVeena Upadhyaya

6 Traditional knowledge and modern technology for sustainable agricultural 35development in the drylands of SudanMukhtar A. Mustafa

7 Management of degraded soil rehabilitation processes in Azerbaijan 45by traditional methodsMageram P. Babayev

vv

vi

8 Omayed Biosphere Reserve and its hinterland 53Boshra Salem

Session 2:Traditional knowledge and modern technology in pastoral systems

9 Space imagery processing for land use and rehabilitation of ecosystems in 63desertified conditionsGerman Kust, Dmitriy Dobrynin and Anatoliy Saveliev

10 Traditional and modern technologies for sustainable development of Turkmenistan 69Agadzhan G. Babaev and Chary O. Muradov

11 Integration of traditional knowledge and modern technologies for the sustainability 75of dryland ecosystems in MongoliaBaast Oyungerel

12 Traditional knowledge in Moroccan drylands 81Driss Fassi, Secretary MAB National Committee, Rabat, Morocco

Session 3:Traditional knowledge and modern technology for wildlife management systems

13 Indigenous knowledge of plant uses in arid lands: Wadi Allaqi case study 85Irina Springuel

14 Traditional knowledge and practical techniques for combating desertification in Jordan 93Ahmad El-oqlah

15 Natural resource management in the Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area 99Davaa Narantuya and Tserendeleg Dashzeveg

16 The biodiversity of agroforest landscapes of Kalmykia 107Andrey P. Bogun

Session 4: Poster presentations

17 The ecological traditions of the Kalmyks 109Tamara G. Basangova

18 An ecological aspect of Buddhist iconography 111Svetlana Batyreva

19 Nature-preserving aspects of ethnic culture 113Ludmila U. Namrueva

20 Folk knowledge in the life-support system of the Kalmyk ethnos 117Ellara Omakaeva

21 Traditional knowledge in the Kalmyk Republic as a basis for the development of 125ethno-economicsKermen A. Natyrova

22 Ecological restoration and increase of productivity of degraded arable lands 127Galina E. Nastinova

23 Phytomelioration of saline lands in Kalmykia 131Elvira B. Dedova

24 Oasis-type hydro-meliorative systems under Kalmyk conditions 137Mikhail A. Sazanov

25 The effects of constructing linear structures on pasture ecosystems 147Raisa R. Djapova, Zoya M. Sankuyeva and Nadezhda B. Kenzeyeva

26 Halophytes of natural flora and their use for breeding and phytomelioration of 149degraded pasture ecosystemsNariman Shamsutdinov

27 Chernyje Zemli Biosphere Reserve and its role in the conservation of biodiversity 155in dryland ecosystemsViktor Badmaev and Boris Ubushaev

28 Problems of conservation and monitoring of biodiversity in dry steppe areas 159around Lake Manych-GudiloNatalya V. Lebedeva and Ramiz M. Savitsky

29 The saiga antelope in the drylands of Russia and how to ensure its sustainable future 163Yury Arylov, Anna Lushchekina and Valery Neronov

30 Restorational succession on deposits 167Raisa R. Djapova and Olga G. Bembeeva

31 Tolerance of soils in conditions of desertification 169Lydmila N. Tashninova

Workshop report: conclusions and recommendations 171

Workshop agenda 173

List of participants 177

List of acronyms 181

vii

also aimed at finding solutions to desertification thatcould specifically be incorporated into NationalAction Programmes within the context of the UNConvention to Combat Desertification. The work-shop had thus a scientific but also an anthropologicalcomponent as well as a policy-oriented purpose.UNESCO is pleased to offer the various case studiescontained in the workshop proceedings to theUNCCD for its important work on reducing drylanddegradation and combating desertification.

It was thus an important event which proved success-ful thanks largely to the excellent organization providedby the MAB National Committee of the Russian Feder-ation, and notably Dr Valery Neronov, as well as by theKalmyk Institute of Humanities Research who providedthe international participants of the workshop with first-hand insight information on dryland conservation,management and sustainable development. I would liketo take this opportunity to thank all the participants whoattended the workshop with a special mention andthanks to the scientists whose tireless work is a continualand important reminder of the need to ensure the use oftraditional knowledge and methods – coupled withmodern technology – in our unified combat againstdesertification.

N. IshwaranDirector, Division of Ecological

and Earth SciencesUNESCO

ix

Preface

Traditional methods of farming and range managementpractices in the Republic of Kalmykia (Russian Federa-tion) had been disregarded and undervalued for manydecades as regional economic growth privileged moderntechnology as a means of increasing productivity. Manyother dryland regions of the world are in a similar situa-tion as ‘modernity’ is often associated with abundance,prosperity and a certain emancipation from the hard toilof working the land.Today however,we are witnessing areversal of this trend and a return towards traditionalmethods that rely on local technical know-how andpractices to restore degraded lands while halting deserti-fication processes that threaten the livelihoods of localpeople; combating desertification is also a fight againstpoverty.

The United Nations Convention to Combat Deser-tification (UNCCD) recognizes the role of ‘traditionalknowledge’ in Article 18 of the Convention stating thatsuch technology should be ensured, encouraged andfacilitated when attempting to combat desertification.There is much valuable information to be learnt fromthe traditional lifestyles of the Kalmyk people and otherrural communities the world over, which have evolvedover centuries and have thus carved both the natural andcultural landscape.This traditional knowledge can formthe basis of site- and context-specific solutions incombating desertification in the world’s dryland areas.

One of the main objectives of the workshop on‘Traditional Knowledge and Modern Technology forthe Sustainable Management of Dryland Ecosystems’held in Elista, Republic of Kalmykia (RussianFederation, 23–27 June 2004) was to explore theextent of traditional methods as a complement toexisting modern technologies to assist dryland bio-sphere reserves in the rehabilitation of degraded areasin their transitional and buffer zones. The workshop

xi

OOppeenniinngg sseessssiioonn

Welcoming address

Kirsan N. Ilumzhinov, President of the Republic of Kalmykia

Dear participants in the workshop,Dear guests,

I greet you, the representatives of the different countriesof the world on Kalmyk land, known for its wealth andthe beauty of the wide steppe that is celebrated by poets.It is deeply symbolic that the international workshoporganized by UNESCO on the traditional knowledgeand modern technology in combating desertificationshould be conducted in Kalmykia.

The nomadic lifestyle and seasonal change ofpastures allowed our ancestors to preserve the topsoil ofthe steppe. Modern changes in the landscape and envi-ronment have had a severe effect on the biodiversity ofthe steppe region. Intensive use of the land that ignored

ecological factors and traditional folk knowledge hasupset the natural balance.The successful adaptation oftraditional knowledge to modern living conditions willenable dynamic development in all spheres of our socialand economic life.

UNESCO’s international workshop held in Elista isconvincing evidence of the integration of scientific andpractical processes. I am sure that this workshop willsolve the actual ecological problems more quickly andensure the sustainable development of Kalmykia! I wishyou creative success, constructive debate, good healthand personal welfare.

Kirsan N. IlumzhinovPresident of the Republic of Kalmykia

place in the Republic of Kalmykia is a very goodopportunity for a wide exchange of experience andknow-how gathered from the different dryland coun-tries of Africa, the Middle East and Asia.This shouldhelp to solve certain environmental problems not onlyin Chernyje Zemli ecoregion but also in other drylandareas of Russia.

As you know, the Russian Federation straddles twocontinents:Europe and Asia. Accordingly,our Commit-tee is participating in the activities of UNESCO/MAB,which involve such regional networks as EuroMAB andEABRN. We started our participation in UNESCO’sMan and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme in 1974 andhave since conducted fourteen international MAB proj-ects, in which 3,000 scientists and specialists of variousfields have taken part. All the USSR Republics took anactive part in this programme, and in 1979 in Kiev,Ukraine, the first united plenum of all the MABCommittees of the Republics took place, as well as ascientific conference. So, in 2004 we celebrate twoimportant jubilees in the history of the MABProgramme in our country.

It is worth mentioning that the practice of conduct-ing combined meetings and conferences to evaluate thepractical and scientific results of the MAB Programmecontinued until the break up of the USSR.Among thethemes discussed at these meetings, along with othertypes of ecosystems, relevant attention has been given tograsslands, semi-arid and arid zones.The recommenda-tions for restoration and enrichment of dryland pastureshave been highly appreciated, and the academicianN. Nechaeva and her collaborators have received theState Prize for their innovative approach. I am sure theprevious scientific achievements and recommendations,in addition to traditional knowledge,will not be forgot-ten and will produce outstanding results in the newmillennium, even bearing in mind the impacts ofcurrent global changes in environment and climate.

From the bottom of my heart I wish the participantsto this workshop an enjoyable stay in Kalmykia, and thebest results in analysing the different models and ways toachieve the sustainable development of drylands. I amsure these results will be very valuable for implementingthe ecosystem approach, one of the priorities of theConvention on Biological Diversity.

Valery M. NeronovDeputy Chair

Russian MAB Committee

xiiiOpening session

Introductory address

Valery M. Neronov, Deputy Chair of the Russian MAB Committee

Dear Dr Schaaf and all esteemed participants of theUNESCO Workshop, dear Mr Akuginov, dear MrKugultinov,

On behalf of the Russian MAB National Committeeand the National Commission of the Russian Federationfor UNESCO,I welcome you to this beautiful Palace ofChess,constructed a few years ago in the hospitable landof the Republic of Kalmykia. It is necessary to empha-size that our Committee has for a long time benefitedfrom fruitful cooperation with the Government of theRepublic of Kalmykia, and I wish to take this opportu-nity to express my gratitude to the Government andparticularly to the President of the Republic ofKalmykia, Mr Kirsan Ilumzhinov, for supporting anumber of projects initiated by our Committee in theterritory of this Republic.

The first dryland Biosphere Reserve in Russia,‘Chernyje Zemli’, was endorsed by UNESCO’s MABSecretariat in the Republic of Kalmykia in 1993. In2002, in Elista, the capital of the Republic of Kalmykia,an International workshop was held on the conservationof the saiga antelope,which is a key species in the drylandecosystems of the northwestern Pre-Caspian region andCentral Asia. Following the recommendations of thisworkshop,the Centre for Captive Breeding of Saigas wasenlarged and received funding from the Government ofthe Republic of Kalmykia as well as some internationalwildlife foundations. A visit to this centre has beenincluded in the programme of the workshop. In 2003,with the help of the ROSTE/UNESCOVenice Office,our Committee conducted a training course for localfarmers and a demonstration of renewable energy tech-nologies, also in Elista.We hope such ecologically cleansources of energy will help to improve livelihoods inrural areas.This aspect has a direct connection with thetasks at hand in the present workshop.

The Chernyje Zemli ecoregion of the Republic ofKalmykia is well known in old Russian literature as aregion of intensive livestock husbandry. In more recenttimes, due to irrational agricultural management in theformer Soviet Union, it became known as the firsthuman-made desert in Europe. Under the workshopprogramme, we will be visiting Chernyje Zemli eco-region and will learn about activities within the transi-tion and buffer zones of Chernyje Zemli BiosphereReserve. In this context, the International Workshop onTraditional Knowledge and Modern Technology for theSustainable Management of Dryland Ecosystems taking

for the ‘Biological Bases of Water System Manych-Chograi Restoration: Water Regulations, NatureProtection Monitoring, Bioresources’, with supportfrom the Russian Academy of Sciences and the gover-nor of the Rostov region.The need to develop such aprogramme has been emphasized by various factors:the accelerated deterioration of water resources as aresult of an irrational water–economic policy in theregion; the catastrophic loss of bioresources; the impor-tance of the programme in terms of nature protectionunder the international obligations of the RussianFederation; soil desertification; advancing degradationof agricultural land due to soil salinization; flooding andpollution; and the sanitary and hygienic, social andeconomic dynamics of the region.

The importance of social and organizational factorsmust be remembered when studying the origin of theseproblems:the gap between science and management;thelack of integration of academic, departmental and high-school science;the gap between the development,adop-tion and execution of legislative and other measures forbioresource regulation and preservation.

It is very important that such a high-level meetingunder the aegis of UNESCO and with the assistance ofthe Southern Scientific Centre of the RAS should bedevoted to the application of traditional knowledge andmodern technologies to develop arid ecosystems stablehere in Kalmykia. I hope that the work will be fruitful,as well-known experts from many countries have gath-ered here.I have no doubt that the exchange of opinionsand study of international experience will be useful inelaborating a strategy of development and technologiesfor nature management for the south of Russia.

Let me congratulate you on the beginning of themeeting and wish you success in your work.

Academician Gennadiy G. MatishovChair of the Southern Research Centre of RAS

xvOpening session

Introductory address

Gennadiy G. Matishov, Chair of the Southern Research Centre of RAS

Dear Colleagues,

I would like to greet participants in the meeting onbehalf of the Southern Scientific Centre of the RussianAcademy of Sciences (RAS). The Centre was estab-lished in 2002, and its activity extends to institutes,laboratories and the stations of the Academy of Scienceslocated in the Republics of Adygea, Ingushetia andKalmykia, the Karachaevo-Circassian Republic, and theKrasnodar, Stavropol,Astrakhan,Volgograd and Rostovregions. It consists of three institutes of the RussianAcademy of Sciences, and encompasses the scientificactivities, orientation and personnel structure of theKalmyk Humanities Institute of the RAS, on whichbasis this meeting is held.

The Southern Scientific Centre aims to maintainscientific and applied research in priority areas so as toensure real improvement of the economic, social andecological conditions of life in the region, as well ascoordination of this work, which has great value forthe economic and cultural development for the southof Russia.

Our region plays an important economic and strate-gic role in the stable development of the Russian Feder-ation,which possesses a potential wealth of resources andhas significant oil and gas reserves, fertile soils, seas andother biological resources.The environmental problemsin the region are very serious however, and demand animmediate resolution.One of the problems is soil degra-dation and pollution, which is now the region’s greatestsocial and economic problem, representing an ecologi-cal and economic threat, and indeed a national securitythreat to Russia.This especially concerns the arid terri-tories.The problem demands steadfast attention from theRussian Academy of Sciences and many other public andscientific organizations.

In 2003 the Southern Scientific Centre developed,and in 2004 has implemented, a complex programme

more difficult environmental regions. It thus representsthe best field of study for sustainable development,withits capacity to foresee and organize the longevity ofresources and societies under extreme conditions ofscarcity. Consequently, the degradation of drylands, andoases in particular, threatens to destroy the traces of anumber of the most discerning civilizations that everexisted.

This workshop has set itself the task of reviving andsafeguarding what remains of the wisdom of traditionalsustainable systems, and is thus surely a saving grace ofhistorical dimensions. Moreover, the possibilities ofrediscovering clear and functional understandingsdiminish with time, and even when we have the chanceto discover these fundamental approaches to sustain-ability, by witnessing them at first hand or as a result ofpatient reconstruction, there still remains the arduousproblem of reviving and making acceptable an enlight-ened approach in a world that is progressively losing itsfoundational roots in favour of a more dominant andwasteful economy.

Finally, we offer our sincere thanks to the teamwho have worked to ensure that this workshop is aresounding success, with the efficient participation oflocal officials and the enlightened supervision of DrValery Neronov, Vice-President of MAB NationalCommittee of the Russian Federation. The uniquecharacter of the Republic of Kalmykia, the venue forour workshop and a charming and unique region, isundeniably a guarantee of genuine success.

Thank you for uniting and offering us theseopportunities; let us try to draw from this experiencethe lessons we need to move towards better manage-ment of biosphere reserves in the perpetual quest forfeasible models of sustainable development, and forthe benefit of all drylands around the world.

It is a pleasure to be among such a distinguishedgroup of scientists representatives from the countriesthat are most highly specialized in the subject, makingthis an ideal occasion to benefit from their expertise. Iwish you all an excellent meeting and a pleasant stay.

Professor Driss FassiChair of UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere

Programme’s International Coordinating Council

xviiOpening session

Traditional knowledge and modern technology for the sustainable management of marginal drylands

Driss Fassi, Chair of UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme’s International Coordinating Council

Distinguished representatives of the Government of theRepublic of Kalmykia and eminent members of theinternational scientific end environmental community,ladies and gentlemen,

Personally and on behalf of UNESCO’s Man and theBiosphere (MAB) Programme’s International Coord-inating Council, I wish to express my great satisfactionwith the programme and its astute decision to organizethis international workshop. It is in fact of prime signif-icance that the success of the workshop owes much tothe benefits of a theme of great interest as well as to thisideal geographical location,which further illustrates thattheme’s importance. It is this ideal combination that ishere proposed in the Republic of Kalmykia in this greatcountry of the Russian Federation.

‘Traditional knowledge in drylands’ is the subjectunder study and is part of the series of high-qualityworkshops on ‘Sustainable development and themanagement of drylands’ that are being superblyorganized by the master hand of Dr Thomas Schaaf,a distinguished member working from UNESCO’sheadquarters in Paris. There is a major emphasis oncore concepts such as the concern for sustainability,which is a key word in all development projects. Forthis reason, the World Network of BiosphereReserves is an ideal framework for application, for itspans five continents in partnership with the MABprogramme and consists of more than 450 sites ofvarying sizes in more than a hundred countries.Furthermore, the concept of sustainability is increas-ingly gaining ground in the world of extreme aridityand has thus become a decisive reference.As drylandsare situated at the periphery of the living world withits fluctuating rhythm, they represent a sort ofbarometer of health between the state of conserva-tion and dynamism for the whole world, for both thebiosphere as well as for other cultures, which aresynergistic with it.

The stakes become crucially important when oneconsiders that dry regions were the cradles of earlyhuman civilizations, and as a consequence harbour the‘backbone’ of traditional knowledge. It is thereforeextremely astute as well as strategically appropriate toaddress these civilizations in order to discover the keyto adaptation by human communities to one of the

breeders preferred to group cattle according to theirbreed, while keeping a vigilant eye on maintaining andconserving the diversity of breeds. As with othernomadic nations, the concept of ‘prosperity’ is associatedwith the presence of numerous herds.

In the past, the Kalmyk people followed a specialsystem of rules and taboos that helped to preserve theenvironment and wildlife, and harmonized the relation-ship between people and nature. It is worth mentioningthat this system still prevails today.The Kalmyk approachto the earth was especially well thought out.Every livingorganism on the earth is considered to be a living child.In modern society,traditional knowledge has come to behighly demanded. It is therefore necessary to undertakeurgent measures that will preserve this knowledge forfuture generations as part of their cultural heritage.Toachieve this, it is important to analyse our accumulatedexperience of nature and to produce specific recom-mendations for how to incorporate local knowledge inthe national modern economy.

For 5,000 years the northwestern part of thePrecaspian was used for stockbreeding.As an inseparablepart of the Russian empire, the historic territory ofKalmykia during the seventeenth and eighteenthcenturies had formed a united territorial–economicregion and a natural–climatic composite called the‘Kalmyk steppe’. Its nature and resource potential werefully compatible with the requirements of pasturestockbreeding, which represented a historically devel-oped and respected type of land use that was based onthe evolution at minimum cost of the main agriculturalanimals.

During this period there were on average more than200,000 cows, 100,000 horses, around a million fat-tailed sheep and 20,000 camels – and all were Kalmykbreeds.Keeping so many and such a variety of animals ofKalmyk breed on the basis of pasture technology withina complex agricultural stockbreeding production system

xixKeynote address

KKeeyynnoottee aaddddrreessss

Traditional knowledge as a factor of ecological consciousness:formation and conservation of the environment.The Republic of Kalmykia experience

Nina G. Ochirova, Director, Kalmyk Institute of Humanities Research

Agriculture forms the basis of the Republic ofKalmykia’s economy. Currently, 70 per cent of theagricultural land serves as pasture, 14 per cent is arableland and 7 per cent is hayfield. In the 1980s, intensiveuse of these areas, ignoring ecological and traditionalknowledge, led to a serious disruption of the naturalequilibrium. Even before that decade, 50 per cent ofthe entire territory of the republic had been exposedto desertification, resulting in agricultural decline, areduction in the wildlife population and the loss ofuseful plants.

In the past, the Kalmyks had created a system thatwas well adapted to local conditions in terms of thenorms of human behaviour within the environment,taking into account the fragility of the arid ecosystem.The nomadic lifestyle, the seasonal change of pasturesand the special meat- and wool-producing breed (thatis, the fat-tailed sheep) allowed the pasturelands to bepreserved as much as possible.The recent discarding oftraditions that had been practised for hundreds ofyears and the blind adoption of modern innovationshave meant the loss of optimum management tech-nologies and the exclusion of native cattle breeds thatwere well adapted to the local conditions. At present,a wide spectrum of activities and events, devoted tothe realization of the President’s programme for the‘Rebirth of traditional pasture livestock-raising’, isbeing carried out in the republic. It is very importantto restore the optimum numbers of different species ofagricultural cattle within herds. Moreover, traditionalexperience shows that during harsh winters it is veryimportant for cattle conservation that there should besufficient horses to break up the snow in order to feedthemselves and other animals.

The complexity of some distinctive national prac-tices, prohibitions and rituals connected with theKalmyks’ household activities is worth special attention.Typically, and without any knowledge of genetics, cattle

sustained the equilibrium of agro-industrial potentialand a historic agrarian specialization.The managementexperience and traditional uses of nature were passedfrom generation to generation and thus provided for thenatural fertility of seasonal and pasture lands.

During the twentieth century, the compulsorychanges from the customary way of life (with the loss ofthe economic elite of steppe cattle dealers as a result ofwars, repression, forced emigration and exile, and theadministrative imposition of an extrinsic agriculturalpractice on the territory of the Republic) resulted in aconsiderable weakening of the traditional material andeconomic culture; experience in pasture stockbreedinghas been diminished,and certain kinds of Kalmyk breedsadapted to local conditions have been lost. The mainmotives for reversing this trend are to provide for thesustainable development of rural lands on the basis ofrestoring traditional pasture stockbreeding as a rationalagrarian use of nature.This entails developing and reviv-ing the unique domestic agricultural animals of Kalmykbreeds: cows, horses, fat-tailed sheep and camels.

Once the General Black Lands and Kizlyar PasturesPlan for combating desertification had been elaborated,it was given the status of a regional ecologicalprogramme.The whole suite of measures provided bythe general plan provides for the mitigation of desertifi-cation processes and tackles the problems of pasturerestoration and rational land use.The technologies ofpasture restoration elaborated by scientists from theKalmyk Agricultural Research Institute enabledproductivity to be raised by up to 14–15 per cent perha.This result has been achieved on an area of 150,000ha. Erosion processes have been halted and many deser-tified areas have been transformed into pastures able toproduce 20 per cent more per ha of dry mass than theypreviously did.As a result of the change in the conditionof the Black Lands and Kizlyar pastures region, it is nowtime to change our priorities in combating desertifica-tion and adjust our strategy and tactics for carrying outphytomelioration work. In this respect, reference to thehistoric experience of traditional cultures is necessary inorder to solve the problem of ethnic culture adaptationto modern industrial and urbanized civilization byKalmyks.

Traditional knowledge makes up a worldview aspectof the nation’s culture, the ethnic experience raised toabstract notions, and is also the combined total of anation’s ideas of humankind and our place in nature.Theconservatism, vitality and sustainability of traditionalknowledge need to be incorporated into new systems,with their functions being preserved either directly or ina concealed form. Research into ethnically specificfeatures aims to discover the ‘rational kernel’ or quintes-sence of ethnicity as far as that is possible; it is an urgentissue in capturing traditional knowledge, which mostlyconsists of a small element of traditions that are acceptedas ethnic rather than religious.

Here we should take into consideration that tradi-tional knowledge in a pure form has not been pre-served: its co-existence later on with other influences,including Buddhism, left its mark. In the report underconsideration, based on literary sources and modernfield observations, the following cults were analysed:the cult of mountains and the cult of burial-mounds(ova), the cult of land, water and fire, and the cult ofanimals. There exists very little literature and archivedata concerning these.

The Kalmyk steppe dwellers established a well-adapted system to regulate the norms of human behav-iour in the environment and take into account thefragility of the steppe landscape.The nomadic way oflife, the seasonal change of pastures and the specialbreeds of fat-tailed sheep with flat hooves made possiblethe maximum preservation of pasturelands.The ecolog-ical consciousness of the Kalmyk people has been passedfrom one generation to the next over many centuries inthe form of traditional stereotypes.The evolution of themost general paradigms of ecological traditions is beingtraced in studies of traditional knowledge.

The interrelationship between the nomadic breederand nature was formed on the basis of the primacy ofnature. In his article on the nomadic way of life Dr. E.Khara-Davan wrote: ‘The nomadic way of the Kalmyksis conditioned not by the barbarity of the nation, as weare accustomed to suppose, but by its being a perfectadaptation to the soil-geographic conditions of thesteppe, where crops cannot be grown.’ For instance,traditional agricultural methods such as pasture rotation(alternating browsing on pastures with non-use periodsto allow restoration) enabled the nomads to prevent thedestruction of soil cover.

The nomads preferred to winter in the south,wherethe livestock were not threatened by the absence offodder. In summer the livestock accumulates fat thatenables it to survive winter hunger. This is especiallycharacteristic in places where there is no hard ice-encrusted snow that might damage the horse’s legs asthey attempt to dig up the snow to get to the fodderbeneath. Usually the cows and sheep follow the trailsmade by the horses after their hooves have broken upthe solid snow.Thus the horse not only represented thewarrior caste and symbolized wealth, but was also aguarantee of the livestock’s survival. The greater thenumber of horses in the string, the greater the chancesof survival for the livestock in harsh conditions.

Certain aspects of the traditional Kalmyk way of lifecome down to us from ethnographic sources. Forinstance, it is known that the Kalmyks not only carriedout seasonal livestock movements to solve the problemof fodder, but also performed various religious andmagic rituals aimed at securing prosperity for the terri-tory.Among such rituals were sacrifices to the mastersof the land and water to procure drought prevention,land fertility and the well-being of all living beings. All

xx

four types of livestock were offered.The most impor-tant of the ritual actions, which were performed in aprescribed sequence, were the magic practices thatbrought rain. A variant of this rite is still carried out(locally, occasionally and spontaneously) where signs ofa looming drought threaten catastrophe.

The Kalmyks still also carry out the rite of fire offer-ing.This is seen as a link between worlds in a three-element model of the Universe, and a special day isdevoted to it in the Kalmyk calendar rites. In additionto the fire-offering rite there is a life-circle rite, a curingrite (life ransom) and a rite of calling the patron divin-ity. The Kalmyks believe that the Goddess, OkonTengry, is related to the fire (lhamo in Tibetan), and sheis regarded as a patroness of the home.Another ancientdivinity of the home, called Otkhon-Galakhanhas, hasbeen embodied as a Buddhist divinity.

The Kalmyks worship of land–water expresses anotion that includes the whole space encompassing thenative nomadic areas and motherland.The idea of theland is closely connected with water, as the ‘earth’sbowels’ are inseparable from the water element. Eachlocality has its master.The embodiment of the land andwater master, the patron of all the Kalmyks, is TsaganAav, who appeared in the Kalmyk culture during thestruggle with pre-Buddhist beliefs and is related to theloss of traditional nomadic areas. Buddhist divinitiesstarted to be esteemed as patrons of clans, and thenomadic areas thus acquired an additional characteristicas markers of kin groups.

In modern offering rites to water, the donations areplaced on small rafts that are destined for the master ofwater. In the past the rite was carried out before thefishing season, and the offerings included the skin of adead sheep or goat with the head still attached, andcontaining the windpipe,heart, lungs, liver and kidneys.The head was hung on a high pole so that the skinwould droop.The pole was fixed on the river’s bed atthe point of main flow (where the fish appeared) bypeople who either sailed to the middle of the river orlake, or just waded out to it. A nine-tasselled raft wasplaced by the pole.

The cult of land–water embodied in the rites of theland–water offering is intertwined with worship ofthe mountains – both real and abstract.The cult of themountains was formed at the early stage of the Oirats’ethnogenesis and is connected with both the ethnichistory of the Oirats living near Altay and Khangayand the mythological belief in mountains as theworld’s centre, the pillar, the hub of the world, theembodiment of the world tree, the link between theworlds. The Summery Mountain, the central moun-tain in mythological terms of the Kalmyks, is seen asbeing, like the Polar Star on the horizon, a point thatdefines the earth: the whole world was formed withregard to this four-sided peak. In the mythicalaccount, the central mountain is a white mountain

called Manghan Tsagan, situated in the nomadic areasof Djangar-Khan. Bogdo Mountain, situated nearBaskunchak Lake, was venerated as a holy mountain.Burial mounds were also esteemed as holy sites andare still awarded water and fire offerings.

The ethnic ancestors of Kalmyks-Oirats had acomplex economy combining hunting, gathering andstockbreeding, followed later by agriculture. Thehunting cults of the Kalmyks lost their significance ineconomic and cultural life a long time ago and havetherefore been forgotten, but the veneration of ani-mals still exists today. The notion of the relationshipbetween man and animal is the basis of the worship ofcertain animals. For example:

• The totemic vision of a swan is connected withTurkik roots.

• The Kalmyks worshipped an eagle which wasconnected with the sun in an Kalmyk epic. Oneof its heroes – a Khongor warrior – is given thename of an eagle, Gerfalcon hawk.

• Among the Kalmyks who lived on the steppes bythe river Don was a group called burgud (meaning‘eagles’), and this bird was their totem.

• Researchers have discovered ethnic Kalmyk groupswhose origins are connected with the names oftheir totem birds.There are: shonkhormud (hawks)among the Kalmyk ethnic group called ‘Derbets’,shontols (woodpeckers) among the Torgoud ethnicgroup, and kharada (swallows) among the DonKalmyk. Scholars are also attempting to connectthe ethnic name kereit (their representatives wereamong Torgoud and Don Kalmyk) with totemicbeliefs (kerya means crow).

• There were conjectural books of the magpie andthe appearance of a white harrier was regarded asan omen; upon seeing this sacred bird believershad to bow and pray. Conversely, a hoopoe wasthe sign of misfortune while a cuckoo, regarded assinister in many cultures, was not a bad omen tothe Kalmyks. It was considered as a water-bearingbird, because its song was the sign of riverine tidesand other water bodies.

Among totemic animals,which can be seen in the cul-tures of all Mongolian-speaking people, there was awolf that was considered a sky dog.Among the Derbetand Don-Kalmyks, there were ethnic groups calledchonos (named after a wolf). Dogs were believed to bethe intermediaries between the world of people andthe world of the dead, and the main dog was calledKhasyr. Epic singers tell us about the special treatmentof wild boars.The Kalmyks also worshipped the hare,and used to sew its bones to the winter clothes of littlechildren to prevent misfortune. Goats or sheep werethe most common animals for sacrifice. On rare occa-sions, on the eve of a holiday, the Kalmyks would kill

xxiKeynote address

a horse. Aversion to certain animals can be seen by theexample of polecats and foxes; it was forbidden tobring a polecat’s skin into a house.According to manyresearchers, the cult of the dragon (Lu) is borrowedfrom another culture.

The memory of wonder-workers who could bringrain and thunderstorms, or prevent these natural phe-nomena from occurring, has been preserved to thisday. In spite of their conflict with shaman beliefs, suchpeople were highly regarded in Kalmyk society at thebeginning of the twentieth century; both laymen andBuddhist priests could be ‘rain-callers’.

A system of folk totems, beliefs, taboos and ritesconnected with the economic activity of the Kalmyksdeserves special attention. In order to strengthen thelivestock’s gene pool, the Kalmyks preferred to keep ananimal unit of one colour in a herd or flock.This wasalso the reason for keeping pedigree records andpreserving the pedigree of the herd.They believed thatthe vital strength of the herd was concentrated in itsleading animal, and this animal could not be sold,passedon to another herd or killed unless it had attained thestatus of a sacrificial animal (setre). If the animal had tobe sold, its owner would shave parts of its coat (from thebackbone of a cow or a camel, but from the tail andmane of a horse).This rite was termed ‘leaving happi-ness’. In order to ensure that the evil eye was avertedfrom a dairy cow, the Kalmyks used to draw a blade overits udder about three times. Cutting utensils were hungabove the entrance to the animal yard to protect theanimals from various disasters.

The Kalmyks have always associated the idea ofhuman well-being and the presence of numerous herdsand rich flocks with the whole system of protectiverituals that they carry out during the animal breedingseason.Among the blessings spoken in this period werespecial ones dedicated to four kinds of livestock.The riteof returning an animal’s straying young to its motherwas considered to be one of the most emotional andcomplicated to perform.The obligatory participants ofthe rite were smartly dressed, young married women aswell as the woman who sang the ritual songs. TheKalmyks had a system of taboos that contributed tonature and fauna conservation and the maintenance ofrelations between humans and nature. The land wastreated with special care as it was considered to be themother of all the living beings human, animal andvegetable.That is why it was forbidden to dig the land,pull up the grass or break the branches of bushes.

Traditional knowledge is more and more required inmodern Kalmyk society. It is not only the heritage ofthe past; it exists and is developing today, and is themost important element of the Kalmyk people’scultural heritage. Folk knowledge and economic tradi-tions serve as a reliable guarantee of a nation’s existence,because the economic–cultural declaration is directlyreflected in the development and conservation oflanguage, folk rites and customs. It is necessary to carryout an analysis of traditional knowledge that will allowus to use it effectively and in harmony with the highmorale principles that lay responsibility on the presentgeneration for the future to come.

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directly, on an equitable basis and as mutuallyagreed, from any commercial utilization ofthem or from any technological developmentderived therefrom;

(c) encourage and actively support the improve-ment and dissemination of such technology,knowledge, know-how and practices or ofthe development of new technology basedon them; and

(d) facilitate, as appropriate, the adaptation ofsuch technology, knowledge, know-how andpractices to wide use and integrate themwith modern technology, as appropriate.

(UNCCD, 1995)

It has been argued at several Conferences of the Partiesof the UNCCD that ‘traditional knowledge’has variousadvantages and benefits with regard to combating deser-tification: it is often considered a relatively inexpensivetechnology (compared with modern technology andcomputer-driven irrigation schemes, for example, orwith drought-resistant genetically modified organisms),and therefore represents an affordable corpus of tech-nology for developing countries and their populations.As is well known, many dryland countries that aresuffering from land degradation and desertification alsorank among the poorest nations of the planet. More-over, traditional knowledge has often been highlightedas a particularly ‘environmentally-friendly’ technologythat also blends in with environmental conservationobjectives in dryland ecosystems.

At the Sixth Conference of the Parties of theUNCCD, which was held in Havana (Cuba) from 25August to 5 September 2003, and following the workof the Convention’s Committee on Science andTechnology (CST), the UNCCD Conference ofParties adopted Decision 16/COP 6 on ‘traditionalknowledge’ as follows:

1Management of agricultural systems

SSeessssiioonn 11:: GGeenneerraall pprroobblleemmss aanndd mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ooff aaggrriiccuullttuurraall ssyysstteemmss

Traditional knowledge and modern technology for the sustainable management of dryland ecosystems: UNESCO’s objectives for the workshop

Thomas Schaaf, UNESCO, MAB Programme, Division of Ecological and Earth Sciences

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This international workshop has been organized bythe international Secretariat for the UNESCOProgramme on Man and the Biosphere (MAB) inclose collaboration with the MAB NationalCommittee of the Russian Federation, the KalmykInstitute for Humanities of the Russian Academy ofSciences, and the authorities of the Republic ofKalmykia of the Russian Federation. On behalf ofUNESCO, I wish to thank all the people and insti-tutions that have worked so hard over the last fewmonths to make this international workshop a fullsuccess.

The theme of the workshop – traditional knowl-edge and modern technology for the sustainablemanagement of dryland ecosystems – has beenchosen in the light of the work of the UnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD), with which UNESCO has fostered closeand fruitful cooperation on a variety of differentissues, including education, capacity building andresearch on dryland ecosystems.Article 18 of the textof the Convention refers specifically to ‘traditionalknowledge’ in the following manner:

2. The Parties shall ... protect, promote and use inparticular relevant traditional and local technol-ogy, knowledge, know-how and practices and, tothat end, they undertake to:(a) make inventories of such technology,

knowledge, know-how and practices andtheir potential uses with the participation oflocal populations, and disseminate suchinformation, where appropriate, in coopera-tion with relevant intergovernmental andnon-governmental organizations;

(b) ensure that such technology, knowledge,know-how and practices are adequatelyprotected and that local populations benefit

Decision 16/COP 6:Traditional Knowledge

1. Invites the Parties through their national focalpoints to involve relevant governmental and non-governmental organizations, research institutionsand local and indigenous communities in formu-lating views on how traditional knowledge cancontribute to fulfilling the objectives of theConvention, and especially on the elementsproposed for establishing a network on traditionalknowledge to combat desertification, and tosubmit them to the secretariat no later than sixmonths before the next session of the Conference;

2. Further invites the Parties through their nationalfocal points to involve relevant governmental andnon-governmental organizations, research institu-tions, and local and indigenous communities, incompiling case studies and lessons learned atnational, sub regional and regional levels on themanagement and protection of traditional knowl-edge and to submit them to the secretariat nolater than six months before the next session ofthe Conference of the Parties;

3. Requests the secretariat to compile the submis-sions and to report at the next session of the CSTon this subject.

What is the relevance of traditional knowledge to theUNESCO Programme on Man and the Biosphere(MAB)? In the early 1970s, the MAB Programme wasconceived as an international and intergovernmentalresearch programme to study human–environmentinteractions in different ecosystems including arid andsemi-arid zones.The specific MAB Project Area No. 4on ‘The Impact of Human Activities on the Dynamicsof Arid and Semi-arid Zones’ Ecosystems’ endeavoursto research and improve the relationship betweenpeople and their environment using a holistic and inter-disciplinary approach that includes both the natural andthe social sciences.

In addition, the work of the UNESCO–MAB Pro-gramme on a people-centred approach to environmentalconservation, through the promotion of sustainabledevelopment in line with conservation objectives andbolstered by scientific research,has become a hallmark ofthe MAB Programme with its biosphere reserveconcept. As of June 2004, a total of 440 biospherereserves in ninety-seven countries have been recognizedwithin UNESCO–MAB’s World Network of BiosphereReserves.These sites demonstrate that the conservationof the environment can be accomplished by associatingpeople in decision-making processes for the sustainablemanagement of dryland and other ecosystems.

Biosphere reserves combine environmental conser-vation with economic activities based on spatial analysisand scientific land-use and land-management studies.

Biosphere reserves can be briefly defined as areas of

terrestrial and coastal ecosystems that are internationallyrecognized within the framework of UNESCO’s Manand the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Collectively,they constitute a World Network.They are nominatedby national governments and must meet a set of criteriaand adhere to a set of conditions before being admittedinto the World Network. Each biosphere reserve isintended to fulfil three basic functions, which arecomplementary and mutually reinforcing:

• A conservation function: to contribute to the conser-vation of landscapes,ecosystems,species and geneticvariation.

• A development function: to foster economic andhuman development that is socioculturally andecologically sustainable.

• A logistic function: to provide support for research,monitoring, education and information exchangerelated to local, national and global issues of conservation and development.

To carry out the complementary activities of natureconservation and use of natural resources, biospherereserves are organized into three interrelated zones,known as the core area, the buffer zone and thetransition area (Figure 1.1).

• The core area needs to be legally established andgive long-term protection to the landscape,ecosys-tem and species it contains. It should be sufficientlylarge to meet these conservation objectives. Asnature is rarely uniform, and as historical land-useconstraints exist in many parts of the world, theremay be several core areas in a single biospherereserve to ensure a representative coverage of themosaic of ecological systems. Normally, the corearea is not subject to human activity exceptresearch and monitoring and, as the case may be, totraditional extractive uses by local communities.

• A buffer zone (or zones) which is clearly delineatedand which surrounds or is contiguous to the corearea. Activities are organized here so that they donot hinder the conservation objectives of the corearea but rather help to protect it, hence the idea of‘buffering’. It can be an area for experimentalresearch, for example to discover ways to managenatural vegetation, croplands, forests and fisheries,to enhance high-quality production whileconserving natural processes and biodiversity,including soil resources, to the maximum extentpossible. In a similar manner, experiments can becarried out in the buffer zone to explore how torehabilitate degraded areas.

• An outer transition area, or area of cooperationextending outwards,which may incorporate a vari-ety of agricultural activities,human settlements andother uses. It is here that the local communities,

2

conservation agencies, scientists, civil associations,cultural groups,private enterprises and other stake-holders must agree to work together to manage andsustainably develop the area’s resources for the bene-fit of the people who live there.Given the role thatbiosphere reserves should play in promoting thesustainable management of the natural resources ofthe region in which they lie, the transition area is ofgreat economic and social significance for regionaldevelopment.

Although presented schematically as a series of con-centric rings, the three zones are usually established inmany different ways to accommodate local geograph-ic conditions and constraints.This flexibility allows forcreativity and adaptability, and is one of the greateststrengths of the concept.

There is a strong concentration of biospherereserves in humid tropical forest zones, mountainecosystems and temperate zones, but there are fewersuch reserves in the world’s drylands. However, somehave been nominated in arid and semi-arid areas,including the Chernyie Zemli Biosphere Reserve inthe Republic of Kalmykia of the Russian Federation,the Omo and Wadi Allaqi biosphere reserves in Egypt,and the Great Gobi Biosphere Reserve in Mongolia.Case studies on these reserves are to be presented atthis international workshop.

Many of the dryland biosphere reserves have beeninhabited for millennia, and people have long used thenatural resources for their specific economic activitiesand well-being.They therefore contain a wide corpusof traditional knowledge for dryland management, as

evidenced by traditional forms of nomadism anddryland agriculture, which has been complemented bymodern technology in more recent decades. Some ofthis traditional knowledge, however, may be lost if notdocumented and recorded, as modern technologiesoften supplant traditional ways. UNESCO considersthat the preservation of traditional and local knowledgeis an intangible heritage that should be preserved forfuture generations.

This workshop, therefore, aims at raising questionsand finding answers to them at several levels:

• Can the UNESCO–MAB Programme with itsMAB national committees contribute to theUNCCD’s ongoing work on traditionalknowledge so as to minimize the effects of landdegradation?

• Is traditional knowledge indeed an effective meansto combat desertification, or do we need topromote modern technologies in the interest ofgenerating higher yields in the fields of agriculture,forestry and livestock husbandry?

• Is it possible to combine both traditional knowl-edge and modern technologies for effective andsustainable dryland management?

• Can we use dryland biosphere reserves from theWorld Network of Biosphere Reserves as studyand monitoring sites to address issues related totraditional knowledge and modern technologies?

• In what way can biosphere reserves help tocontribute to conserving dryland environmentswhile ensuring sustainable development for localpeople at the same time?


Figure 1.1 Biosphere reserve zonation

RR

MM

EE

TT

RRTT

MM

RR

EETT Research station

Monitoring

Education/training

Tourism/recreation

CCoorree aarreeaa

BBuuffffeerr zzoonnee

TTrraannssiittiioonn zzoonnee

Human settlements

These and other related questions on sustainabledryland management are being considered at this work-shop by researchers and government officials within thecontext of the UNESCO–MAB Programme. It shouldnot be overlooked that we human beings have thecapacity not only to destroy the physical environmentwith its biotic resources, but also to conserve nature,which is the basis of our existence.We all need to poolour efforts and knowledge – past and present – to safe-guard and wisely use our natural resources; a task that isparticularly important in the world’s marginal areas, thedrylands.

RReeffeerreenncceess

UNCCD. United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification in those countries experiencing seriousdrought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa.Switzerland, UNEP, CCD/95/2, 1995.

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environments.These changes, some of which are drivenby processes of globalization, outpace the evolutionaryadaptive capacity of the local systems.The focus overrecent decades on agricultural productivity, specializa-tion and global markets, and the associated disregard forexternalities and adaptive management strategies, hasled to a relative and general neglect of research anddevelopment support for diversified, ingenious systems.Pressures are constraining farmer innovation and areleading to the adoption of unsustainable practices, over-exploitation of resources and declining productivity, aswell as agricultural specialization and the adoption ofexotic domesticated species.The result can be biodiver-sity loss, ecosystem degradation, poverty and loss ofpeople’s livelihoods.We are at risk of a severe erosion ofthe diverse base of agricultural systems and their associ-ated biodiversity, knowledge systems and cultures thatensure human livelihoods and healthy and resilientenvironments.

Under these circumstances, and viewed from theperspective of the farmers and pastoralist communities,it is not particularly relevant to dwell upon the limits ofapplicability of local knowledge systems versus scientificknowledge.What is more interesting and urgent is howto develop approaches that successfully integrate thecomparative strengths of both types of knowledgesystem. This paper sets out to find answers to threequestions:

• What are the different natures of local knowledgesystems in drylands and of modern or scientificknowledge systems?

• What challenges, constraints and obstacles are thereto strengthening traditional sustainable agriculturalpractices and their knowledge systems?

• What are the principles for an approach to safe-guard traditional management systems for thesustainable use of drylands?

First, two case studies of traditional agricultural systemsin drylands will be briefly described. Second, this paperwill analyse local knowledge and scientific knowledgesystems and their social and institutional settings.Third,it will propose some principles for an approach tostrengthen traditional agricultural systems.Finally, it will


Local knowledge systems and the management of drylandagro-ecosystems: some principles for an approach

David Boerma and Parviz Koohafkan, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

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IInnttrroodduuccttiioonnLocal agricultural knowledge in dry-land land-usesystems is centred on the conservation, use and opti-mization of soil moisture and soil organic matter.1

Biodiversity is carefully managed and nurtured tointerface with hydrological and nutrient cycling andprovide for ecosystem resilience, food security anddiversity, and risk minimization. Examples of such tra-ditional livelihood systems are the water-harvestingsystems on alluvial fans (Zuni, USA), oasis systems inNorth Africa, chacras hundidas (sunken fields) in Peru,and qanat subsoil irrigation systems throughoutCentral Asia. These systems are mainly crop based,with various degrees of livestock integration.

Others types of traditional dryland livelihood systemsare nomadic, animal-based systems, which optimizeresource use and mitigate risk by moving according tothe dynamics of water availability and pasture resources.These are particularly adapted to highly variable eco-systems, especially those with high climatic variability.Examples are the herding strategies of pastoral peoples inEast and Northwest Africa and transhumant highlandsystems like the Yak-based systems of Ladakh in India.

Most such traditional land-use systems are associatedwith carefully adapted forms of social organization andregulatory frameworks for access to common resourcesand ecosystems management, combined with a deepknowledge of the dynamics of the ecosystem over alarge territory that is made up of various ecologicalniches.Such often highly ingenious traditional manage-ment systems and cultures have co-evolved overcenturies with the landscape and its components,including genetic resources. They are noteworthy fortheir contribution to biodiversity conservation, sustain-able land, water and landscape management and toensuring security of food, livelihood and quality of life.Many provide globally important goods and serviceswell beyond their geographical limits.

There is little doubt that local knowledge systems area valuable resource for the management of drylands, asthey are in other types of ecosystems.However, in manyparts of the world, local or traditional managementstrategies are weakening or losing their relevance,due torapid changes in their biophysical and socio-economic

present an initiative by the FAO (in partnership withUNESCO, UNDP, GEF, governments, NGOs andother bodies) for the global recognition, conservationand sustainable management of globally importantingenious agricultural heritage systems (GIAHS) thatseeks to take on the challenges outlined.

TThhee eexxaammppllee ooff tthhee GGaaffssaaooaasseess iinn TTuunniissiiaaOases are complex agro-ecosystems characterized byagronomic, ecological, economic, social, cultural andpolitical dimensions. The Gafsa oases are exemplarymodels of agricultural biodiversity in a constraining andharsh environment. The oasis of Kasba, coveringapproximately 700 ha, lies within 2,000 ha of oasesbordering the town of Gafsa (Kasba, Southwest andKsar).

The endemic and non-endemic wild and cultivatedplants that grow in Gafsa have high resilience underadverse conditions.Varieties of cultivated species havebeen carefully selected from natural ecosystems overcenturies of experimentation. For example, more than300 named cultivars of date palm trees have beenrecorded across Tunisia and many of these have theirorigin in the Gafsa oases.The oases also contain manyvarieties of fruit trees (pear, apple, plum, peach,mulberry, apricot, olive, citrus and so on), vines, fruits(cucumber,melon, zucchini), vegetables (parsley, celery,spinach and cabbage), roots and bulbs, pulses, aromatics,cereals, fodder and ornamental plants. Each variety ischaracterized by distinct and valuable quality traitsselected according to local needs and culturally deter-mined criteria. Furthermore, oasis agro-ecosystemsprovide habitat and resources for numerous wild speciesof fauna and flora.

Species and varieties are carefully chosen to beadaptable to local environmental constraints. Forinstance, the olive tree is prevalent in the periphery ofthe oases because of its resistance to drought; theDegla date palms are widely planted in southwestTunisia, where climatic conditions are favourable forfructification, whereas common date palm varietiesare more frequently found in coastal areas.There, spaceis used intensively so as to optimize use of waterresources and to regulate the oasis microclimate.Thesecurity of the harvest is maximized by producingplants that provide for multiple products and throughcarefully diversified spacing and timing of production(cropping pattern and rotation). The latter is doneusing a three-tier canopy level system, which includesdate palm (the highest tier), arboriculture (middle tier)and annual/pluri-annual crops at the lowest tier.

The livestock in the strict oasis area is limited to afew individual sheep, goats, donkeys and/or camels.These serve the system by providing food (meat, milk),

transport (for people, agricultural produce and so on)and manure (for soil amendment). The managementpractices and techniques reveal the ingenuity of thelocal population in using biodiversity, for instance interms of crop management (plantation, pollen transferand thinning techniques, biological control of pests anddiseases, and so on) and irrigation techniques (plantflexibility,water stock in soil,management of and adap-tation to salt, sand and wind).The oasis inhabitants haveinherited important bodies of local knowledge in vari-ous fields such as systems of irrigation and managementof seeds, palm and fruit trees. The local knowledge isalso rich in techniques for the conservation and storageof the agricultural harvests. In spite of attempts to intro-duce mechanization, the old working tools have provedto be the best adapted to the oases (some of these toolsexist only in this area).

The constraining environment and the opportunity(and climatological requirement) for irrigation leads tonecessary intensification and diversification.The grow-ing of different crops in space and time allows oasiscommunities to meet their essential needs for homeconsumption: food, domestic (building, crafts and soon), energy and medical requirements. The surplusproduction is sold in the market and there is a trend toincreasing cultivation of cash crops in order to generateincome.

This diversity and its associated knowledge arefundamental assets for the inhabitants of the oases andcontinue to ensure the inhabitants economic returnsand a fair level of quality food security during most ofthe year. The various annual cultures allow a dailyproduction, though collection of arboreal fruit is spreadout: apricots are collected in April and May, followed bythe maturation and collection of figs, vine, dates andfinally olives.Much of the agricultural production is forthe inhabitants’ own consumption and storage. Theoases are an important source of wood for buildinghomes and cattle sheds, heating and furniture.The oasisis less vulnerable to the shocks and risks of climate thanthe surrounding areas. In an arid environment of strongheat, the oases’ plant communities lower the ambienttemperatures and reduce evapotranspiration.The harshenvironment thus explains the antiquity and richculture of the old town of Gafsa.

Threats and challengesRecent socio-economic developments have introducedmodifications in these farming systems, especially onthe level of annual crops. Today in the oases, people’slivelihoods and their farming ecosystems are underheavy pressure. A number of interlinked factors of anecological and socio-economic nature are affecting thedelicate equilibrium of the oases. Ecological factorsinclude land degradation, genetic erosion of bio-diversity, use of inappropriate agronomic practices,

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falling aquifer levels, frequent droughts and the intro-duction of foreign species.Among the socio-economicfactors that affect farmers’ livelihoods are the marginal-ization of indigenous communities (particularly fragileand silent groups, most notably women) and culturalerosion of traditional agricultural knowledge andpractices. In particular, the traditional social watermanagement institutions have been largely replaced bythe association of irrigation (GIC), the cooperative ofagricultural services, Omda (responsible for the small-est administrative unit), the agricultural engineeringservices and local farmers’ unions.As there is no inte-grated collaborative community approach towardswater management, disputes among water users overaccess to the principal natural water sources arebeginning to pose a problem,which may lead to unsus-tainable use. Oases are havens of agricultural biodiver-sity in a constraining environment, and theirdegradation inevitably entails high genetic erosion.

TThhee eexxaammppllee ooff MMaaaassaaii rraannggeellaanndd mmaannaaggeemmeennttThe history of Maasai pastoralism is closely entwinedwith the evolution of the savannah and highland land-scapes of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.Theselandscapes are world renowned for their stunning viewsand rich wildlife. Tourist revenues from these areasbenefit the national economies of the countriesinvolved as well as private tourism companies world-wide. What is often overlooked, when policies andmanagement interventions are designed and imple-mented in these areas, is that these landscapes and theirwildlife habitats were shaped over centuries by theknowledge-intensive and highly flexible nomadicpastoral strategy of the Maasai and other pastoralcommunities.

The ecological and humanrationale of a well-regulatedopportunistic strategyThe pastoral strategy is highly adaptive to thespace–temporal fluctuations of the environment. Themoving around of cattle herds means that resources(pasture, water, salt) are used where and when they aremost available. All habitats are used and there is nofunctional distinction between wild and culturedlands.The Maasai have a complex strategy of custom-ary arrangements to commonly manage and use theseresources with the aid of a rich and diversified knowl-edge of their environment. Their settlement patternsand social organization are built on the need to spreadresource use over a large area to avoid concentrationsof livestock and consequent overgrazing.Their grazing

and burning strategies have turned bushland into pas-ture and they have controlled pests, thus also creatinga habitat and food source for large wild grazers andtheir predators.

In many ways the abundance of wildlife in thesesystems is largely due to the pastoral strategy, whichstrikes a fine balance between the competition of live-stock and wildlife, and their common interest inmaintaining their joint habitat.The presence of cattlein the grazing sequence alongside wild grazers favoursthe growth of grasses that are preferred by these wildherbivores. Overgrazing is sometimes deliberatelyused to re-open bush-invaded pasture. The Maasaiadjust their herd composition and size to the avail-ability and carrying capacity of certain areas and theavailability of water (for example, dark cows getwarmer in the sun and drink more). There is a finebalance between competition over resources andinterdependence between the human/domesticatedand the wild components of the ecosystem.

The Maasai manage to cope with the great fluctu-ations of the environment (seasons, droughts), makingthe entire system more resilient and sustainable whileproviding for their own food and livelihood needs.Their customary institutions for resource accessensure not only environmentally sustainable use ofresources but also equitable access and benefit sharing,with high levels of reciprocity and social security forthose who suffer misfortune, while being flexibleenough to adjust to environmental circumstances.Themany and complex exchanges of cattle taking placenot only provide for a rich genetic diversity of cattlein each herd, but serve also as a social strategy to dealwith hardship. Other users (ethnic groups, includingagriculturist and hunter–gatherer groups) are allowedto live and use resources on Maasai territory, which isbeneficial for the exchange of goods and servicesbetween social groups and livelihood systems, but isalso a potential source of conflict in times of scarcity.

The knowledge base of pastoralismThe Maasai have an intense practical experience andrich knowledge of their environment and the ecologi-cal relations between various areas, accrued by movingaround over large areas and passed on over many gener-ations.They have a vast knowledge of plants and theirnutritional and medicinal properties (for humans andanimals), as well as of animal breeding, health andbehaviour.This is born from the necessity to be able tomove their cattle safely through various areas and makeuse of the resources available there, as such resourcescannot be brought along whilst moving.

Their knowledge is safeguarded and passed onthrough many cultural institutions and expressions.One


of these is the considerable freedom for children tomove around and discover their environment. Anothercrucial sociocultural institution is the stage of warrior-hood for young men, now in steep decline.This threeto seven-year period combines intensive education byelders in livestock, ecology, social values, justice andleadership, with challenges, rituals and a ‘military serv-ice’.The young warriors are expected to take care ofthemselves and to provide for their needs without thecare of their mothers, challenging them to acquireknowledge of plants and their uses, and building socialnetworks with people outside their families.There arealso many stories, jokes, sayings, riddles and othercultural expressions that convey knowledge of the envi-ronment and social values for the appropriate usethereof.

Threats and challengesWhen British colonialists first arrived in the Rift Valleythey perceived its landscape as a wild habitat.The pres-ence of people and cattle was not considered aconstructive component but a threat to the landscapeand its wildlife.The colonialists’background in a seden-tary culture made them fail to see the interconnectionsand rationale of the nomadic strategy and its role increating and maintaining the landscape.They also failedto see the resource-use efficiency of the pastoral systemsthat integrate various ecological niches with varyingproductive capacities over time. One can only under-stand this rationale when the system is viewed from alarger space–temporal scale than that of the agriculturalzone for a single all-year-round use.

Many of the old perceptions persist today.Wildlifeconservationists and land-use planners are often trainedin land zoning and planning for a single use; theycontinue to have rigid perceptions of how land andresources should be managed in space and time, with aclear Cartesian separation of ‘natural’ and ‘agriculturaluse’ areas.This has consequences for policies, resourceaccess legislation, institutional arrangements for landmanagement and delivery of services, causing greatdisturbances to the pastoral-ecological dynamics, andthe culture and social organization that underpin themanagement of the system. These perceptions arelargely manifest in land tenure legislation that createsrestrictions on livestock movement, loss of access to keyareas and resources, and subsequent and sometimesdeliberate erosion of the Maasai culture.

This in turn damages the capacity to deal withecological risk, causing a decline in food and livelihoodsecurity – and increasingly in land quality and wildlifeabundance – through invasion of the shared habitats oflivestock and wildlife by bush and pests in some partsand overgrazing in other areas.Many customary institu-tions for land management and access to resources havebeen delegitimized and/or replaced. Also, the open

system of resource use is not sufficiently protectedagainst agricultural settlement (due to population pres-sures outside the system) and land grabbing throughcorruption,which are both threats of a growing magni-tude. Population growth and changing lifestyles add tothe pressures.HIV/AIDS is another increasing problem,causing losses in leadership, parental care, labour forceand knowledge.

KKeeyy cchhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss ooff kknnoowwlleeddggee ssyysstteemmssAll knowledge and technology are generated,passed onand adapted in specific ecological, socio-economic andcultural contexts.They are the result of a human processof interaction among individuals and with the environ-ment, which is organized through and guided byspecific institutional settings,power relations,values andperceptions.Therefore ‘any analysis of technology mustbe situated within a social and economic understandingof the role of technology, the rationale and purpose ofits design’ (Scoones et al., 1996). If we want to under-stand the different natures of various knowledgesystems, we should not only look at the content andforms of knowledge and technologies, but also at theprocesses through which they are generated andmanaged. Because of the interconnectedness of thesocial process and the social and ecological context ofknowledge generation, the term ‘knowledge systems’ isused in this paper rather than ‘knowledge’ in order tosuggest the full scope of the relevant processes.

Before we provide a description of the typical char-acteristics of local and modern knowledge systems, it isimportant to acknowledge that the terms ‘traditional’,‘indigenous’ and/or ‘local’ (and the juxtaposed ‘modern’and ‘scientific’) are contested terms. In certain arenasthe conceptual juxtaposition of traditional versus scien-tific or modern knowledge may be useful. In caseswhere people are establishing their historical ties to landand territory, as is the case for many indigenous peoples,when rights over natural resources and/or benefit shar-ing mechanisms have to be established,or when culturalgroups are going through a collective process ofstrengthening their identities, the concept of traditionalknowledge is a key tool. However, for the practicalmanagement of ecosystems and for the problems thatfarmers face in providing for their livelihood, thedistinction is often immaterial and in many casescounterproductive, particularly in cases where changesoutpace the adaptive capacity of traditional knowledgesystems which can then produce no viable options.What counts for the farmers or pastoralists is that thetechnology or management intervention offers a goodsolution from their point of view, which is almost bydefinition the whole interdisciplinary context that theyoperate in.Whether a solution is traditional or scientific

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is irrelevant for the actors.The point is that it works.Additionally, in practice, it is very difficult to establishwhere one knowledge system begins and another ends.Over history, all knowledge systems have incorporatedelements of other knowledge systems, transformedthem and given them new meaning. A successfullyadopted modern technology can quickly become partof the local knowledge system. In the locality it willacquire new meaning and application, and it will mostcertainly be adapted. Table 2.1 gives an overview oftypical characteristics of local and scientific knowledgesystems.

A key characteristic of local knowledge systems is thatthey have co-evolved with the surrounding biophysicalenvironment from landscape-level to the geneticresources and with other social, economic and culturalinstitutions.Thus the values,ethics and social relations ofproduction are incorporated either implicitly or explic-itly into the technologies and management practices.Additionally, they have also incorporated the specificrelationships of people and the functioning of theecosystem.These knowledge systems are by definitioninterdisciplinary as any farmer or pastoralist takes allfactors of production, social and biophysical, intoaccount when making management decisions. Modernor scientific knowledge and technology are by contrastoften developed outside the locality and are usuallydefined by their particular disciplines. This may entailunforeseen and unwelcome side effects as implicit values,and relations of production can be introduced intoculturally different contexts, and factors not consideredin the scientific definition of the problem may come intoplay in practice. ‘Particularly, when introduced tech-nologies are imposed, and prospects for local adaptationare constrained, problems arise’ (Scoones et al., 1996).

Local knowledge is generated in the specific practi-cal relationships of different actors with the ecosystem

and the land, water or biological resources that arecontained therein.These relationships are legitimized,regulated and guided by rights of access to resources,which are codified in customary law or other regulatoryframeworks. To safeguard the existing knowledgesystems and their continuing evolution, one must safe-guard the continuation of the specific relationshipsbetween people and their environment. Access toresources and resource rights, individual or collective,are therefore of crucial importance to the survival oflocal knowledge systems and the sustainable manage-ment of ecosystems. The role of customary law andgovernance, and its relationship to formal land tenureand other regulatory systems, deserve specific attention.

One of the important social dimensions of knowl-edge systems is the difference in the roles of men andwomen in the generation and management of knowl-edge and the specialization of different social groups.Thisholds true for any knowledge system, modern or tradi-tional, local or formal.However,unlike in science, in thecase of local knowledge special attention should be givento the different relations men and women have to theecosystem and natural resources, including aspects ofaccess and rights. In many parts of the world, womenhave a specific custodial role in maintaining local knowl-edge and biodiversity. Women also tend to operate ineconomic niches that depend heavily on the ecosystemand to be more subsistence oriented, though there arenotable exceptions.

Additionally, it is worth noting that there is often aconvergence of customary institutions for the manage-ment of natural resources, which hold most of theknowledge associated with that function, and othersocial, economic and political functions. In most indige-nous and local communities the local knowledge systemsare the same as, or closely intertwined with, other suchsocial institutions and practices.


Local knowledge systems

Integrated and holisticHumans and ecosystem considered as oneRelatively low degree of specializationCo-evolved with local ecosystems and

culturesSymbolically represented orally or visually in

stories, rituals, arts, riddles etc.Derived through rational conscious process plus

experiential, intuitive and spiritual cognitiveprocesses

Includes knowledge, technologies, philosophiesand concepts, skills, arts and practices, values andspirituality/religion

On the spot problem solving with high validity incontext

Learning by doing and experiencing

Scientific knowledge systems

Disciplinary and reductionistHumans and ecosystem approached separatelyRelatively high degree of specializationDerived under isolated, controlled and/or

generalized circumstancesRepresented in writing

Derived and validated through rational consciousprocess only

Includes knowledge, technologies and concepts

Slow problem solving with good validity and wideapplicability of principles.

Learning through formal education

Table 2.1 Typical characteristics of local and scientific knowledge systems

Cognitive processes of knowledge systemsAnother key characteristic of local knowledge systemsis that they are broader in cognitive scope than scien-tific ones. In scientific knowledge every step is ideallyachieved through a conscious rational process,whether or not validated by field experimentation orobservation.The advantage of this is the relative cer-tainty about the validity of such knowledge underknown circumstances, and hence the possibility ofderiving general principles that are widely applicable.

By contrast, the cognitive processes in localknowledge systems also include conscious rationalprocess but have a much broader ‘bandwidth’. Localand indigenous peoples integrate previous experi-ences (sensory input, prior knowledge, social andspiritual values and relationships, and so on) on thespot, without necessarily being conscious of all thedeductive steps involved. The involvement of thisbroad range of human faculties, including intuitionand spiritual insight, helps provide for quick decisionmaking in complex interdisciplinary situations. Oneof its disadvantages can be its lack of rationalization,which limits its wider application. In particular,bodies of skills and experience can only be trans-ferred by example or learning by doing. The differ-ent cognitive processes and contents of knowledgesystems are also reflected in the way knowledge iscodified and transferred. In local knowledge systemslearning by example, stories, riddles, rituals and otherforms of art and symbolic representation are used,while scientific knowledge is codified in written andnumbered form and is transferred through formaleducation.

A note on the role of cultureHistorically, culture and tradition have been treated asan obstacle to development and sustainable and/or effi-cient use of natural resources. At best, tradition wasviewed by administrators as a heritage in its own right.What many policy makers and scientists alike have failedto see is that the values, customary regulatory systemsfor access to resources and local knowledge, and theunderstanding and attribution of meaning to the land-scape and its components are key elements in thesustainable management of ecosystems. Religious codesand taboos, as well as rituals and ceremonies, often havekey functions in the sustainable management of ecosys-tems.The relationship between a cultural group and thelandscape may be defined and acknowledged throughsuch practices, which are also a way to convey knowl-edge about the environment to subsequent generations.In many cultures it is through the sacred that ecosystemsare managed (Eyzaguirre and Woods-Perez, 2004).

CChhaalllleennggeess ffoorr ssttrreennggtthheenniinnggttrraaddiittiioonnaall llaanndd--uussee pprraaccttiicceessaanndd llooccaall kknnoowwlleeddggee ssyysstteemmssAs observed in the Introduction, many traditional sus-tainable land-use practices and their associated localknowledge systems are under pressure. Unless theirevolutionary, adaptive capacities are strengthened orthe threats are mitigated through policy intervention,an invaluable resource in terms of knowledge may belost for good, as may outstanding landscapes and eco-systems that provide for food security livelihood andecosystem services.

Beyond the need to recognize, salvage and protectlocal knowledge systems,one of the questions and chal-lenges relates to the potential for integrating differentknowledge systems.There are already many examples ofsuccessful integration. For instance, the introduction ofagro-ecological principles, community mapping withGPS and GIS tools, community media, conservationagriculture and integrated pest and plant management(IPPM) techniques into traditional agricultural systemshave proven successful.Often the success was based notonly on the quality and appropriateness of the tech-nologies and management practices offered, but also onthe processes by which they were introduced. In thecase of IPPM and integrated land management, farmerfield schools have been effective.

Apart from offering the right products through theright processes, science can also help systematize andderive principles from local knowledge systems andexperiences to help integrate them with moderntechnologies. Such principles can improve replicabili-ty and help development workers and policy makersalike.

The challenge of integration is twofold:

• How can we integrate local and scientific knowl-edge systems and technologies in order tostrengthen sustainable land–livelihood systems?

• How can we integrate different scientific disci-plines and come up with a holistic approach tothe management of dryland ecosystems in orderto be able to respond to the reality and problemsof farmers, herders and their communities?

When we recognize the social processes underlyingknowledge systems it becomes clear that, in order tointegrate different knowledge systems and disciplines,wehave to integrate the processes underlying the develop-ment and innovation of knowledge and technology.Weneed a participatory approach to knowledge and inno-vation. Participation is not only a politically correct orsocially desirable goal, but a precondition for necessaryintegration. In order to integrate different knowledgesystems we need a dialogue of wisdoms (Altieri, 2002).

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This should be based on respect and the tackling ofproblems that are commonly defined and understood bydifferent stakeholders.To integrate different scientific andpolicy-making disciplines,we need institutional innova-tion and partnerships to break down barriers betweensectors and disciplines, and joint efforts in working oncommon problems and fields of interest.

Currently, there are various constraints in the socialorganization and institutional setting of drylands devel-opment. Technologies and innovations for sustainabledrylands development are developed outside and withlittle consideration for the whole human–ecologicalcontext of the land-user communities.As long as insti-tutions, ministries, sciences and international organiza-tions are organized along disciplinary lines with a generaland deep divide between the human and biophysicaldisciplines, we will continue to reproduce the samedichotomies and contradictions in scientific – andconservation and development – planning and practice.We need partnerships and new ways of organizing ourinstitutions as well as new interdisciplinary concepts andmethodologies to frame interdisciplinary work and facil-itate communication and common understanding of theproblematics across disciplines and sectors.

The most widely recognized attempt to providesuch a framework is the Convention on BiologicalDiversity’s (CBD) ecosystems approach,which amalga-mates new ethics, epistemology and methodology forthis purpose. A further constraint is that problems aredefined at higher levels of planning and research, butsolutions are expected to be carried out by farmers andherders.The power relationships between these groupsare such that local people have little influence on tech-nology development, planning or policy making.Withmany newly introduced technologies, farmers losesome of their autonomous capacity to manage theirlivelihoods and environment in a sustainable manner.

SSoommee pprriinncciipplleess ffoorr aannaapppprrooaacchhBy their very nature, sustainable traditional agriculturalsystems and their associated knowledge systems canonly be maintained and allowed to evolve in situ.Thespecific relationships of humans and the environmenthave to be sustained in order to safeguard local knowl-edge systems. Most knowledge cannot be extracted,recorded or transferred without changing its meaningdramatically. Modern technology can offer tools, butcan never replace local knowledge systems.When intro-duced technologies are imposed, and prospects for localadaptation are constrained, problems arise. For a tech-nology to be attuned to people’s needs, local environ-mental conditions and economic factors, it must beflexible and adaptable. Rigid prescriptions and designsdo not work. (Scoones et al., 1996)

A key step in the knowledge and innovationprocess is the way problems are defined. This shouldbe done in a participatory way, incorporating thecomplexities of the context of the main agents of landuse and management. A guiding principle can bederived from the ecosystems approach. Principle 2 ofthe ecosystems approach of the Convention onBiological Diversity reads: ‘management should bedecentralized to the lowest appropriate level’.Following this principle, we can identify the level atwhich any technology, management intervention orinnovation has to make sense.Therefore, problems andinnovation challenges have to be (co-)defined at thelowest appropriate level at which the innovations willbe used and applied.

In the case of most human management and use ofecosystems,which is done largely by individuals, house-holds and communities of farmers and herders,this prin-ciple indicates that the problems will have to beformulated largely by these actors and with regard totheir socio-economic and ecological context. Expertscan participate in this process,offering windows to otherknowledge and options. This approach would haveimplications for the role of the expert, moving frombeing a planner and decision maker to providing a nexusbetween scientific knowledge systems and farming/herder communities.Such an approach should be carriedforward throughout the planning and innovationprocesses:during testing, implementing,monitoring andevaluating. It requires changes in concepts and personalattitudes on the part of the expert.

When we design participatory processes we need toask who is participating.We should recognize that thereare different roles and power relationships withincommunities and households, between men andwomen and different social classes or ethnic groups.Any participatory process that does not acknowledgethis runs the risk of causing greater inequalities, provid-ing options for some and excluding others. In thisrespect, we also need to bear in mind the advantages ofworking with customary forms of consultation andgovernance. It is not desirable to create new institutionsthat overlap or compete with the structures andprocesses that are considered legitimate within a land-user group, even if we wish to promote social change.Doing this may cause more harm than good.Addition-ally, we need to respect sacred and spiritual elements oflocal knowledge systems, not only because of theirvalue as perceived by local populations,but also becausethey often have key functions in the sustainablemanagement of ecosystems.

There is a need and scope for the development ofinformation systems that are designed along principles ofknowledge participation.This means that different actorsshould be empowered to contribute information andperspectives in different forms to knowledge systemsfrom their own perspectives, rather than in a situation


where an expert collects data and tells the stories ofothers. Such tools are emerging and they may greatlyfacilitate dialogue and support in integrated knowledgesystems, both between disciplines and between expertsand farming and herding communities.

To summarize,the conditions for success are multiple,combining a conducive policy environment,an effectiveinstitutional setting, access to a range of participatorymethods and approaches, and personal changes amongresearchers and development workers (Pretty andChambers,1994).The researcher must acquire new skills,new technologies and new behaviours (Chambers,1993). Rather than planning, directing and enforcings/he must facilitate, convene, catalyse and negotiate.Thefocus is on the process by which technologies arise,become adapted and spread,rather than on technologicaloutputs. Rather than dividing responsibilities betweenresearchers,extentionists and farmers,roles combine andjoint activities are central.These are big changes to theconventional, linear model of technology developmentbut they are proving successful (Scoones et al., 1996)

GGlloobbaallllyy iimmppoorrttaanntt iinnggeenniioouussaaggrriiccuullttuurraall hheerriittaaggee ssyysstteemmss((GGIIAAHHSS))In 2002 the FAO, together with UNESCO, UNDP,GEF, governments, NGOs and other partners, startedan initiative for the global recognition, conservationand sustainable management of globally importantingenious agricultural heritage systems (GIAHS).GIAHS have been defined by the FAO as:

Remarkable land-use systems and landscapes,whichare rich in biological diversity evolving from theingenious and dynamic adaptation of a ruralcommunity to its environment, in order to realisetheir socio-economical, cultural and livelihoodneeds and aspirations for sustainable development.

In many countries, specific agricultural systems andlandscapes have been created, shaped and maintainedby generations of farmers and herders working withdiverse species and their interactions and using locallyadapted, distinctive and often ingenious combinationsof management practices and techniques.

Built on dynamic local knowledge and experience,these ingenious agricultural systems reflect the evolu-tion of humanity and its profound relationship withnature. They have resulted not only in landscapes ofoutstanding beauty, the maintenance of globally signif-icant agricultural biodiversity and resilient ecosystems,as well as highly adapted forms of social organizationand valuable cultural inheritances, but, above all, in thesustained provision of multiple goods and services, foodand livelihood security, and quality of life.

Such agricultural and agro-silvo-pastoral systems canbe found, in particular, in areas where the populationhas, for various reasons, had to establish complex andinnovative land-use/management practices, for exampledue to geographic isolation, fragile ecosystems, politicalmarginalization, limited natural resources and/orextreme climatic conditions. As such, agriculturalheritage systems are an invaluable pool of diversebiological resources and agro-ecological managementsolutions to help ensure the sustainable provision offood and other goods and services in the future.

The rapidity and global extent of today’s technolog-ical and socio-economic changes threaten many ofthese agricultural heritage systems, including the bio-diversity on which they are based, and their associatedsocieties.The focus over recent decades on agriculturalproductivity, specialization and global markets, and theassociated disregard of externalities and adaptivemanagement strategies, has led to the adoption ofunsustainable practices, overexploitation of resources,and declining productivity, as well as agriculturalspecialization and adoption of exotic domesticatedspecies.This poses a severe risk of genetic erosion andloss of associated knowledge systems, as well as socio-economic destabilization, loss of cultures and diversifiedfood systems, poverty and threats to livelihoods.

The GIAHS initiative aims to establish a basis forinternational recognition, dynamic conservation andsustainable management of GIAHS and their associatedbiodiversity, knowledge systems and cultures throughoutthe world.The initiative will be implemented through aGEF project in five to ten pilot systems worldwide witha view to establishing a long-term programme for thesafeguard and sustainable management of GIAHS. Anew category of World Heritage Sites is expected to becreated, as well as activities to leverage global, regionaland national policies and institutional support.

Most outstanding agricultural heritage systems haveevolved under particular environmental or socio-economic constraints,such as lack of abundant moisture,high altitudes,population pressures or remoteness.ManyGIAHS can therefore be found in dryland areas, as wellas in mountainous regions or areas with high populationdensities. Examples of such systems include:

• Ingenious irrigation and soil and water manage-ment systems in drylands with a high diversity ofadapted species (crops and animals) for such envi-ronments. These include ancient undergroundwater distribution systems (qanats) that allowspecialized and diverse cropping systems in Iran,Afghanistan and other central Asian countries,withassociated domestic gardens and endemic blind fishspecies living in under-ground waterways; inte-grated oases in deserts of North Africa and Sahara;traditional valley bottom and wetland management,for example in Lake Chad,the Niger river basin and

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interior delta (for instance, floating rice system) andsimilar ingenious systems in Bamileke (Cameroon),Dogon (Mali) and Diola (Senegal).

• Remarkable pastoral systems based on adaptive useof pasture, water, salt and forest resources throughmobility and herd-composition in harsh non-equilibrium environments with high animal geneticdiversity and outstanding cultural landscapes.Theseinclude highland, tropical and sub-tropical dryland,and arctic systems such as yak-based pastoral

management in Ladakh, the high Tibetan plateau,India, and parts of Mongolia; cattle and mixedanimal-based pastoral systems, as among the Maasaiin East Africa; and reindeer-based management oftundra and temperate forest areas in Siberia such asthose of the Saami and Nenets.

• Outstanding rice-based systems.This type includesremarkable terraced systems with integrated forestuse (swidden agriculture/agro-forestry and hunt-ing/gathering), such as rice terraces and the


Ecological processes Sociocultural processes

Traditional forms oflivelihood and naturalresource management

Collective implementation of action plan

NRM Policies Markets

Dynamic conservation of GIAHS

Local benefits Global benefits

Co-evolution

Biodiversity +ecosystem services

Indigenous knowledge +indigenous practices

Participatory planning

NATIONALBENEFITS

Culturalidentity

Foodsecurity

Naturalresource

management

Povertyalleviation

Biodiversityconservation

Ecologicalservices

CulturaldiversityDialogueof wisdom

Figure 2.1 Framework for an approach to the dynamic conservation of GIAHS

combined agro-forestry vanilla system in PaysBetsileo, Betafo and Mananara in Madagascar, anddiverse rice–fish systems with numerous rice andfish varieties/genotypes and other integrated forest,land and water uses in East Asia and the Himalayas.

• Maize and rootcrop-based agro-ecosystems devel-oped by the Aztecs (Chinampas in Mexico) andIncas in the Andes (Waru-Waru, around lake Titi-caca in Peru and Bolivia), with ingenious micro-climate and soil and water management, adaptiveuse of numerous varieties of crops to deal withclimate variability, integrated agro-forestry,and richresources of indigenous knowledge and associatedcultural heritage.

• Taro-based systems with unique and endemicgenetic resources in Papua New Guinea,Vanuatu,the Solomon Islands and other Pacific small-islanddeveloping countries.

• Complex multi-layered domestic gardens, withwild and domesticated trees, shrubs and plants formultiple foods, medicines, ornamental and othermaterials, possibly with integrated agro-forestry,swidden fields,hunting-gathering or livestock, suchas domestic garden systems in China, India, theCaribbean, the Amazon (Kayapó) and Indonesia(for example, East Kalimantan and Butitingui).

• Hunter-gatherer systems such as harvesting ofwild rice in Chad and honey gathering by forestdwelling peoples in Central and East Africa.

The approach will put participatory frameworks inplace in pilot systems to strengthen the managementand knowledge systems that underpin the functioningof the agricultural ecosystem and enhance its viability.Parallel processes will be put in place at national andinternational levels in order to provide support anddevelop ways to increase the impact of the initiative byincorporating lessons learned into policy and incentivestructures, and by creating national and internationalmechanisms to safeguard these systems.The initiativewill develop participatory methods to preserve GIAHSwithout fossilizing them. It aims to support theircontinued evolution and adaptation while preservingtheir inherently sustainable characteristics and enhancingtheir socio-economic and ecosystem functions.

OOtthheerr iinniittiiaattiivveess ooff tthhee FFAAOO oonnllooccaall kknnoowwlleeddggee ssyysstteemmssThe FAO has various ongoing activities andprogrammes that involve local knowledge systemsand/or are focused on drylands. A list of activities andpublications is provided in Annex 1.

AAcckknnoowwlleeddggeemmeennttThe authors would like to acknowledge their col-leagues Astrid Agostini, Stephan Baas, CatharinaBatello, Irene Hoffmann, Regina Laub of the FAOand Professor José Remedios Furtado of ImperialCollege, London, and thank them for their helpfulcomments and suggestions.


ALTIERI, M.A. Agroecology: the science of naturalresource management for poor farmers in marginal envi-ronments. In: J.W.Sturrock and M.R.Carter (eds.) Agri-culture,ecosystems and environment.Elsevier,2002,pp 1–24.

CHAMBERS, R. Challenging the professions: frontiers forrural development. London, IT Publications, 1993.

EYZAGUIRRE, P.; WOODS-PEREZ, A. Long-termrelations between cultures and landscapes. Presentation atthe workshop on Globally-important IngeniousAgricultural Heritage Systems held in Rome, 7–9June 2004.

FAO. Conservation and sustainable management ofGlobally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems(GIAHS). Global Environment Facility, ProjectConcept Note. Rome, FAO, 2003.

FAO with ALTIERI, M.A. Methodological frameworkand step-by-step approach the implementation of theGIAHS project. Unpublished, 2003.

PRETTY, J.; CHAMBERS, R. Towards learning aparadigm; new professionalism and institutions foragriculture. In: I. Scoones and J. Thompson (eds.),Beyond farmer first: rural people’s knowledge, agriculturalresearch and extension practice. London, IT Publications,1994, pp. 182–202.

SCOONES, I.; REIJ, C.;TOULMIN, C. Sustaining thesoil: indigenous soil and water conservation in Africa.International Institute for Environment andDevelopment (IIED Issues Paper No. 67), 1996.

Other sources used

Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations (FAO) www.fao.org

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)www.biodiv.org

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AAnnnneexx 11.. FFAAOO aaccttiivviittiieess aannddppuubblliiccaattiioonnss oonn llooccaall kknnoowwlleeddggee ssyysstteemmss aanndd//oorr ddrryyllaannddss

FAO activities and programmes

Commission on Genetic Resources for Food andAgriculture. www.fao.org/cgrfa

International Treaty on Plant genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture. This internationally bindinginstrument includes provisions on Farmers’ Rightsregarding farmer’s genetic resources for food andagriculture and their associated knowledge.www.fao.org/cgrfa

Interdepartmental Working Group on BiologicalDiversity. www.fao.org/biodiversity

The Globally Important Ingenious AgriculturalHeritage Systems (GIAHS) initiative.www.fao.org/landandwater/giahs

Land Degradations Assessment in Drylands (LADA).www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/lada

Men and Women’s Local and Indigenous KnowledgeSystems (LINKS) Project.Contact: [email protected]

Traditional Early Warning Systems in Africa (on animaldiseases).www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y3649E/y3649e07.htm

Rangeland Rehabilitation and sustainable use wildlifereserve in Syria (Project).Contact: [email protected]

Promotion of kreb and other food and medicinalplants from natural dryland grasslands.Contact: [email protected]

FAO publications on local andindigenous knowledge

FAO. From indifference to awareness: encountering biodiver-sity in the semi-arid rangelands of the Syrian Arab Republic.Rome, FAO, 2003a.

FAO. Know to move, move to know: ecological knowledgeand herd movement among the Woodabe of South-EasternNiger. Rome, FAO, 2003b.

FAO. Understanding the indigenous knowledge and infor-mation systems of pastoralists in Eritrea. Rome, FAO,2003c.

FAO. The future is an ancient lake: traditional knowledge,biodiversity and genetic resources for food and agriculture inLake Chad basin ecosystems. Rome, FAO, 2004.

FAO; UNEP. Savannah lifestyles: environmental issues forschools in East Africa. Rome, FAO, 2001.

NNoottee

1. Each time the word agriculture (or agricultural) is used in thispaper it is meant to include cropping, livestock, forestry, fisheries,hunter-gatherer livelihood systems or various combinationsthereof.


and the dependency of developing countries, with ulti-mately disappointing results,particularly in the improve-ment of living standards for the poor.This is perhaps themain reason and motive behind the growing interest inindigenous/traditional knowledge. It is hoped that thiscan play a major role in participatory approaches tosustainable development and poverty alleviation. How-ever, fears are often expressed that this might be anotherfalse hope and may again lead to disappointment, furtherwidening the gap between the rich and poor.

There are indeed many obstacles and constraints thatundermine the results of international,national and localefforts in the closely interrelated fields of combating deser-tification,reducing poverty and making use of technology.

In this highly complex issue, it will be difficult, andperhaps impossible, to be all-inclusive.This short paperwill therefore focus on the difficulties, contradictionsand dilemmas faced when trying to link technology tocombating desertification and reducing poverty with-out giving enough consideration to the prevailingglobal and national powers and trends that usuallydeny the poor a fair share of the resources.

PPoovveerrttyy aanndd rreessoouurrcceess ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn:: wwhhiicchh ccoommeessffiirrsstt??In the vicious circle that involves poverty, hunger anddesertification, the fallacy of confusing cause and effectis quite common, particularly among policy makers. Itis important, therefore, to answer one important ques-tion: Which comes first, poverty and hunger, or landdegradation? Obviously, problems of land degradationspread poverty and hunger to a greater number ofpeople in the affected areas and to newer areas. On theother hand, anti-desertification measures in the poornations have failed so far, and desertification has beendramatically accelerated almost everywhere. In thiscontext, some people like to analyse the situation andjump to the conclusion, in one way or another, that ‘thepoor deserve what happens to them’. It is not usuallystated in such plain or frank terms, but it does representthe official view adopted by policy makers who fail toachieve sustainable development for their people.


Poverty of the environment and the environment of poverty:constraints on adopting modern technology and promotingtraditional knowledge in combating degradation and poverty

Mohammed A. Kishk, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, Minia University, Egypt

3

This paper discusses the difficulties, contradictions anddilemmas faced when trying to link technology toattempts at combating desertification and povertywithout thorough consideration of the prevailingglobal and national powers and trends that usuallydeny the poor a fair and equal share in resources.

The paper makes it obvious that much traditionalknowledge and know-how and many traditionalpractices are cost effective, energy saving and environ-mentally friendly. However, in many communities, theyare gradually or suddenly eroded while, at the sametime, poor communities have no access to appropriatemodern technology and are obliged to use the mostinappropriate forms, with sometimes disastrous conse-quences.The paper gives some explanations for this andtries to suggest some remedial actions.

IInnttrroodduuccttiioonnThere is a wealth of both traditional knowledge andmodern technology for the sustainable management ofdryland ecosystems, and that is available everywhere. Inmany cases, however, particularly in poor countries andcommunities, arid land ecosystems are managed unsus-tainably, resulting in accelerating desertification andmillions of people helplessly and perhaps hopelesslysuffering the consequences.

There are many human (political, socio-economic,cultural and institutional) challenges that hinder theadoption of available modern technology, and at the sametime result in neglecting and ultimately eroding tradi-tional knowledge, know-how and practices that havebeen used in a sustainable manner for many centuries.

If poverty reduction is the ultimate goal for allresearch and intervention towards the sustainablemanagement of dryland ecosystems, then reducingpoverty is also a prerequisite for the sustainability ofsuch efforts. This means that helping the poor landusers and allowing them to voice their opinions in theprocess of decision making is the way of breaking thevicious circle. It enables the poor to respect and usetheir traditional knowledge while choosing the mostappropriate modern technologies.

Development aid, and the introduction of associatedmodern Western technology, has led to mounting debt

Governments in poor countries are too busy dealingwith many urgent problems to think about soil and waterconservation, so they tend to blame the poor farmers fornot taking the appropriate conservation measures.Giventhe present situation of poor small-scale farmers, thebasic question is this:Are they to blame? Quite plainlythey are not. Similarly, the simple straight answer to thequestion is this: Poverty comes first and other thingsfollow. If we keep talking about lack of funds, lack ofcoordination, lack of appropriate technologies or otherthings that are lacking to combat desertification,then weare not applying the right approach to tackling the prob-lem. It is a simple and plain fact that we must come toterms with: resource conservation and poverty areincompatible.

The English saying ‘where there is a will, there is away’ is perhaps encouraging, but it is certainly not true.In reality, we often come across many situations wherethere is a will but all ways or solutions are closed.TheEgyptians have met with such situations throughouttheir long history and their saying is therefore morerealistic:‘The sight is long but the hand is short’.Whenthe hand is short and the focus is on problems andcrises, many opportunities are missed.

The growing disparity in income between rich andpoor, supported by government bias, has enabled thewealthy to divert the resources of countries from theproduction of food staples to the production of luxuryitems. As a result, in the agricultural sector of manycountries, there is more food grown for animals than forhumans, and for the rich than for the poor; and even thesmallest farmers have been forced to shift from self-sufficiency to the production of animal products,increasingly relying on subsidized imported flour astheir staple diet (Mitchell, 1991).

TThhee nnoottiioonn ooff aapppprroopprriiaattee tteecchhnnoollooggyyWhen I started thinking of what can be said aboutappropriate technology and technology transfer, an oldEgyptian saying came to my mind: ‘The smart womancan spin using a donkey’s leg’.The same concept mightbe found in almost every culture. I also recalled what thelate President Sadat of Egypt used to say proudly:‘We areusing the most modern technology of our time’.

It goes without saying, however, that most wisepeople now, in both developed and developing coun-tries, know that the complex issue of developmentcannot be resolved by using a donkey’s leg in spinningor by aiming at the most modern technology.

To me it makes no sense to spend much time andeffort trying to show the advantages of traditionalknowledge or exploring the differences betweenmodern technology and traditional/indigenousknowledge.There is near consensus now that neither

modern/scientific technology nor traditional/indig-enous knowledge is static. They are constantlychanging and they are mutually exchanging andmaking use of each other. There are differencesbetween them, but there are also similarities. It isreasonable to assume that there is a continuum thathas the traditional knowledge, practices and know-how at one extreme and the most sophisticatedforms of modern technology at the other.

The pertinent question is not ‘which is better, thetraditional or the modern?’ but instead ‘what technolo-gies,either traditional or modern,will enable the poor towork their way out of poverty?’Another question shouldfollow on: ‘To what extent can the marginalized poorbenefit from the boom in information technology andbiotechnology?’ There is indeed much evidence tosupport the idea that such modern technology in thehands of multinational corporations undermines thelivelihoods of hundreds of millions of small-scale farmers(Coventry, 2003).

By appropriate technology, we imply technologythat can better serve socio-economic development.There is near consensus that for any approach to beappropriate it should involve technology that:

• is self-perpetuating, that is, intended to stimulatethe innovative processes that will allow forcontinuing advances

• is adaptive or easily transformed or begun on adifferent level depending on the social and culturalneeds and the technical capacity of the country

• is cost-effective, at least in the long run• provides for optimum use of local resources• promotes self-help and self-reliance• makes use of local experiences and promotes

local participation• is ecologically sound• implies increased education• builds the capacities of local institutions• is relatively easily learned by the people who are

going to use it• is equally accessible to poor and rich groups• ensures its side effects can be handled efficiently

by local institutions• does not create or increase unemployment problems.

For more details see: Uchendu (1974);Villagas (1974);Martinez (1974); McDowell (1975); Jequier (1975)Bulfin and Weaver (1977) and Coventry (2003).

As Coventry (2003) so nicely put it:

The challenge is to help poor women and menchoose and use technology;to adapt,develop and toimprove it; and to manage it sustainably over time.It means subjecting the choice of technology to thetest of the three As: is it affordable? accessible? andappropriate?

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Access to such appropriate technology can be a criticallever out of poverty, and its absence a key feature ofliving in extreme poverty.Nevertheless, there have beenmany cases in which technology transfer has beeninevitably unsuccessful. As this can be the case, it isessential that developing countries select what is appro-priate for each particular situation. Therefore, theyshould clearly define what is appropriate for them, andeven more importantly,what is appropriate for the poor.

TThhee hhaarrddwwaarree aanndd ssooffttwwaarreeccoommppoonneennttss ooff tthhee tteecchhnnoollooggyyTechnology has two distinct components: the first isusually visible and overrated and can be called the ‘hard-ware’; it includes factories, machines or other products.The other component, which can be called the ‘soft-ware’, includes such immaterial things as knowledge,know-how, experience, education and organizationalforms.The importance of these immaterial innovationsoften tends to be underrated by many people in thedeveloping countries. Any developing country caneasily import or transfer a highly sophisticated industry,or agricultural machines or laboratory equipment.Often, problems very quickly arise in their mainte-nance, management and use, and increase to the extentsuch that the equipment might be rendered useless.Thishappens on a daily basis and is mainly the result of a lackof software.

Hardware and the technical ability to produce it in aninnovative way can generally be transferred from onecountry or culture to another.Organizational forms andsocial values are,by contrast,much more culture-specificand hence more difficult to transfer ( Jequier, 1975). Inother words, the problems associated with the transferand adaptation of software are much more difficult andcomplex than those for hardware.These problems are notencountered when traditional technologies are used,because hardware and software have been developedsimultaneously and are therefore compatible.

As mentioned earlier, appropriate technology couldbe either traditional or modern.Traditional technologiesare likely to be more appropriate than modern forms,butthere are cases in which some forms of traditional tech-nologies are becoming outdated and are no longerappropriate.Nevertheless,in using traditional technologywe automatically avoid the serious problems that arisefrom transferring modern technology: that is, thecontrast between hardware and software components ofthe technology.

IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall ttrraaddee iinn tteecchhnnoollooggyy It should be kept in mind that technology is not sim-ply an effective means to meet only urgent basic needsfor food, health, energy or shelter, but that it also helps

to initiate a process of development by stimulating theinnovative forces that exist in any society.

In today’s world, the invisible hand of the market isthe decisive factor in shaping and deciding the scientificand technological advances that are developed, and forwhom. It is unlikely that private shareholders in devel-oped nations will voluntarily invest substantial resourcessimply to help their ‘brothers and sisters’ in the lessdeveloped countries.The nature of the system is suchthat there is a tendency towards benefiting from thepoor to increase profits.There have been, and still are,many regrettable examples of obsolete, outdated andunwanted Western technologies being sold to develop-ing countries at very high prices that in some casesresulted in economic, social or ecological catastrophes.For these reasons, among others, new technologiesshould be tailored to developing nations by local busi-nesses and institutions. As each country has specificscientific, technological and developmental needs,development aid should help developing countriesstrengthen their own capabilities rather than buy inready-made products or turnkey projects.

The global trends led by international institutionssuch as the World Bank, the International MonetaryFund (IMF) and the World Trade Organization(WTO) promote the apparently irreversible advanceof liberalized trade and investment. One result is thatagricultural producers will decline in the face of com-petitive export agriculture, and that the rural poor willcontinue to join the informal marginalized sectors ofour growing cities.

EExxcclluussiioonn ooff tthhee ppoooorr aanndd eerroossiioonn ooff tthheeiirr kknnoowwlleeddggeeIt was once said ‘to ignore people’s knowledge is almostto ensure failure in development’ (Brokensha et al.,1980). However, the current global trends that can bereferred to as ‘globalization’ make it almost impossiblenot to ignore people’s knowledge.

If indigenous knowledge systems are disappearing,it is primarily because the pressures of modern-ization and cultural homogenization, under theauspices of the modern nation-state and theinternational trade systems, threaten the lifestyles,practices and cultures of nomadic populations,small agricultural procedures and indigenouspeople.

(Agrawal, 1995)

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifi-cation (UNCCD) made a clear link between combatingdesertification and reducing poverty, and it recognizedthe role of traditional knowledge in achieving this.However, I see a serious problem here.The marginalized


poor are more and more excluded by having no accessto,or control over, the resources on which they depend.The global powers and trends tend to deny the margin-alized poor any voice in development and their right todetermine their own future.How then will they be ableto preserve their own knowledge? ‘Those who are seento possess knowledge must also possess the right todecide on how to conserve their knowledge, and howand by whom it will be used’ (Agrawal, 1995).

I therefore suppose that it does not make sense totalk much about the advantages of using,promoting andpreserving traditional knowledge to combat desertifica-tion and reduce poverty, as this will lead us nowhere.Instead, it might be more useful and helpful to reorientand, if possible, reverse global and state policies in orderto empower the populations under threat.Those whounwillingly contribute to desertification, and suffermost of the consequences, should be allowed greateraccess to resources, including knowledge, and bepermitted to decide and choose the most appropriateand accessible knowledge-set for them, whether it ismodern or traditional.

CCoonnsseerrvviinngg ttrraaddiittiioonnaall kknnoowwlleeddggee ffoorr wwhhoomm??Many documents and writings – including UNCCD’scall to conserve traditional knowledge – were very nicelycriticized by Agrawal (1995).He sees the prime strategyfor conserving indigenous knowledge as ex situ conser-vation, that is, isolation, documentation and storage inregional, national and international archives. He thenargues that the attempt to prioritize, isolate, archive andtransfer traditional knowledge can only seem contradic-tory and is likely to fail in preserving knowledge that isintegrally linked with the lives of people and is thusconstantly changing. Agrawal concludes by reportingthe most important criticism; he says:

Ex situ conservation, even if it is successful inunearthing useful information, is likely to benefitthe richer, or powerful constituencies – those whohave access to international centres of knowledgepreservation – thus undermining the major statedobjective of conserving such knowledge: to benefitthe poor, the oppressed and the disadvantaged.

(Agrawal, 1995)

UUnnffaaiirr ccoommppeettiittiioonn aanndd bbiiaasseeddddeecciissiioonnssEverywhere, there are often many (individuals, groups,classes, regions, generations, enterprises, technologiesand so on) competing for few opportunities. This is

particularly the case in less developed countries. Thecompetition between rich and poor countries or classeswithin countries is even worse, and the adverse effectsof this competition always apply to the poor.

The decisions, at every level, regarding the use ofresources and technologies will normally favour someof the competing parties at the cost of others,depending on the power structure directing the deci-sion-making process. Even if the needs of all parties aretaken into account, decisions will directly affect peoplein other places/countries or at other times (futuregenerations). Conflicts are unavoidable, mainly becauseboth the poor and future generations are not repre-sented, and therefore their needs are not fully consid-ered in our decision making. Occasionally, either bydesign or by circumstance, their needs are completelyneglected.

Considering future needs at the expense of theneeds of the current generation, or what is called ‘sus-tainable development’, is like simply asking the poorpeople ‘to die today in order to live well tomorrow’.The poor cannot exercise this option, as RobertMugabe put it in his address to the UN GeneralAssembly in 1987. The only option the poor mighthave is to repeat the famous Egyptian saying ‘let melive today and you may kill me tomorrow’. After all,why should people work or look to the future if theycan see no future?

Let us have a closer look at some examples.The inter-national financial institutions (the IMF, World Bank andUSAID) exert pressure on Egypt and many other coun-tries to implement what are called ‘Structural Adjust-ment’policies.Those countries are requested to radicallyincrease the share of the market within their politicaleconomies through privatization.The main argument isthat competition is the judge of efficiency (Brombleyand Bush,1994).This is also the main feature of USAID’sstrategy for Egypt (USAID, 1992), which stresses thatEgyptian agriculture must capitalize on its comparativeadvantage.This entails a shift towards the production ofhigh-value low-nutrition foodstuffs for the Egyptianmarket and for export. This not only favours largecommercial farmers at the expense of the majority ofrural producers, but also entails the use of importedWestern technology and neglect of the traditionalknowledge of local communities.

MMoorree ccoonnssttrraaiinnttss oonn iinnddiiggeennoouusskknnoowwlleeddggeeSo far,we have been talking about what might be called‘strategic constraints and problems’ on the use of appro-priate technology to combat resources degradation andfight poverty.There are still many more constraints thatapply, particularly to the adoption of traditional knowl-edge, know-how, practices and experience of local

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communities. Among many of those constraints, thefollowing are mentioned as just a few examples:

• Education systems in many developing countriesare undemocratic.The planning, implementationand evaluation of the systems and institutions aremade by high-ranking government officialsalone. The families, the local communities, thestudents and even the teachers have no say, andtheir needs and knowledge are ignored.

• The majority of scientists, researchers, techniciansand policy makers in developing countries, beingthe product of their education system and of furthertraining in the West,are proud of sophisticated West-ern science and technology and the way of life theyhave learned. In fact,many of them have no respectfor local traditional knowledge. It is therefore notintegrated in the research and development process.

• The undemocratic societies in developing coun-tries are marching to copy the modern industrialsocieties of the West.The process of modernizinghas been distorted in many ways.This has led to theerosion of traditional knowledge and the innova-tive capacity of the society as a whole, withoutreplacing them with appropriate, affordable andaccessible modern technologies.

• The process of privatization, commercializationand promoting mass production for marketing on aglobal scale has left many traditional technologiesunable to compete with modern technologies.

• The homogenization of cultures and lifestyles andthe attractiveness of fast food have contributed toa massive erosion of the traditional healthy foodsand cooking materials and methods that supportedlocal communities for centuries.

• Multinationals and national corporations aim tomaximize profits and are more interested inadvertising their modern technological productsthan in investing and promoting the traditionaltechnologies of the poor.

CCoonncclluussiioonnss aanndd rreeccoommmmeennddaattiioonnssIn this study, we have attempted to show that thevery difficult and complex task of technology transfer,adaptation, invention and diffusion is to be carriedout by every developing nation. The appropriatetechnologies required by developing countries caneither be low-cost and intermediate or highlysophisticated and very advanced. In all cases, tech-nology should serve and suit the socio-economicneeds and conditions of the society. In trying tomake some recommendations, I have found it verydifficult to come up with anything new.

Most, if not all, the recommendations I make havebeen made and repeated several times before.Anyway,it will bring no harm to repeat them once again, justto remind those concerned that something still has tobe done.

• Development aid should help developing countriesstrengthen their own technological capabilities.

• The less developed countries should realize thatprogress cannot be imported. Progress should bemade from within the society itself.

• Technology transfer without a local technical andscientific base should be avoided because veryoften it will inhibit the growth of indigenousinnovative capabilities.

• The less developed countries should stress theimportance of developing appropriate software tomake better use of the hardware.

• A range of measures to correct the curriculum, thepromotion system and research priorities should betaken at universities in the less developed countriesif they want to play a useful role in the develop-ment of their societies. It is not uncommon foruniversities and other educational institutions toact as inhibitors to the process of development.

• For the development and diffusion of new technol-ogy to a rural community, there is a need to knowthe limiting and facilitating factors, which shouldbe taken into consideration when strategies forintroducing the new technologies are developed.

• Due to the very participatory character of thechoice and adaptation of technology and of thedevelopment process in general, there is no sub-stitute for very active participation of the localpopulation in every step of the process. If progressand improvements are made for them, then theyshould carry them out.

• To make this possible, the poor should have a fairshare in the resources, and should be empowered todecide on the type of development they want andthe type of technologies that will serve their needs.


AGRAWAL, A. Indigenous and scientific knowledge:some critical comments. Indigenous Knowledge andDevelopment Monitor,Vol. 3, No. 3, 1995.

BROKENSHA, D.; WARREN, D.; WERNER, O.(eds.) Indigenous knowledge systems and development.Lanham: University Press of America, 1980.

BROMBLEY, S.; BUSH, R.Adjustment in Egypt:Thepolitical economy of reform. Review of African PoliticalEconomy,Vol. 60, 1994, pp. 201–13.


BULFIN, R.L.; WEAVER, H.L. Appropriate technolo-gy for natural resources development.Tuscon, University ofArizona, 1977.

COVENTRY, C. The role of technology in poverty reduc-tion. Paper presented at the South Asian Conferenceon Technologies for Poverty Reduction. New Delhi,10–11 October 2003.

JEQUIER, N. (ed.) Appropriate technology: problems andpromises. Paris, Development Center of the Organiza-tion for Economic Cooperation and Development,1975.

MARTINEZ,V. Specialized information services for tech-nological innovation in the less developed countries. Paperpresented in the OECD Seminar on Low-CostTechnology, Paris, 1974.

MITCHELL, T. Americas’ Egypt: discourse of thedevelopment industry. Middle East Report,March/April, 1991, pp. 18–34.

MCDOWELL, J.The concept of village technology inEastern Africa. Appropriate Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2,1975, pp. 15–17.

UCHENDU,V.C. Intermediate technology and cumu-lative technical processes in East African agriculture. In:Seminar series on technology and development, Vol. I. 1974.

USAID. Country program strategy FY 1992–1996:Agriculture. Cairo, USAID, 1992.

VILLAGAS, B. For an appropriate technology.CERES,Vol. 7, No. 3, 1974, pp 44–47.

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The fairly direct relationship between the amount ofprecipitation and elevation encouraged the establish-ment of settlements in mountainous regions. As thegrass is more abundant and greener at higher elevations,both pastoralists and mixed farmers chose mountainvalleys and foothills for grazing and dry farming.Moun-tains have served humankind as water towers from timeimmemorial, and Persians were intelligent enough toexploit this potential. The potential energy of thedescending water was utilized to operate watermills,many in tandem.

As the steep slopes necessitated construction ofnarrow terraces requiring strong stone walls, and culti-vation was much easier on sites with milder gradients,larger basins were constructed on debris cones and onthe upper and middle reaches of coarse alluvial fans.Persians had learned that they could easily harnessmeagre flows, divert them into small basins, and growcrops in both flat and sloping terrains.

Runoff farming, which was probably the forerunnerof the qanat technology,was most certainly gleaned fromnature. Seepage of water downstream of the runofffarms led to the serendipitous discovery of groundwaterflow and development of the very sophisticated qanattechnology.The emergence of alluvial springs, wherethe vadose zone texture became finer than the overlyingstrata, was an inevitable outcome of over-irrigation ofsuch farms. This, perhaps, encouraged the ancientPersians to dig mildly sloping tunnels that drained thealluvial strata. The presence of seemingly prehistoricflood-irrigated farms on the recharge area of many ofthe qanats in the northeastern province of Khorasanlends support to the contention that our ancestorsreplenished their aquifers, albeit unknowingly (Kowsar,1992).The qanats supplied the lower lying farm fieldsand agrarian communities.This made our country intothe ‘land of droughts, floods and qanats’.

A variation on the same theme was floodwater irri-gation of very large basins in vast floodplains withextremely low slopes.These plains had been formed bymillions of years of erosion of siltstone and marl outcropsof the tertiary age. As these fine materials were notconducive to the formation of productive aquifers, thePersians used them for growing small food grains,partic-ularly wheat and barley.They certainly were,and still are,strong believers in the so-called ‘Genesis Strategy’:produce in fat years, economize in lean years.


Reinventing the wheel: floodwater management for the rehabilitation of degraded lands

Sayyed A. Kowsar, Fars Research Centre for Agriculture and Natural Resources, I.R. Iran

4

AAbbssttrraaccttSoil erosion,which is aggravated during droughts, is themain cause of desertification in drylands. As both toomuch and too little water may lead to soil erosion,watermanagement is often an important key to desertificationcontrol. Floods, being the only relatively large waterresource in deserts, play a pivotal role in the rehab-ilitation of degraded lands in these areas. Integratedmanagement of floodwater at a research station in asandy plain in southern Iran has proven a logicalmethod to convert a degraded area into a verdant land-scape.This has improved the living conditions for bothpeople and wildlife.The artificial recharge of ground-water and its prudent utilization (Abkhandari in Persian)provide food, fodder, fuelwood and fibre, and mitigateflooding damage and disasters. Modern technology andtraditional knowledge have complemented each otherat our station.The immigration of the nomadic farmers,who had previously left the plain due to loomingpoverty, is a clear sign of the success of this improvedancient technology.

IInnttrroodduuccttiioonnThe presence of numerous farming communities in thevery dry areas of the Islamic Republic of Iran (I.R. Iran)is irrefutable proof that humankind can live a fruitful lifeunder extremely harsh conditions. Drylands, by defini-tion, receive relatively insignificant amounts of precip-itation.Moreover, the distribution of this small amount iserratic.What is described as the mean annual precipitationmight occur only in a very few events. Furthermore,drylands usually experience irregular droughts,sometimes for several years in succession.It is during suchperiods that inappropriate land use, which culminates indesertification, is likely to take place.

The occurrence of torrential rains in arid and semi-arid zones is the rule, rather than an exception.Theseevents happen even during the most severe droughts.This is the main reason that sedentary populations indeserts had to develop ingenious techniques to harnessthe torrents and utilize the water for growing food,fodder, fuel and fibre crops. ‘The land of droughts andfloods’ best describes the pre-qanat period of ourcountry, the I.R. Iran.

As self-sufficiency in food became a tenet of theI.R. Iran in its formative years, detailed examinationsof the runoff farming systems were performed to findthe most appropriate methods for application on largescales.We were facing serious problems. Most of ourqanats had dried up due to the use of an inappropriatetechnology: overexploitation of groundwater throughdeep wells. More than 50 per cent of our irrigationwater is supplied through underground resources.Therefore, artificial recharge of groundwater (ARG)was strongly advocated in planning and implementingthe floodwater spreading (FWS) schemes.This was themain reason that we integrated traditional knowledgewith modern technology and coined the termAbkhandari (aquifer management in Persian), to signi-fy the importance of all activities that result in thedevelopment of groundwater and optimization of itsuse (Kowsar, 1998a).

The most widespread design used in present-dayIran is based on the pioneering work of threeAustralians:Phillips (1957),Newman (1963),and Quilty(1972). In this system floodwater is spread as a thin sheetfrom level-silled channels constructed at specified inter-vals.The overland flow in FWS events (theoretically)does not acquire erosive velocities.We have modifiedthe Australian design to suit our intended purposes, theephemeral flow regimes and the lay of the land, thetexture of soils and the machinery available forconstruction. It should be emphasized that we are stillundertaking research on different aspects of FWS andthe artificial recharge of groundwater (ARG). Ourprincipal objective in such methodical activities is toelevate these ancient arts into the level of science.

SSoommee aapppplliiccaattiioonnss ooff mmooddeerrnntteecchhnnoollooggiieess iinn iimmpprroovviinngg aannaanncciieenntt aarrttThe following are some of the modifications that wehave made, and the new techniques that we are tryingto develop that benefit from modern technology.

• Development of sloping stilling basins. Flowing waterhas potential and kinetic energies by virtue of itselevation, depth, mass and velocity; it imparts shearstress on, and impact force to, the objects thatobstruct its flow. It is therefore essential to decreasethe depth and velocity of flow if floodwater is tobecome manageable.This is achieved in very longstilling basins termed ‘conveyor-spreader channels’.The most suitable slope for these channels is 0.0003(Kowsar, 1991). Only very precise engineeringlevels may be used in surveying this slope.

• Construction of floodwater spreading systems using heavymachinery. Manual labour and beasts of burdenwere used until the very recent past in the

construction of FWS systems. Although this is agood way to provide jobs for millions of unem-ployed workers, we use bulldozers, loaders, gradersand even farm tractors equipped with bulldozerblades for excavating channels and buildingembankments.

• Identification of clay minerals.Translocation of minuteclay minerals in the vadose zone clogs the soil poresand obstructs the flow of water towards the watertable.We have used both x-ray diffraction (XRD)and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) toidentify clay minerals that could potentially stop theflow (Mohammadnia and Kowsar, 2003).

• Application of remote sensing and geographical informa-tion systems in site selection and performance assessment.Remote sensing and GIS techniques are being usedto find potential sites for the ARG projects. Wehave used remote sensing to assess the benefits ofARG activities carried out during the first twentyyears of operation in the Gareh Bygone Plain, andfive years of sediment deposition in an ARG systemat Ab Bareek, Bam, southeastern Iran.

• Application of a global positioning system in surveyingand sampling.We have recently employed the GPStechnique in surveying a 21-year-old ARG systemat our station in the Gareh Bygone Plain, andlocated upwards of 170 sampling points to studythe depth and texture of sediments, and determineinfiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity at someof those locations.The same system,but with fewerpoints, was used on the watershed. Geostatisticaltechniques and modern computers will beemployed in analysing the data.

• Fertilization of the runoff farms, rangeland and afforest-ed area with geological nitrogen. The presence ofnitrate and ammonium in the tertiary outcrops ofthe watershed that supplies floodwater to theARG systems is simultaneously beneficial andharmful. As our sandy soil is extremely low innitrogen, the nitrate-polluted floodwater is a greatadvantage in the fertilization of the planted andindigenous vegetation (Yazdian and Kowsar,2003). On the other hand, contamination ofgroundwater that is also used for domestic pur-poses poses a dilemma: to drink or not to drink,that is the question! We have measured both soiland water nitrate and ammonium with the mostmodern laboratory instruments and establishedthe innocuous composition of the groundwater.

• Sequestration of carbon. We have a tremendouspotential in Iran to sequester carbon in photo-synthesizing plants. Eucalyptus camaldulensisDehnh., planted at 1,100 stems per ha, annuallysequesters 2.9 tons of carbon per ha at our sta-tion. Should the signatories of the Kyoto Protocoldecide to pay the carbon rent, we will be glad tooblige!

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• Application of time-domain reflectrometry in soil watermeasurement.We have acquired a number of TDRsensors to install at regular intervals in the wells,dugto a depth of about 30 m to monitor the flow ofwater towards the water table.We have already useda neutron probe in studying water consumption byEuc. camaldulensis trees.

• Characterization of soil microorganisms. As microbialpopulations and their characteristics are indicatorsof soil quality, we hypothesized that floodwaterspreading has affected both of these indicators.Wehave used modern techniques in determining thespecies and abundance of the soil microorganisms.Identification of associative nitrogen-fixing bacteriaof Panicum antidotale Retz. is currently under way atour station.

RReehhaabbiilliittaattiioonn ooff aa ssaannddyy ddeesseerrttThe Gareh Bygone Plain measures 18,000 ha, ofwhich more than 6,000 ha were covered with movingsand in 1983 when FWS activities were initiated.Weathering of the Agha Jari sandstone outcrops onthe Bisheh Zard Watershed produces fine sand, whichis carried as suspended and bed load. Sedimentation ofsome of this material in the streambed and on thefloodplain provides the charge that is carried by thewind, which blows mostly in the spring and summermonths.

Turbidity of floodwater, which is the nemesis ofwater resource developers, is a great advantage here.Silt and clay-sized particles, and the suspended anddissolved organic matter, provide an environmentallyfriendly adhesive that glues sand grains together; thus,stabilization of the moving sand and enhancement ofsoil quality are achieved simultaneously. As availablewater capacity is the most direct driver of primaryproduction, and this in turn depends on the textureand depth of soils, deposition of fine materials on sandenhances this property and makes it a better growthmedium. It is true that tree windbreaks decrease winderosion, but stabilization by adhesive materials isrequired to prevent dust formation. We still witnessdust between windbreaks where the ground surfacehas not been covered with turbid floodwater. This isparticularly important in more humid areas where thevegetation cover has been compromised.

Overgrazing has been singled out as the principalcause of degradation of rangelands.This is certainly truetoday, but it was not so in the recent past. Nomadicchieftains managed their allocated rangelands to someextent to avoid overexploitation. Although trans-humance is blamed for this problem, implementation ofthe ill-conceived ‘Sedentarization of Nomads’ in the1930s,‘Land Reform’ in the 1960s, and ‘Save the Lambs’in the 1980s delivered the coup de grâce to this vitalresource. The encroachment of farm fields onto the

grazing areas, which was facilitated by an inappropriatetechnology (the tractor-drawn mouldboard-plough)robbed the nomads and mixed farmers of their rightfulpastures, which had been grazed for millennia by theirancestors’ herds. It is thus of the utmost importance toprovide forage for herders if degraded land rehabilitationis seriously intended (Kowsar, 1998b).

Fuelwood collection is another major cause of landdegradation.Although the government does its best tosupply even the remotest villages with fossil fuels,there are still reported cases of deforestation for char-coal making, cooking, and heating houses and tents. Ina recent inventory of an eighteen-year-old Eucalyptuscamaldulensis plantation, we discovered that the annualfuelwood yield of this species at our site was 813 kgper ha.

FWS on a sandy expanse in the Gareh Bygone Plainin southern Iran has converted it into an arable land thatproduces relatively abundant and nutritious forage.Inva-sion by a few palatable forage species of the sediment-covered areas indicates that site quality has beenenhanced. Artemisia sieberi Besser., Atriplex leucocladaBoiss., Cymbopogon olivieri (Boiss.) and Cynodon dactylonL.are the most prominent additions to the vegetation list.The ten-year average of forage yield of indigenousspecies has been 445 kg per ha, a fivefold increase rela-tive to the control.The mean annual yield of quailbush(Atriplex lentiformis (Torr.) Wats.) at 625 bushes per ha hasbeen 1,500 kg per ha. Australian fodder trees such asAcacia cyanophylla Lindl. and Acacia salicina Lindl. haveadded to the grazing potential of the station.What raisesan intriguing question is that sheep and goats browsesome of the Euc. camaldulensis Dehnh. trees withoutapparent ill effects.This reportedly unpalatable tree maysave a large number of livestock during prolongeddroughts.

It is interesting to know that most of the water thatis consumed in producing these plants would havebeen evaporated in sedimentation basins of the ARGsystems.This demonstrates the philosophy of taking anintegrated approach in desertification control: If aproject is technically practicable, environmentallysound, economically feasible, and socially acceptable,implement it by all means.

MMaakkiinngg aa ddeettoouurrAlthough ‘sustainably managing freshwater resources forbiodiversity conservation’ is one of the objectives of thisworkshop, our setting has compelled us to ignore theabove-ground freshwater biodiversity. A mean annualClass A pan evaporation of 3,200 mm, a highly turbidfloodwater, an unsuitable geological setting, exorbitantcosts, and the presence of a huge potential shallowaquifer have made the ARG the best alternative in awater resource development project. Moreover, if thefloodwater is not harnessed and utilized at our station, it


would drain into the Shur (saline in Persian) River ofJahrom, whose summertime electrical conductivityreaches 43 dS per m.We therefore had to compromise onbiodiversity in favour of the present human populationby storing water underground.On balance,we think wehave enhanced the quality of the environment.

Traditional knowledge about conservation of soilfertility is limited to four simple practices:

• fallowing the farm fields in alternate years• direct manuring by overnight corralling of live-

stock in mild weather in different parts of farmfields

• mixing ash with faeces and spreading it on irrigatedfields

• using floodwater as a carrier of livestock manurefrom watersheds to the runoff farms.

As some mixed farmers keep their livestock in caves onwatersheds at night, they pile the manure in protectedareas by gulches. They throw the manure in torrentswhen they are relatively sure that flood will transportthe precious load to their farms and spread it evenlyonto their fields.

EEccoonnoommyy vveerrssuuss eeccoollooggyyHunger, thirst and feeling cold know no bounds.There-fore, if biosphere reserves and similarly managed areasthat are supposed to function as models for rehab-ilitation of degraded areas are to remain protected, thebasic needs of the inhabitants of their buffer and transi-tion zones must be met.As having permanent work anda steady income is considered to alleviate many socialills in our culture, we believe we can help people andprotect our research sites by creating job opportunitiesfor those inhabitants of the above mentioned zoneswho are willing to work.This, in turn, may restore thedegraded environment by offering alternatives to thosewhose poverty makes them have recourse to ravagingwhat is left of the vegetative cover.We would like toemphasize that teaching respect for the environment isa long-term process, and compromise and tolerance arevirtues in dealing with people who believe the grass isgreener on the other side of the fence.

On average, the water recharged by each 4 ha of anARG system, and the forage produced on the sametract, create one job at our research site.As of 1997, 340families were totally or partially dependent on theincome generated by 1,365 ha of the ARG systems inthe Gareh Bygone Plain, I.R. Iran.We annually harnessapproximately 10 million m3 of floodwater, of whichabout 80 per cent recharges the aquifers. This hasincreased the area of irrigated crops eightfold to 1,193ha as of August 2002 (Figure 4.1). The very farmerswho had emigrated prior to 1983, when our ARGproject was started, now manage these farm fields.

Economy and ecology could proceed in harmonyif the former common sense prevails; that is, doingwhat our ancestors did. We believe that our policymakers should be ecologists, or at least their strongadvocates. Issuing a command or passing a piece oflegislation without knowing the expected outcomes isan invitation to disaster. We have reversed a trend ofdegradation at our station.No doubt, there is room forimprovement. Optimization of resource use enables usto expand desertification control activities with lessfunding on a unit area basis.

AA wwiillddlliiffee rreeffuuggee,, iiff ......Provision of food and shelter has attracted many birds,mammals and reptiles to the site (Kowsar, 1991).Themost endangered species among them are houbarabustards (Chlamidotis undulata Jaqu.), Persian gazelles(Gazella subgutturosa Guldenstaedt) and Indian crestedporcupines (Hystrix indica).These are auspicious signsthat we have succeeded in rehabilitating a degradedenvironment. Unfortunately, poachers hunt gazellesand houbara bustards for their excellent meat, andporcupines for their supposed aphrodisiac properties.Wild pigs (Sus scrofa L.) churn up the mud in sedi-mentation basins and bring up the buried seeds, andboars plough the crust with their tusks, so we wel-come their presence. Also, the boars have become asource of income to a few hunters; as Muslims do noteat pork, the hunted pigs are sold to Christians.

Wolves (Canis lupus L.) are our best guards againstunlawful grazing.We issue grazing permits in autumnwhen the forage is at its lowest level on rangelands,and wheat and barley stubble has been grazed bysheep and goats. Some herders, however, played hide-and-seek with our watchmen and their flocks grazedthe station grounds all year round, particularly atnight. The advent of wolves, and the loss of a fewsheep, put an end to the infringement.

Burrowing mammals, particularly rats, help increasethe infiltration rate of the crusted sedimentationbasins; however, they become a nuisance when theyoccupy embankments. The cool, moist soil in a hotdesert is very inviting for the burrowers.The passageof floodwater inside the burrow results in embank-ment breaching. Fortunately, snakes curb the rapidgrowth of rat population; owls and eagles do the samefor snakes, and the hunter–hunted cycle continues.

The most important newcomer to our station is acrustacean named the sowbug (Hemilepistus shiraziSchuttz).This 22–25 mm creature drills holes 7 mm indiameter and up to 180 cm deep.Were it not for thisburrower the ARG systems would not have func-tioned properly. The crust formed by deposition offine particles substantially decreases infiltration ratesand eventually makes the soil surface impermeable.This engineering marvel lines its burrow in fine sand

26


Figure 4.1 The artificial recharge of groundwater systems is shown on the upper centre and right centre of this ASTER falseimage acquired on 26/7/2002.The contour lines signify the eucalyptus windbreaks.The area of irrigated farms has increasedeightfold to 1,198 ha due to the recharge of the alluvial aquifers.The empty space lying under this plain can store more than

ten times the mean annual precipitation of 243 mm.Alluvial aquifers are more precious than oil for desert dwellers!

Photo, courtesy of JICA and ERSDAC, Japan.

28°38' N

0 2 km

53°5

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53°5

2' E

28°36' N

53°5

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53°5

6' E

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with a body fluid that prevents its collapse.We hope tosynthesize this material and build thin-shelled housesin sandy plains. Quailbush is the favourite fodder ofthe sowbug.

AAcckknnoowwlleeddggmmeennttssI have benefited immensely from the sincere cooper-ation of numerous colleagues and students who havehelped in the construction and management of theARG systems and implemented research projects,some of which are reported here. I am particularlyindebted to Mr T. Amanpour for his constant supportof Abkhandari, to Mr S.H. Mesbah for his ten years ofvegetative cover data collection and analyses, and toMr M. Dehghani, Mr M. Pakparvar; and Mr G.Rahbar prepared the Power Point Presentation. Last,but by no means least, I am grateful to the IranianNational Commission for UNESCO for nominatingme to attend this workshop.


KOWSAR,A. Floodwater spreading for desertificationcontrol: An integrated approach. Desertification ControlBulletin (UNEP), No. 19, 1991, pp. 3–18.

KOWSAR, A. Desertification control through flood-water spreading in Iran. Unasylva, Vol. 43, No. 168,1992, pp. 27–30.

KOWSAR, S.A. Aquifer management: a key to foodsecurity in the deserts of the Islamic Republic of Iran.Desertification Control Bulletin (UNEP), No. 33, 1998a,pp. 24–8.

KOWSAR, S.A. Floodwater the softest hardware.Tiempo, No. 28, 1998b, pp. 17–21.

MOHAMMADNIA, M.; KOWSAR. S.A. Clay trans-location in the artificial recharge of a groundwatersystem in the southern Zagros Mountains,Iran.MountainResearch and Development, No. 23, 2003, pp. 50–55.

NEWMAN, J.C. Waterspreading on marginal arableareas. Journal of Soil Conservation of the New South Wales,No. 19, 1963, pp. 49–58.

PHILLIPS, J.R.H. Level-sill bank outlets. Journal ofSoil Conservation of the New South Wales,Vol. 13, No. 2,1957, p. 15.

QUILTY, J.A. Soil conservation structures for marginalarable areas: gap absorption and gap spreader banks.Journal of Soil Conservation of the New South Wales, No.28, 1972, pp. 116–30.

YAZDIAN, A.R.; KOWSAR, S.A. 2003. The AghaJari formation: a potential source of ammonium andnitrate nitrogen fertilizers. Journal of Agricultural Scienceand Technology (Iran), No. 5, 2003, pp. 153–63.

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• arid and semi-arid northwestern India• semi-arid Central Deccan Plateau• semi-arid central eastern region• sub-humid areas suffering salinization, sodification

and water logging• degraded forest lands in arid, semi-arid and dry

sub-humid regions.

WWaatteerrsshheedd--bbaasseedd aapppprrooaacchhUntil March 1995 the degraded areas were managedthrough a sectoral approach within the framework ofprogrammes such as the Drought Prone AreasProgramme (DPAP) launched in 1973–4 and theDesert Development Programme (DDP) launched in1977–8. In 1995, the central government adoptedthe recommendations of an expert group called theHanumantha Rao Committee, which favoured awatershed-based approach. This shift also witnessedan approach that favoured the participation of peopleand the Panchayati Raj Institutions in the watershedprogrammes on a massive scale. Thus, the erstwhilesectoral and centralized approach has been trans-formed into a watershed-based and participatoryapproach.

The watershed-based approach has been widelyadopted by various agencies such as the Ministry ofAgriculture in its programme for rain-fed areas.Under this approach, emphasis is placed on theharvesting of rainwater and on promoting rechargedevices. The micro-watershed, created by the inter-play of rainfall and landmass, is the primary domainof planning and action. The area draining at acommon point on the natural drainage line andbounded by ridgelines with local modificationsconstitutes the fundamental unit of rainwatermanagement and thus provides a buffer to the localcommunities.

TThhee MMaann aanndd tthhee BBiioosspphheerreePPrrooggrraammmmee ((MMAABB))As regards the Man and the Biosphere Programme, theIndian government has identified fourteen sites to bedesignated as biosphere reserves within the guidelines


Traditional knowledge and modern technology for sustainable development of dryland ecosystems: the Indian experience

Veena Upadhyaya, Joint Secretary (Conservation), Government of India, Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, New Delhi, India

5

LLaanndd ddeeggrraaddaattiioonnLand degradation occurs as an outcome of adversechanges in the land, vegetation and hydrological regimethat change its ecological characteristics to the extentthat that the integrity of the ecosystem is either threat-ened or lost. The interaction between vegetation, soiltype,limnology,climatic variability and land-use pressuresdetermines the extent of degradation. Desertificationoccurs when a landmass undergoes degradation in arid,semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas.

Of the 328 million ha that comprise the Indian sub-continent, 173 million ha are degraded. With 2.4 percent of the world’s landmass supporting 16.2 per cent ofthe global population,and with a bare 0.5 per cent of thegrazing land sustaining 18 per cent of the world’s live-stock,India is one of the few countries in the world withextremely strong and clearly identifiable linkages betweenland degradation and poverty. The geo-hydro-thermalregime of India renders large parts of the country vulner-able to water and wind erosion, salinization, waterlog-ging,drought and desertification.The Indian experienceseems clearly to reveal that sustainable land use does notentirely depend on the ‘carrying capacity of the land’butalso on the ‘caring capacity of the land users/managers’.

In large tracts of the dry western part of Rajasthan,a state in the northwest of India, an indigenous rainwa-ter management system called khadin promotes cropcultivation during the winter months in the post-rainyseason. Here the critical role of livestock, not fullyappreciated by outsiders, is well understood by the localfarmers.There is virtually no microbial activity in thesoil as the moisture level falls below critical levels in thewinter and summer months. In such a situation it is thelivestock that collects the dry biomass, digests it anddelivers it in a decomposed form. The addition ofcompost in the cultivated fields at the onset of themonsoon provides nutrients and inoculates the soil withmicrobes.

RReeggiioonnss ooff ddeeggrraaddeedd llaannddThe degraded landmass has been categorized into fivepriority regions with respect to established biophysical,socio-economical and human development indicators.These five regions are:

set by UNESCO and MAB. Management action plansare under implementation in thirteen of the fourteenidentified sites. However, the inclusion of a drylandecosystem in the category of MAB biosphere reserves isstill at the proposal stage.

TThhee ccoommbbiinnaattiioonn ooff iinnddiiggeennoouussttrraaddiittiioonnaall kknnoowwlleeddggee ((IITTKK)) wwiitthhmmooddeerrnn tteecchhnnoollooggiieess iinn tthheeTThhaarr DDeesseerrtt aarreeaaA beautiful book entitled The Dying Wisdom, publishedby the Centre for Science and Environment in NewDelhi, is a vivid and comprehensive account of differ-ent types of systems and water harvesting practices indifferent parts of the country. One of these is the TharDesert, which comprises twelve districts of Rajasthanand parts of the states of Haryana and Gujarat.There isa proposal for a biosphere reserve encompassing 3,100km² in the Jaisalmer and Barmer districts of WesternRajasthan. In view of the high pressures of human andlivestock needs, an area of only 600 km² is beingproposed to constitute the two core areas. It is felt thata strict application of the core–buffer relationship is notfeasible and may affect the buffer areas in the harshdesert environment.The proposal places heavy relianceon intensive management, characterized by rotationalgrazing and plantation along water points and invillages. The Thar Biosphere Reserve (TBR) aims topromote livestock rearing on a scientific basis, improvethe economic conditions of local people and provideexemplary planned development without incurringecological sacrifice.The strategy envisages:

• Setting aside representative areas as a nationalpark or sanctuary.

• The protection of flora and fauna of the entireReserve; no extraction of fuelwood is allowed forany purpose other than for domestic use by villagersliving within the reserve.

• The management of grazing lands by rotationalgrazing for rational land use.

• Ensuring the welfare of the people living in thereserve.

• Having a sufficiently large area in the reserve toeffective insulate it from external biotic distur-bances.

• Site-specific wildlife management: fencing off theselected wildlife habitat, and closing it to grazing,locating water points at appropriate spots so thatanimal movement is distributed over a wide area,increased monitoring, protection of endangeredflora and fauna, and deciding on the appropriatesize of the wildlife-protected area while keeping inmind the demographic and topographic features of

the area. Application of these measures on anexperimental basis saw the growth of flocks of thegreat Indian bustard and a significant increase inthe number of desert fox and chinkaras.

• The aggressive promotion of rotational grazing bydividing the grazing range into units consistentwith the number of villages, with each unit havingfour paddocks.

• The use of barbed wire fencing, which is topo-graphically more suited than trench or stonewallor brushwood fencing. It is initially expensive incapital cost but has low maintenance costs in thelong term.

• The reseeding of appropriate perennial grasses thatare compatible with the agro-climatic conditions soas to increase the forage and animal productivity.

• Proceeding with a site-specific methodology withseed planting not below 1–2 cm of the mound, aswell as broadcasting just before or at the onset ofthe first effective showers. Pelleting of seeds withlime, clay and farmyard manure has not proved tobe advantageous.Direct seeding by mixing the seedin moist sand obtains better results.

• De-fuzzing the seed of toxic inhibitors by seedsoaking for eight to twelve hours just before sow-ing. Implementation of these practices has seen anincrease in forage productivity by about 20 q/ha.

• The use of genetically improved strains of grassesmay increase the forage production by up to 40q/ha. Some of the better strains developed by theCentre for Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI)and the Indian Grassland and Forage ResearchInstitute (IGFRI) such as Cenchrus Ciliaris,CenchrusSetigerus and Lasiurus Sindicus have proved theirstability of production and better persistence.

• The topography does not lend itself to afforestationin the conventional sense.However tree planting atsuitable sites in the villages can be carried outaround desert posts and water points, primarily toprovide shade. Shady and fast-growing species likeAzadirachta indica (Neem), Albizzia lebbek (Cirus),Tecomella Undulata (Rohida), Prosopis Cineraria(Khejri) and Ficus Religiosa (Peepal) are extensivelyplanted.

• Efficient water management by providing eachpaddock with a source of water. Under normalconditions there is no water flow in the topographyof scattered sand dunes and porous soil. Waterconservation can be achieved through nadis andguzzlers (tankas), which can be supplemented bytubewells drilled to considerable depths.

CCuurrrreenntt ssttrraatteeggyyA number of measures have now been taken under theDesert Development Programme (DDP) and the Inte-grated Wasteland Development Project (IWDP) in the

30

districts of the Thar Desert. These include shelterbeltplantations, grassland developments, soil and moistureconservation,pasture development, farm forestry, villagefuelwood and fodder plantation, and the establishmentof nurseries and water resources development. Some ofthe key measures are described below:

• Planting activities emphasize the reliance on indige-nous species,especially regarding the under-canopyvegetation for the effective control of sand-drift.

• With the backing of a series of on-site research-based trials, people are encouraged to cultivate arange of vegetation. Acacia senegal locally known asKumat, used for gum extraction and fodder, growsin arid areas only; Prosopis cineraria (locally knownas Khejri) is the most multi-purpose tree of thedesert, with fodder and pods that are used asvegetables while the bark is consumed by humanbeings during severe drought;Acacia nilotica (locallyknown as Babul) is used for fodder, gum and smalltimber; Capparis deciduas (locally known as Ber) isused for controlling sand drift and its fruit is pick-led; plants like Withania somnifera (Aswa gandha),Cassia angustifolia (Sonamukh) and Azadirachtaindica (Neem) are used for medicinal purposes.

• The P.Cineraria-based agroforestry model is recom-mended, as this species exerts the least competitionwith agricultural crops. It provides utilizablebiomass of nearly 20 tonnes/ha including leaffodder of 0.85 tonnes/ha at twelve years of age, inaddition to agricultural production.

• Among other propagated species are Colophosper-mum mopane, to be raised through direct seeding,which produces 3–4 kg of dry fodder as well as thesame quantity of fuelwood per tree at seven to eightyears of age. Another good and useful variety isHardwickia binata,which has a slightly lower yield offodder and fuel than Colophospermum mopane.

• Sand dune stabilization is expected to be achievedby planting C. polygonoides, which produces higherbiomass and uses less soil water than A.Tortilis andP. Juliflora. Micro-windbreaks are erected in achequerboard configuration across the dunesusing local shrubs such as Leptadenia pyrotechnicaand Aerva Pseudotomentosa to protect the seedlingsfrom sand drifts. Alternatively, sowing Cassiaangustifolia and Cenchrus species in a chequerboardconfiguration can help reduce the cost of erectingmicro-windbreaks.

• In view of the multiple uses of P.Cineraria, its needsto be effectively managed.A combination of bioticand abiotic factors can be dealt with by timelylopping management (observing a gap of one yearbetween loppings), and by discouraging completelopping (which is detrimental to diameter growth),effective treatment of wounds and the removal ofheavily attacked trees.

• Practising rainwater harvesting and water conser-vation through a host of indigenous practicessuch as nadis (deep, narrow streams), tankas(cemented underground pits for storage), khadins(deep ditches), beris (cemented storage structures),sagars and samands (pools and ponds).

• Different traditional strategies for agriculturalproduction consist of:– thinning, weeding and soil mulching when

normal showers are followed by inadequateshowers

– sowing of pearl millet, mung beans and clusterbeans when the late onset of the monsoon isfollowed by normal showers

– sowing of cluster beans, mung beans, cowpea,moth beans, sesame,and other leguminous cropsduring late and low monsoon conditions.

• Soil moisture conservation is practised by applyingcontour bunding, contour furrowing, contourvegetative barriers, reducing runoff losses andmulching.

• The traditional methods of biodiversity conserva-tion include Orans (protected forests dedicated todeities and legendary heroes) and Gauchars(management of designated lands for grazing, andreseeding of pastures through improved strain of C.Ciliaris).

FFuussiioonn ooff aapppprroopprriiaattee tteecchhnnoollooggiieess wwiitthh ttrraaddiittiioonnaallpprraaccttiicceess –– ccaassee ssttuuddiieess ooff ttwwooddiissttrriiccttss:: JJooddhhppuurr aanndd BBuunnddii iinntthhee TThhaarr DDeesseerrtt aarreeaaThe district of Jodhpur is an arid region whereas Bundiis a semi-arid region of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan.The secondary data collected by CAZRI and AFRI inJodhpur and IGFRI in Jhansi illustrate that there is noshortage of technology for the successful revegetationof degraded rangelands in arid and semi-arid areas.Thereal challenge lies in the adoption, absorption andassimilation of the techniques that combine newertechnologies with traditional practices. Among thetechnologies recommended by the above-mentionedinstitutes, the ones described below deserve specificmention.

Silvi-pastoral systemThe silvi-pastoral system is most favourable for preserv-ing the ecological environment and for maximizingproduction from refractory lands.

A combination of grasses, legumes and trees opti-mizes land productivity and conserves soil, moisture


and soil nutrients while producing forage, timber andfuelwood on a sustainable basis. In a sound silvi-pastoral system, grasslands need to have twenty-fiveto thirty trees per ha of suitable species.These trees,in combination with legumes, not only providenutritionally better quality fodder but also help tobuild up nitrogen in the soil. The deep and lateralroot system also helps in moisture retention in soil.This technology increases land productivity by eightto tenfold in terms of forage, fuelwood and smalltimber.The quality of the produce also improves byaround sevenfold. The figures in Table 5.1 makeinteresting reading.

A multi-purpose tree (MPT) species, which can beintroduced to good effect even in severely degradedecosystems, is Acacia senegal. Its leaves and pod husksmake good fodder, the seeds are dried and preservedfor human consumption, the gum is used in foodproducts and the wood is used for domestic and agri-cultural timber. Cenchrus ciliaris and Cenchrus setigerusare two highly beneficial strains of grasses that areadapted to light to medium soils that have around 300mm of rainfall. On sandy soils with less than 250 mmrainfall Lasiurus sindicus gives a yield of 4 t/ha.

Advantages of systematic loppingExperimental studies have shown the maximum yieldof leaf fodder is achieved by the systematic lopping oftrees twice a year, in November/December andMay/June.The lopping is performed to the extent of25 to 33 per cent of the crown and it is evenly dis-tributed on all sides of the canopy. Lopping of thiskind yields 0.16 to 0.20 t/ha of leaf fodder in a yearwithout any damage to the health of the tree.

Watershed approachAs water is the key to vegetational growth, it isimportant that the entire watershed be covered bytreatment measures and every drop of rainfall beretained in the rangeland while eliminating erosiondue to runoff. This involves the digging of contourtrenches/furrows, with the excavated earth dumpedon their lower edge, and the construction of check-dams, ponds and anicuts. Trenches/furrows arecleared in the second year, after which the rate ofsilting will be dramatically reduced if the grasscover that develops is protected and maintained. Afield study reported the case of Jhanwar watershed,where with 440 mm of rainfall in the first year arise of 0.48 m in the water table was observed. Inthe anicuts, the deposition of silt also dropped by 20to 30 per cent. Surface accumulation of water wasequal to 2,500 m3 in twelve farm ponds and 6,050

m3 in three anicuts, and 211.9 tonnes of silt wasdeposited in seven earthen check-dams.The follow-ing years witnessed a substantial increase in waterconservation and a decrease in erosion and siltingdue to the growth of grasses, legumes and trees.

Protection against biotic stressesDitch-cum-mound fencing is the most practicalmeasure in arid areas. It is useful for water conserva-tion as the trench arrests the flow of water, although itis labour intensive.The mounds are used to raise thefence level as a second line of protection.

Soil workingThe type of soil working that is used depends on thenature of the soil and the slope. Broadly speaking it isdependant on topography:

• On a flat gradient, the area is ploughed and broadbunds created at a spacing of 30 to 50 m alongcontours.

• In sloping land, staggered contour trenches orfurrows are dug and soil heaped in mounds ontheir lower sides. While furrows are moreconvenient in shallow gravely soils, trenches aredug in deeper, loosely textured soils. In thedesert areas of Rajasthan, 1,500 running metresof furrows/trenches are dug per ha. They arespaced 15 m apart in areas with a slope of up to15 per cent, and at 10 intervals m for a slopeabove 15 per cent.This measure can detain 540m³ of water per hectare of rainfall. Studies haveshown that the contour furrows increase forageproduction of perennial grass species by 130.6per cent in the first year alone. Another experi-ment, called the ‘inter-row water harvestingsystem’, involved the creation of 30 cm widefurrows alternating with 70 cm wide raisedbeds, with two rows of pasture, legumes orgrasses sown on the edges of furrow.An increaseof fodder yield of between 66 and 124 per centwas reported on different status rangelands.

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Table 5.1 Produce of treated and degraded rangeland

Produce From degraded From treatedrangeland rangeland(t/ha/year) (t/ha/year)

Forage 0.5–1.0 4.0–5.5Fuelwood Negligible 2.0–3.0Small timber Negligible 1.6–2.5

Water harvesting devicesThe improvement in the moisture regime is of vitalimportance. If the soil remains wet for a longer periodof time, wind erosion is greatly minimized. Hence theabsolutely crucial need to construct vegetation-aidedcheck-dams in the nullahas and anicuts to store runoffwater; allowing water to flow only through sub-soilseepage is a means to provide sustained moisture to theland located in the lower regions of watershed. In areaswhere suitable water harvesting devices were provided,the underground water table improved by 15 to 20 m.

Agro-forestry systemsAgro-forestry is a land management system that on theone hand seeks to optimize the yield of grain, forage,timber and animal products, and on the other hand, toconserve soil nutrients and improve the environment. Itcombines the production of agricultural and foddercrops either simultaneously or sequentially on the sameunit of land.

Silvi-horticultureFruit plants combined with a fair sprinkling of foddertrees are economical and yield greater productivity.Suit-able fruit species include Emblica officianalis (Aonla),Zizy-phus mauritania (Ber), Citrus aurantifolia (Nimbu) andPsidium guajava (Amrud). The fruit plants need to beplanted very carefully in a pit of 1 m3 after adding farm-yard manure and bone-meal to the soil.They will requireirrigation for the first two to three years and benefit frommethods such as pitcher irrigation and drip irrigation.Inthe former, a pitcher with a small hole at its bottom is

dug in the ground near the root zone of the plant.Waterseeps through the small hole, providing the area withconstant moisture.Another method in use is the sub-soilwater injector system for providing a controlled quantityof water directly to the root zone of the fruit plants.

These methods have increased the survival rate of plantsconsiderably by the use of small quantities of water inthe highly porous soils of the region.The proportion offruit to fodder trees should be 40:60 or 50:50 in the firstrotation to keep irrigation costs low. A spacing of 10 to15 m between plants will provide 90 to 100 trees per ha,and the intervening space between plant rows can beused to grow less demanding agricultural crops in thefirst two years, with grasses grown in subsequent years.In areas where traditional practices and appropriatetechnologies of local people have been adopted, this hasresulted in ecological regeneration, biological diversity,floral and faunal succession, irrigated land augmenta-tion, fallow lands deceleration, accrual of socio-economic benefits, employment generation anddecreased migration.The real key to success lies in theextent of involvement and participation of the localpeople, as without their cooperation and conviction theproposed techniques would achieve little, if any, success.The ability to secure the participation of local peoplemay herald a success that will be sustainable, affordable,replicable and long lasting.

RReeffeerreennccee

AGARWAL,A.;NARAIN,S. (eds.) The dying wisdom:rise, fall and potential of India’s traditional harvestingsystems. In: State of India’s environment, a citizens’ report.New Delhi;Centre for Science and Environment,1997.


growth in the production of oil seeds such as sesame(14.9 per cent), and groundnut (25.5 per cent), whichwas largely due to an increase in the cultivated area.Non-traditional crops such as melon seed and karkade(Hibiscus sabdariffa) have also become prominent in thissubsector, with sharply increased exports in recentyears.The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)estimated that sesame exports accounted for an averageof 24 per cent of the world market from 1995 to 2000.In spite of its important role in the Sudanese economy,this sector is marginalized and constrained by manyfactors.The paper outlines these constraints and showshow traditional knowledge and technologies cansupport sustainable agricultural development; it alsocalls for integration between indigenous knowledgeand modern technology for sustainable agriculturaldevelopment.

IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn

Environmental and physical settingSudan is the largest country in Africa (2.5 million km2)and is severely affected by desertification. It has a popu-lation of 30 million, of which 70 per cent inhabit ruralareas.The country is generally flat,with the exception ofthe Red Sea Hills and the Ingessana Hills in the east, andJebel Marra and the Nuba Mountains in the west.TheNile and its tributaries traverse it for about 900 km.Rain-fall ranges from 50 mm in the northern desert to morethan 1,500 mm in the tropical rainforest in the south.Variations in rainfall, vegetation and soils resulted in theformation of seven main ecological zones classified asfollows:

• desert (0 to 75 mm, covering 28.1 per cent of thecountry)

• semi-desert (75 to 300 mm, 19.0 per cent)• low-rainfall savanna on sand (300 to 400 mm,

26.6 per cent)• low-rainfall savanna on clay (400 to 800 mm,13.3

per cent)• high-rainfall savanna (800 to 1,300 mm,9.5 per cent)


Traditional knowledge and modern technology for sustainable agricultural development in the drylands of Sudan

Mukhtar A. Mustafa, UNESCO Chair of Desertification Studies, University of Khartoum, Sudan

6

AAbbssttrraaccttSudan is the largest country in Africa (2.5 millionkm2) and is dominated by hyper-arid, arid, semi-aridand dry sub-humid regions, which cover about 72 percent of the total area of the country.Thus, desertifica-tion is active to varying degrees in the areas lyingbetween latitudes 10° and 18° N and traversing thecountry from the eastern to the western borders.Thirteen states are affected to varying degrees bydesertification, and the River Nile is endangered bysand encroachment, particularly in the north.

There are three main farming systems in Sudan:irrigated, semi-mechanized rain-fed (SMRF) andtraditional agriculture, which includes rain-fed andirrigated subsectors. The traditional system is prac-tised in desertification-prone rural areas inhabited by65 per cent of the population, who rely heavily onthe natural resources for subsistence. Poverty leads toa subsistence livelihood, which impoverishes thefragile ecosystems and increases land degradation,consequently aggravating poverty.This vicious circlecan only be broken if programmes for combatingdesertification are integrated with strategies forpoverty alleviation.

In spite of the development of the oil industry in1999, agriculture remains the predominant sector inSudan’s economy. In 1998 it was estimated that theirrigated, semi-mechanized and traditional rain-fedagriculture (TRF) accounted respectively for about21.3, 6.4 and 16.3 per cent of the value of the totalagricultural production in 1998. Local small-scalefarmers use traditional knowledge and technologysuch as multiple- and intercropping, manual cultiva-tion by hand tools, weeding and water liftingdevices.Their farms provide a subsistence livelihoodfor more than 70 per cent of the population andcontribute significantly to foreign exchange earn-ings. Rain-fed traditional farming includes nomadictranshumance (moving with livestock and growingshort-maturity subsistence crops), and sedentaryagriculture with significant numbers of livestock.This system exists to some extent in most states.

A remarkable feature of the growth in the TRFsubsector during the 1990s was the strong annual

• montane vegetation region (800 to 1,000 mm,0.3 per cent)

• flood region (800 to 1,000 mm, 3.2 per cent)(Harrison and Jackson, 1958).

In general, the soils are subdivided into desert, centralclay plain and goz soils. The desert soils in the northinclude superficial deposits of sands, stabilized and shift-ing sand dunes, and alluvial soils.As one proceeds fromthe Nile outwards, the alluvial soils are subdivided intofirst-terrace gerif soils, second-terrace basin soils, andthird-terrace (upper) soils.The gerif soils are deep, darkbrown, well-drained, non-saline, non-sodic, non-calcareous loamy soils.They receive fresh alluvium atintervals, with very little time for profile differentiationto show (entisols). They are very productive and areused, traditionally, for growing vegetables, fruit trees andhigh-value field crops such as broad beans. However,they are endangered by wind erosion and desertencroachment, particularly in the northern parts of thecountry. The River Nile itself is endangered by sandencroachment from the Nubian Desert.The second-terrace soils are brown to dark greyish-brown, moder-ately well drained,calcareous,non-saline and non-sodic.On low-lying lands that receive runoff from surroundingareas, the soils become saline and/or sodic (aridisols).The third-terrace soils are saline and sodic (aridisols).

The soils of the central clay plain (vertisols) extendover the arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid climaticzones.The soils of the Gash Delta resemble those of theToker Delta and vary from medium-textured (entisols)to fine-textured soils (vertisols).The soils of southernDarfur are of fluvial origin and are subdivided intogardud (compacted) soils on the levees and clay soils onthe plains.

The goz soils are quartz sands deposited in north-ern Darfur and Kordufan and some parts of the WhiteNile.They lie to the west of the middle clay plain.Thegoz soils are bordered by the desert in the north andby the Nuba Mountains and the narrow strip of thesouthern clay plain in the south.

Desertification: processes,causes and effectsSudan is dominated by arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, which are affected by desertificationprocesses that include degradation of vegetation cover,wind erosion, water erosion, salinization/sodication,reduction in soil organic matter, soil crusting andcompaction, and accumulation of substances toxic toplants or animals (FAO, 1979). These processes arecaused by climatic variations, human-related activitiesand climate change.

In Sudan, desertification operates to varying degreesin the areas lying between latitudes 10° and 18° N, and

traverses the country from the eastern to the westernborders. It also covers a narrow strip of land along theRiver Nile, stretching northward to the Egyptianboarder between longitudes 30° and 32° E. Thirteenstates are affected by desertification: Northern, El Neil,Red Sea, N. Kordufan, N. Darfur, W. Kordufan, W.Darfur, Kassala, Gedarif, Khartoum,White Nile, Geziraand Sennar.The areas of desert, semi-desert and low-rainfall savanna on sand and clay cover 87 per cent ofthe country. Desertification ranges from very severe inthe northern fringe of the semi-desert ecological zoneto moderate in the southern fringe of the low rainfallsavanna (Ministry of Agriculture, 1985). Recent esti-mates have shown that wind and water erosion, andchemical and physical deterioration of the soil affected27.0, 18.2, 15.8 and 3.0 million hectares, respectively(Ayoub, 1998).

Soil degradation is highly correlated with humanpopulation density. The most degraded zones are thearid and semi-arid zones where 76 per cent of thehuman population lives. Most of the people in theaffected States are poor and rely heavily on the natu-ral resources for subsistence (cultivating marginalsandy soils, cutting trees and vegetation for fuel andconstruction of huts, and overgrazing). Degradation ofthe vegetation cover increases soil erosion, whichresults in loss of soil fertility or the complete loss ofsoil itself. Thus, in the drylands of developing coun-tries such as Sudan, desertification is visualized as aproblem caused by humans.

Under moist sub-humid or humid conditions, thesoil is naturally resilient; that is, it has an inherent abilityto restore its life support processes if the land degrada-tion is not too severe. However, under arid, semi-aridand dry sub-humid conditions, the soil is not resilientand prompt human intervention is essential for soilprotection, remediation or rehabilitation.

The overall impact of desertification is reflected bystagnating or declining crop yields and the reducedcarrying capacity of range and pasturelands, culminatingin food insecurity and increasing levels of poverty.Thus,there is a direct correlation between desertification andfood insecurity in western and eastern Sudan. Povertyleads to subsistence agriculture, which enhances landdegradation and leads to desertification, which in turnaggravates poverty.This vicious circle can only be brokenif national programmes for combating desertification areintegrated with strategies of poverty alleviation(UNCCD, 1995; Mustafa, 1998).

TThhee aaggrriiccuullttuurraall sseeccttoorr

SubsectorsThe diverse ecological zones of Sudan reflect the coun-try’s great agricultural potential. In spite of the develop-ment of the oil industry in 1999, agriculture is still the

36

predominant sector in Sudan’s economy,and is the mainsource of employment and livelihood for over 85 percent of the population (Ahmed, 1994). In the mid-1980s, it was estimated that this sector contributed 37per cent to GDP and generated 95 per cent of theforeign exchange earnings (Shaa Eldin, 1986). As agri-culture declined in the mid-1980s and the early 1990sdue to serious droughts that persisted for two successiveperiods (1983–85 and 1991–92), its share of total GDPfell to 28 per cent. However, it recovered to about 37per cent by the year 2000 (World Bank, 2003).

A 1978 estimate (based on surveys), indicated that35.4 per cent of the total area of the country was suit-able for agriculture, with around 3.3 cultivated at anyone time, 10.1 per cent was pasture, 38.5 per cent wasforest and scrub, and 16.0 per cent was not usable foragriculture, grazing or forestry (World Bank, 1978).Since then, there have been changes in these propor-tions. For example, the area under cultivation hasprobably doubled and the currently cropped area isestimated at 16.4 million ha, about 20 per cent of thepotential arable land.

In Sudan, the agricultural sector comprises bothplant and animal production. Plant production, referredto in this paper as the agricultural sector, has three mainsubsectors: irrigated, semi-mechanized rain-fed(SMRF) and traditional agriculture. The traditionalsubsector consists of a traditional rain-fed (TRF) and atraditional irrigated (TI) farming system.The Ministryof Environment and Tourism of the Sudan Government(1996) indicated that out of 14 million ha of cultivatedarable land,2.1,5.0 and 6.9 million ha are farmed underirrigated, semi-mechanized and traditional methods.The Central Bureau of Statistics estimated that theirrigated, semi-mechanized and traditional rain-fedagriculture accounted for about 21.3, 6.4 and 16.3 percent of the value of the total agriculture production in1998, respectively. In the same year, the value of live-stock production accounted for almost 40 per cent ofthe total value of production in Sudan.The productionof oil slightly reduced the overall predominance of agri-culture, but did not affect the relative importance of thefarming systems within agriculture.

The irrigated subsector is one of the pillars ofSudan’s strategy for agricultural development. Thereare between 1.7 and 2.1 million ha of land suitablefor irrigation in Sudan within the Nile basin in theNorthern, Khartoum, Gezira, Sennar, Blue andWhite Nile states. The Gezira irrigation scheme,established in 1925, accounts for almost half of thatarea, about 0.84 million ha under gravity irrigation.Three other schemes along the Nile (Rahad, Sukiand New Halfa) have a total command area of 0.42million ha. These are owned and managed by thecentral government. There are three sugarcaneschemes and many other small private irrigatedschemes (World Bank, 2003).

The SMRF subsector was developed in 1945under the auspices of the government through cropproduction schemes on generally alkaline clays andloams that are not suitable for cultivation by hand orwith animals. These government leasehold schemesare now well over 420 ha each, which was the initialallotted area.The government also allocated large areas(between 21,000 and 420,000 ha) to Sudanese andforeign investors. The farms of this subsector spreadover 5.9 million ha in the states of El Gedarif, BlueNile, Upper Nile, White Nile, Sennar and SouthernKordufan (Nuba Mountains). Land preparation, seed-ing and most threshing on these farms are mecha-nized, while weeding, harvesting and some threshingare for the most part done by seasonal labour. It is esti-mated that approximately 80 per cent of the SMRFsubsector is devoted to sorghum, which is central tonational food security and also earns some foreignexchange. In the traditional subsector, by contrast,most of the sorghum is produced for subsistence(UNDP, 1990).

The TI farming system consists of three types: gerif,island and basin cultivation.The gerif is the local namefor the narrow strip of the flood plain in close prox-imity to the River Nile system, which is normallyflooded by the river during the rainy season.The landis used for growing fodder and vegetable crops afterthe Nile recedes. Islands and basins are partially orfully flooded by the River Nile, and they too are cul-tivated after the flood period. Most of the farms aresmall, ranging between 0.42 and 2.1 ha.

The TRF farming system includes nomadic trans-humance (moving with livestock and growing short-maturity subsistence crops), and sedentary agriculturewith a significant number of livestock. This systemexists to some extent in most states, but is most preva-lent in the three Kordufan states, the three Darfurstates, Sennar, and the Blue and White Nile states.Animal production is an important element of thissystem since it provides a major capital asset and a riskmanagement tool for pastoralists and farmers. Thenon-nomadic small farmers typically have 4.2 to 6.3ha in which they produce food crops (e.g. sorghumand millet) as well as cash crops such as karkade,sesame and watermelon seeds.The total cropped areain this system is estimated at 7.5 million ha. GumArabic is harvested in the woodland forest areas(World Bank, 2003).

PerformanceTable 6.1 shows that the mean annual growth rate ofirrigated crops increased from 2.3 in the late 1980s(1985–91) to 7.9 in the 1990s (1991–8), whereas theSMRF subsector experienced a decline, which wasmuch higher in the earlier (–31.4 per cent/year) thanthe later period (–2.9 per cent/year). Although TRF


declined in the late 1980s, it showed the highest growthrate (24 per cent/year) in following decade.The declinein both SMRF and TRF was caused by the severedrought of 1983–85 and the less severe one of 1990–91.In the agricultural sector as a whole, the contributionof TRF to GDP was more than double that of theSMRF subsector.The variation in growth rate is relatedto the variation in cropped area and yield.The changein the harvested area is a result of government pressuresto change the cropping patterns in the large governmentirrigated schemes. In the early 1990s, the governmentrequested irrigation schemes to increase the productionof wheat and sorghum as a contribution to the foodsecurity policy that it initiated after the drought period.The area of wheat increased sharply in 1990/91, butthen declined steadily because of disappointing profits.The fluctuations in the SMRF subsector were duepartly to the unpredictability of government policy onrestricting exports of sorghum, and partly to low anderratic rainfall.

A remarkable feature of the growth in the TRFsystem during the 1990s was the marked increase in theproduction of oil seeds such as sesame (14.9 per centper annum), and groundnut (25.5 per cent per annum),largely due to an increase in the harvested area. Non-traditional crops such as melon seed and karkade alsobecame prominent in this subsector, with sharplyincreased exports in recent years. FAO statistics showedthat sesame exports accounted for an average of 24 percent of the world market from 1995 to 2000 (WorldBank, 2003).

Trends in crop yields vary widely among the dif-ferent farming systems (Table 6.2). The yields of

SMRF- and TRF-sorghum, which is the most impor-tant food crop in Sudan, ranged from 0.5 to 1.5ton/ha. Its yield trend line showed a sharp increase inthe late 1970s, very low and nearly similar yields in thelate 1990s and fluctuating declines in between. Thetrends for both rain-fed sectors were similar.

Linkage with sustainable developmentSustainable development is defined as ‘the developmentthat meets the needs of the present without compro-mising the ability of future generations to meet theirown needs’ (WCED, 1987).The essential human needsinclude food, housing and clothing; this explains whysustainable development is closely related to sustainableagriculture,which means making optimum use of natu-ral resources to satisfy basic human needs withoutdegrading these resources for present and future gener-ations.Thus, sustainable development in the developingworld is closely linked to sustainable land use andmanagement (SLUAM) of natural resources at the locallevel. There are several technological options forSLUAM that enhance soil resilience and sustain a desir-able socio-economic level of the local community(Mustafa and Saeed, 2004).The World Commission onEnvironment and Development (WCED, 1987)pointed to the urgent need to consider and value tradi-tional knowledge and technology as important factorsin achieving sustainable development.There is a clearlink between traditional knowledge and sustainabledevelopment.

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Table 6.1 Growth rates and GDP shares for subsectors in agriculture

Item

Irrigated cropsRain-fed semi-mechanized cropsRain-fed traditionalMinorBy-productsTotal cropsLivestockForestryFisheriesTotal

Per cent per annum(1991/92–1998)

7.9–2.924.2–0.20.18.6

10.4–12.611.08.5

GDP (1998)(%)

21.36.4

16.30.84.8

49.639.99.11.4

100.0

Per cent per annum(1985/86–1990/91)

2.3–31.4–12.2–8.64.7

–3.75.1

–0.14.10.4

Table 6.2 Growth rates of production, area and yields for major annual crops in three main farming systems (Per cent per annum)

Period

1971/72–80/811981/82–90/911991/92–00/01

IrrigatedProd. Area Yield

–5.4 –8.3 2.92.5 1.6 0.9

–3.7 –4.9 1.2

Semi-mechanizedProd. Area Yield

4.1 –6.4 10.5–3.1 2.2 –5.4–7.5 –2.4 –5.0

TraditionalProd. Area Yield

7.5 –0.5 8.0–11.7 –1.9 –9.812.8 9.9 2.9

TTrraaddiittiioonnaall ffaarrmmiinngg aanndd ssuussttaaiinnaabbllee ddeevveellooppmmeennttTraditional farming (TF), as part of traditional knowl-edge, relies upon the indigenous information base offarming in a given area, and for many decades it hashelped local communities in Sudan to thrive and copewith their harsh environments and significantly sup-ported their livelihood.The following components ofTF promote soil resilience and sustainable agriculture:

• The adoption of a cultivation bush–fallow rotationalsystem. The Acacia senegal–millet/sesame/ground-nut system is adopted in many parts of Sudan (forexample, Kordufan, western Sudan). The landsupports trees for twelve years,yielding gum Arabicfrom mature Acacia senegal (Hashab) trees duringthe last eight years. The trees are then felled toproduce firewood and the land is cultivated forfour years, usually with millet, sesame or ground-nut.When loss of soil fertility becomes apparent, asindicated by low yields of crops and infestation bybuda (Striga spp.), the land is left fallow. AfterHashab trees degenerate, the field is cleared and theland is cultivated. To support an average familyrequires about 24 ha of land, divided into sixteenplots of 1.5 ha arranged in a series of normal ageclasses (Skoupy, 1993). Acacia senegal produces gumArabic, which is a very important cash crop.Thetrees control soil erosion, improve infiltration rates,restore soil structure, regenerate the fertility ofexhausted soil by fixing nitrogen, and act as a goodfodder reserve for camels.

• Combined production systems. These are sustainableland-use systems, because they create diversity andmaximize the benefits from their various compo-nents.The sylvo-pastoral system is practised in west-ern Sudan,and many Acacia trees and shrubs,whichare rich in proteins, vitamins and mineral elements,provide good green fodder (leaves, flowers andfruits) for the nomads’ livestock. An agro-pastoral(mixed farming) system is practised to a limitedextent in the traditional sector. Mixed farming canbe a stable system for small landholders if pasturesare lightly grazed, the stocking rate is low, andanimal waste is applied to the land to replenish soilfertility.Agroforestry is another sustainable land-usesystem because it restores the soil,protects the cropsand animals against winds and extreme temp-eratures, and provides wood, fuelwood, and fodderfor the population.Some agroforestry is practised inTRF, with some trees being left on the land.

• Multiple cropping. Farmers sow a combination ofcrops in the same field or a number of crops at onepoint (for example, intercropping watermelon withmillet or sorghum in western Sudan). Multiplecropping is suitable for traditional farming systems.

It increases crop productivity per unit area,providesshelter for planted crops, and soil cover againstweeds and erosion.

• Intercropping. In western Sudan (for example, EnNahud) two types of intercropping are practised.Karkade and watermelon are intercropped withmillet and sorghum in the same field. Millet andsorghum are also intercropped with sesame in thesame hole to serve as windbreaks, because sesameis susceptible to wind damage. Intercropping hasseveral advantages: it helps farmers who cannotafford to expand their operations through landclearance; the various crops are weeded together;a failure of one crop may be compensated by thesuccess of others; and crops will protect eachother from wind damage.

• Use of traditional farming tools.These are an impor-tant heritage of rural communities in Sudan.Theyinclude all the tools used in land preparation,sowing, weeding, harvesting, water lifting andstoring (Al-Batal, 1994).They are inexpensive andenvironmentally friendly; they conserve soil andwater, saving the soil from compaction caused byother implements, and hence promote sustainableland use.

• Indigenous weeding practices protect the land from pollu-tion or accumulation of toxic pesticides in soils and plants(Sharland, 1989).The use of the traditional ploughfor weeding is environmentally friendly since itpollutes neither the soil nor the crops.The farmersknow how to identify the types, behaviour andgrowth of vigorous weeds.

• Mulching. In most traditional farms, the cropresidues are left on the soil surface after weeding.This surface mulch promotes soil and waterconservation, regulates the soil temperature regimeand improves soil structure, enhances micro-biological activity, and protects the soil from windand water erosion and from extreme desiccation.Mulches also suppress weed growth. Live mulch, asystem of growing grain/food crops through lowcanopy cover crop,may also achieve the benefits ofcrop residue mulch.

• Application of animal manures.Traditional farmers inthe rural areas have long known that animal manureenriches soil fertility. In northern Sudan, the farm-ers tie their cattle in a fallow field at night to manurethe land in situ.After four or five nights,the cattle aremoved to a different plot to manure it.A partiallyfermented mix of animal manure and soil (compost)is also used as a fertilizer.

• Use of indigenous seeds. Traditional farmers knowhow to produce and select high-potential seedsby observation and single plant selection, andhow to conserve and store them.They plant localsorghum and millet varieties for their stable food.For centuries, they have been the main custodians


of the various varieties of seeds.The introductionof hybrids has caused the loss of many indigenousvarieties.

• Traditional water harvesting techniques.The people ofwestern Sudan have developed ways of harvestingrain water in time of need.The systems that havebeen used since time immemorial include variousversions of pits, bunds and ‘terraces’.

SSeelleecctteedd ccaassee ssttuuddiieess

Northern Sudan (Mahas area)Traditional irrigated agriculture has been practised sincetime immemorial (Al-Batal, 1994) in the Mahas area,which lies in the desert region between latitudes 14° 42'and 21° N.In the flood season (August to mid-October),the farmers cultivate millet (grain and fodder), maize,cowpeas, watermelons and vegetables. In winter (Octo-ber to April), wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, safflower,chicken vetch, chickpeas, haricot beans, fenugreek, fieldpeas, faba beans, lupins, dolichos lablab, onions, garlic,tomatoes, rocket cress, cumin,caraway and coriander aregrown. In the summer season (May to August), somemillet, dolichos lablab, is cultivated.

Land preparation begins with the maintenance ofthe water wheel (sagia), which is shared by a number offarmers. In the past, the timing of the start of cultivationwas decided by a religious leader or an experiencedelder. Land is divided randomly between farmers by atraditional method, weeded and tilled by a traditionalplough.This is done by the family or by the group offarmers (faz’a).The land is sometimes watered to allowthe new weeds to germinate, and then weeded with ahoe or a traditional plough.A rake is used to collect thedry weeds, which are burned or used as fodder.

After land preparation, sowing is done by broadcast-ing for wheat and barley, or by placing seeds in holesmade by hoes or sowing sticks for millet, maize, okra,sesame, sorghum and similar crops. The crop is thenwatered, through main earth and subsidiary canals, withstones or buckets placed at the water entry point toprotect the canals from erosion.Millet, leguminous cropsand wheat are rotated, with frequent fallow periods toalleviate soil deterioration.The farmers tie their cattle infallow fields at night to manure the land in situ, movingthe cattle to a different plot every four or five nights.Children are employed to scare away birds, which arenatural enemies.

Harvesting is a cooperative effort of the farmers’faz’a.Wheat straw is chopped by sickles at the middlelevel, tied in bundles and left to dry in the sun near thethreshing floor. Millet and maize are cut at the groundlevel and lined up on the field.The cobs are then cut,by hand or with a sickle, placed in buckets or sacks,and transferred to the threshing field to dry in the sun.Sesame and faba bean plants are cut below fruit level,

tied into bundles and placed on the threshing floor.They may be threshed by an animal-powered deviceor by the treading of donkeys.A rake is used to sepa-rate the seeds from small straw pieces. Winnowing isthen carried out by old women.

The system has changed very little since the sagiaera. The operations have remained almost the same.Commercial chemical fertilizers have to some extentreplaced animal manure, which is now used only on alimited scale.The diesel pump has replaced the waterwheel,making it unnecessary to divide up the wateringtime or for farmers to communally establish andadminister a sagia.The faz’a system is still in use becauseof scarcity of labour.Al-Batal (1994) concluded that theintroduction of the modern water-lifting pump had notbeen followed by any major change in the traditionalagricultural system.

Western Sudan (En Nahud district)This TRF case study was based on a field survey involv-ing eighty-eight farmers: sixty-four men, and twenty-four women (Abd Elgadir, 1994). Like all traditionalrain-fed agricultural systems, farming in the area is landextensive, labour intensive, and constrained by low anderratic rainfall, low soil fertility and pests. Staple food(millet and sorghum) and cash (groundnut sesame andkarkade) crops are grown in a long cultivation–fallowrotational system, with Acacia senegal trees dominatingother trees and bushes during the fallow period.Sorghum is intercropped with sesame, and watermelonis intercropped with millet and karkade in the same field.The cultivated area of all crops has increased markedly(Table 6.3).The yields of all crops were extremely lowand showed trends of overall decline between 1982/83and 1992/93,due to declines in rainfall, crop damage bypests (rats and locusts) and lack of finance.

Farmers in the study area as well as in other areasof traditional rain-fed agriculture have developedmethods and strategies to cope with the limitationsimposed by the natural environment and the socio-economic conditions.These methods include:

• Land clearance. Farmers attempt to clear their landwell in advance of the growing season to reducecarry-over of pests from one season to the other.Farmers also attempt to avoid planting their cropsclose to fallow fields because of the pests inhabitingthem.

• Mulching. Crop residues are left in the field toprotect the soil from wind erosion.

• Early sowing.About 90 per cent of the farmers sowbetween June 1 and July 1. Unless the rains arefollowed by dry spells or rats remove the seeds,early sowing will give good yields.

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Year Sorghum Millet Sesame KarkadeArea Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield

1982/83 110,885 105 271,407 136 222,747 267 7,856 791983/84 102,806 83 319,805 169 41,203 107 6,854 671984/85 62696 48 462,410 33 55,430 29 5,502 311985/86 32263 286 483,390 190 53,143 171 6,930 711986/87 33238 357 345,970 229 61,694 262 17,501 711987/88 9772 214 46,315 29 23,598 160 8,956 361988/89 34090 214 2,318 117 65,825 207 8,313 1101989/90 38953 24 26,213 45 65,113 7 10,714 121990/91 2171 24 2,158 21 13,944 29 2,158 211991/92 81878 71 527,882 81 33,633 38 27,329 19

• Intercropping. This technique is adopted in thisvillage.

• Regular intensive weeding. This is essential for thecontrol of weeds especially buda (Striga spp.) toprotect the crop establishment.

• Seed dressing and improved seeds.The study indicatedthat improved seeds increased yields of groundnutmore than seed dressing and/or pesticides.

• Cultivation–bush fallow rotational system. Rotation ispractised.

• Pest control. Children carry noisemakers throughthe fields to scare birds and locusts. Farmers erectscarecrows and destroy bird nests in trees.

Blue Nile State (Abu Gumi village)This is a case of TI and TRF farming systems (ElMedani, 1994). The village of Abu Gumi lies on thewestern bank of the Blue Nile about 6 km south of AlDamazin town. It lies in a semi-arid ecosystem withmean annual rainfall ranging between 500 and 600 mm(June to October).The rainfall is higher in the norththan in the south.

Before the construction of the Roseris Dam in 1960,the Nile used to rise about early June and recede gradu-ally by the end of September or early October, reachingits lowest level by December.The area uncovered by thereceding river,known as gerif,was cultivated twice a yearby villagers (each having an area of 2–10 feddans) whogrow maize, tobacco and vegetables there.

Since the dam was built, cultivation has depended onthe opening of the dam gates and recession of the water.The area is cultivated once a year to harvest one or twocrops. Seeding starts after the dam’s opening andcontinues until the river reaches its lowest level inMarch or April. Seeds are sown on the slopes of the

riverbank where water recedes first. Cultivation of gerifis easier than the upper terrace soil classified as vertisoland known locally as dahara or bildat, since the soil ismore fertile, easier to plant and requires no weeding.However, it also has some disadvantage. First, the farm-ers will sometimes be busy with their bildat cultivation;second, if the dam gates are closed early, the rising waterwill damage the crop; and third, trespassing livestockowned by nomads may damage the crop.

Shifting cultivation is practised in the bildat, withthe field being changed every seven to ten years. Eachhousehold cultivates 5–35 feddans, depending uponthe size of the family (and thus the available labour).The two main crops are sorghum (the staple crop) andsesame (for cash). There are small household gardensclose to the houses for growing vegetables for homeconsumption.The farmers clear their land by cuttingthe tall, weedy grass (diwairata) first, before it maturesand scatters its seeds, and then the small bushes, shrubsand herbs. Plant residues are left on the ground to beburnt later. Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal are cut fourfeet above the ground in the dry season. Hegleig(Balanites aegyptiaca) is never cut because it is believedthat it brings rains and protects the field from wind.Villagers believe that it is possible to grow crops underhegleig, but not under acacia trees.

The Hamaj tribe divides the rainy season,kharif, intoa sequence of events grouped into ten thirteen-day peri-ods; each is locally referred to as manzila.These periodsare used as indicators for the various agricultural prac-tices (for example, planting, weeding and scaring awaybirds). In the last two periods, iwa and simak, recognizedby the appearance of a star, Irieq, the activities includedriving away birds and harvesting. Sesame is harvestedfirst with the help of hired labour. Men use a sickle to cutdown sorghum plants, and women cut off the sorghumheads. Some is threshed in the house and the rest in thefield. If there is a good amount of rain at this time, a


Source: Regional Ministry of Agriculture, El Obied.

ND = No data

Table 6.3 Cultivated area (ha) and yield (kg/ha) of various crops grown in En-Nahud province (1982/83–1992/93)

second harvest may be taken and used as a fodder or soldto nomads.During this period, the farmers start clearingtheir new fields.

The Hamaj tribe are able to use and manage theirland to meet their needs with minimum labour input:family members, and the cultural and social institutionof nafir. Some hired labour is used for harvesting sesame.

CCoonncclluussiioonnss aanndd rreeccoommmmeennddaattiioonnssTraditional agriculture has many sustainable features.Atpresent, it occupies about 40 per cent of the total culti-vated land and provides a subsistence livelihood formore than 70 per cent of the total population. Never-theless, it is marginalized and deprived of financial andtechnical support. Since independence, the agriculturalpolicies and strategies have favoured the modernsectors, the irrigated subsector much more than thesemi-mechanized rain-fed subsector. In the early 1990sit was estimated that 75 per cent of agricultural financewas allocated to irrigation and expansion of irrigatedareas, 15 per cent to agricultural industries, and only 10per cent livestock, fisheries and forestry (Ahmed,1994).

Crop yields in this sector are very low and pro-gressively declining because of low and erratic rainfall,land degradation, low soil fertility, pests and lack offinancial, research and other support. At present, dueto these constraining factors, traditional farming doesnot meet the needs and aspirations of the local poorpeople in the rural areas of Sudan.Thus, it is importantto address these constraints and integrate sustainablefeatures of both traditional and modern farming sys-tems to enhance sustainable agriculture and promotethe overall economic development. In this respect it isrecommended that:

• Traditional farming knowledge and technology(TFKAT) should be considered an integral part ofthe broad spectrum of traditional knowledge andtechnology in all fields.

• The development of traditional farming shouldbe considered a priority area in the nationalagricultural development plan at the local level.

• A thorough inventory of TFKAT should bemade.The development of this inventory shouldbe one of the mandates of the AgriculturalResearch Corporation (ARC), which will thenbe required to collect, sort, package and docu-ment TFKAT into operational formal forms fornational use at all levels.

• An institutional channel should be formed fortransmission and dissemination of TFKAT.

• A TFKAT syllabus should be developed and offeredto the students at all levels of the agricultural educa-tion system.

• The ARC should develop a research programmeto address the constraints of traditional farmingand its integration with modern technology.


ABDEL GADIR, U.O. Indigenous crop protectionstrategies of small farmers in En-Nahud district,West-ern Sudan. In: M. M. Ahmed (ed.), Indigenous farmingsystems, knowledge and practices in the Sudan, pp. 136–7.Khartoum, Institute of African and Asian Studies,(Sudan Library series 21), 1994.

AHMED, M.M. The concept of indigenous knowl-edge and its relevance to sustainable development. In:M.M. Ahmed (ed.), Indigenous farming systems, knowl-edge and practices in the Sudan, pp. 1–42. Khartoum,Institute of African and Asian Studies, (Sudan Libraryseries 21), 1994.

AL-BATAL, S.M.A.Agricultural systems, practices, andtraditions in the Northern Sudan: a case study of theNubian region. In: M.M.Ahmed (ed.), Indigenous farm-ing systems, knowledge and practices in the Sudan. Khar-toum, Institute of African and Asian Studies, (SudanLibrary series 21), 1994.

AYOUB,A.T. Extent, severity and causative factors ofland degradation in the Sudan. Journal of AridEnvironments, No. 38, 1998, pp. 397–409.

EL-MEDANI, K.A. Some aspects of indigenous farm-ing knowledge in the Blue Nile area: the case of AbuGumi village. In: M.M. Ahmed (ed.), Indigenous farm-ing systems, knowledge and practices in the Sudan, pp.95–166. Khartoum, Institute of African and AsianStudies, (Sudan Library series 21), 1994.

FAO. Provisional methodology for assessment and mappingof desertification. Rome, FAO, 1979.

HARRISON,M.N.;JACKSON,J.K.Ecological classifica-tion of the vegetation of the Sudan. Khartoum, ForestDepartment (Forest Bulletin No. 2, new series), 1958.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE. A proposed nation-al plan for combating drought effects and desertification inSudan. A report, Ministry of Agriculture, SudanGovernment,1985.

MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND TOURISM.Towards a national plan for environmental action in the Sudan.(In Arabic.) Khartoum, Ministry of Environment andTourism, 1996.

MUSTAFA, M.A. National action program: evaluation,

42

management and networking in Sudan. Paper presented inthe national forum for implementing the nationalprogramme for combating desertification, Khartoum,Sudan, 26–8 October 1998.

MUSTAFA, M.A.; SAEED,A.B. Strategy and methodol-ogy of research on desertification in the Sudan: soil and waterconservation sector. Proceedings of the National Forumof Scientific Research on Desertification in theSudan, University of Khartoum, Sudan, 16–18 March2004.

SHAA ELDIN, E.F.The role of agriculture sector ineconomy. In: A.B. Zahlan and W.Y.Magar (eds.), Theagriculture sector of Sudan: policy and system studies, pp.17–43. London, Ithaca, 1986.

SHARLAND, R.W. Indigenous knowledge and technicalchange in a subsistence society: lessons from the Moru ofSudan. London, Overseas Development Institute(Network paper No. 9),Taylor and Francis, 1989.

SKOUPY, J. Raising the productivity of arid lands.Desertification Control Bulletin, No. 22, 1993, pp. 55–9.

UNCCD On-farm research in traditional rain-fed areas in theSudan. Khartoum, UNDP (Project Document), 1990.

UNEP United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifica-tion.Published by UNEP on behalf of the Interim Secre-tariat for the Convention to Combat Desertification(CCD/95/1). Hertfordshire, UK, Earthprint, 1995.

WORLD BANK. A strategy for rainfed farming: a com-mentary on the Government Steering Committee Report.Washington, D.C., Infoshop, (Report no.6502-SU),1978.

WORLD BANK. Sudan country economic memorandumstabilization and reconstruction. Washington, D.C.,Infoshop (Report no.24620-SU), 2003.

WCED (World Commission on Environment andDevelopment). Our common future. Oxford, OxfordUniversity Press, 1987.


up 1,000,360 ha; long-standing plantations comprise245,600 ha with 0.18 ha of arable land per head of thepopulation.About 4,210,000 ha or 60 per cent of thearea consists of mountain areas.

The main types of soil degradation in Azerbaijanare a result of:

• loss of organic matter (degumification)• weakening of biological activity• physical degradation• wind, water and irrigated erosion• salinization• saline–alkaline conditions• lack of nutrients• lack of moisture• technological and chemical pollution• soil loss• increased acidity.

The intensive use of soil for monoculture is one of themain causes of the onset of soil degradation. In thisregard, use of inappropriate technical measures has ledto the loss of soil organic matter in an area coveringmore than 1.5 million ha, decreasing their biologicalactivity by 1.5–2.0 times.

The physical degradation of the soil as a result ofthe influence of intensive agricultural techniques leadsto structural disturbance: concentration of the soillayer under tillage, and decreasing porosity in somecases due to the loss of the upper layers (affecting anarea of up to 0.5 million ha).

The mountainous areas of the Republic are charac-terized by remarkable differences in height and sharprelief.This is why about 41.8 per cent of their soils (3.61million ha) are exposed to erosion to various degrees.The most widespread types of erosion in these areas area result of the action of wind and water irrigation.Herethe influence of natural factors is further aggravated bydisturbances from zonal agrotechniques.

The salinized soils of Azerbaijan are mainly foundin the Kura-Araks lowland and Apsheron peninsula,which have an area of 1.5 million ha.The soil struc-ture is affected by the following salts: soda, chloride,sulphate, sulphate-chlorite and chloride-sulphate.500,000 ha of salted soils are meliorated.

In these regions the irrigated drainage systems are


Management of degraded soil rehabilitation processes inAzerbaijan by traditional methods

Mageram P. Babayev, Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of NAS of Azerbaijan, Baku,Azerbaijan

7

The problems of soil degradation and soil exhaustionaround the world are a cause for alarm. They areclosely associated with the process of active develop-ment in many countries, and particularly in aridzones. Azerbaijan also encounters these problems,which include erosion, desertification and otheraspects of soil degradation.

The work of various scientists (including, in the lastfew years,Ruellan and colleagues,Zimovetz,Dobrovol-skiy, Mirukhlava and Chernyavskaya) and of the Instituteof Soil science and agrochemistry of ANS of Azerbaijanhas been summarized here. They recommend thefollowing lines of investigation:

• Determine the cause of soil degradation for therelevant regions in Azerbaijan.

• Determine the degree of soil degradation.• Compose a soil degradation map of the site.• Define recommendations for prophylactic measures

against soil degradation.• Create a systematic expert system for the evaluation

of soil degradation.

The Azerbaijan Republic is situated in the southeasternpart of the Trans-Caucasus at latitudes of 39°–42° andlongitudes 45°–50°. It covers an area of 86,600 km2

and has a population of more than 8 million. In theeastern part, 800 km of the territory borders the shoreof the Caspian Sea, while in the north the territory isbounded by the watersheds of the main Caucasusmountain range.The extremely varied and rich naturalconditions of the republic are a result of the exceptionaldiversity of soil cover and the different specializations ofmulti-branch agricultural and industrial production.

The structure of the relief is sharply complex: start-ing with lowland, which is 28 m below sea level, andrising to 5,000 m at the mountain summits.The char-acteristics of the altitudinal zone in terms of naturalwater, vegetative and soil resources are similar to therelief found throughout the republic.

The degenerative and accumulative processes arecomplicated by the intensity of human activity, whichuses natural resources in an irrational way. Of the totalarea of the Republic (8,641,566 ha): 4,540,581 ha or 52per cent is agricultural land; 1,454,258 ha is irrigated;arable land occupies 1,673,949 ha; irrigated fields make

out of order everywhere.This fact, together with thedisruption of the irrigated regime, has led torepeated soil salinization with the formation ofsaline–alkaline areas.

The incomplete restoration of nutrients carriedaway through the harvesting of agricultural plants, theinefficient use of organic fertilizers and the inappro-priate use of crop rotation (or a complete absence ofit) has led to a twofold or threefold loss of nutrients inan area of 1.5–2 million ha.

Oil-polluted soils in Azerbaijan occupy about30,000 ha – most notably in the Apsheron peninsula(13,000 ha) – and are heavily polluted by oil waste andbitumen.

Chemical pollution of soils in the Republic affectsan area of 840,000 ha, and is mainly caused by residuesof pesticides,herbicides, radioactive elements and heavymetals.These areas extend into the zone of the miningextractive industry and the zone of military operations.

In the arid zone of the Republic (with an area of2.5–3 million ha) the moisture and aridity observed isnot only due to natural factors but also to the irrationaluse of irrigation, ineffective methods of irrigation,waterloss and a reduction of vegetative cover.

In the zone of humid subtropics, and in particularin the Lenkoran region, soil acidity has increased dueto long-term tea plantations (13–15,000 ha).

When speaking about types of degradation, it isimportant to note the loss of fertile soils because ofindustry, urban structures, roads, airports and otherconstruction.

To combat the process of degradation, scientificallytested technologies need to be developed, thus promot-ing the optimization of the natural environment and thestable management of the process of degraded soilrestoration.To develop these technologies it is necessaryto take into account traditional methods and considerwhich of them are acceptable in terms of time and theconditions of regional use. The technologies includeagro- and phytomeliorative measures to restore carbon(organic), nitrogen (total), soil biological activity andvegetation in the degraded pastures and Tugay ecosys-tems. Account must also be taken of the zonalsoil–climatic conditions and the use of combined melio-rative and agrotechnical methods to protect soil fromerosion (soil-protective crop rotation, anti-deflationforestry zones, link sowing,soil-protective technology ofcultivation including non-mouldboard friability withroot remnants, minimalization methods).The irrigationsystem must incorporate progressive methods of surfacewatering (discrete watering on furrows, automaticwatering and so on) in addition to the technology ofdropping irrigation, to make economic use of irrigationwater.

In order to prevent excessive evaporation of thescarce moisture and to allow for microelementimprovement, mulching techniques can be applied by

using vegetative residues such as silt from river water,ceolite, turf, and waste from the fish, wine and silk-production industries. Another meliorative measuresthat can be used is crop rotation with salt-stable plants.

In the last sixty to seventy years, soil resources havebeen severely depleted, largely through anthropogenicinfluence. In order to protect and reconstruct the nat-ural resources, it is necessary to examine them interms of their evolutionary order: that is, to analysetheir current situation, identify changes and determinemethods to begin the processes of improvement.

In order to ascertain the extent of soil degrada-tion, we need to examine six indices relating tobiological activity, seven indices reflecting physicaldegradation, and five indices relating to the saltcondition of the soil. Erosion, food shortage, mois-ture and soil pollution are other factors that are alsorelevant. In total, twenty-eight indices need toanalysed. Every index of degradation is marked atone of five degrees of the degradation: from ‘0’reflecting normal soil conditions to ‘4’ representingmaximum disturbance (Table 7.1).

Examples of the first soil degradation mapsinclude maps of Albania (Zdruly and Lusnay, 2000),Hungary (Varalyay, 2000), Romania (Ladjatza, 2000),Russia (Sanin, 2000) and Bielorussia (Medvedyev,2000).The country maps of soil degradation differ inhow they calculate soil and climatic conditions.Thecomplex maps are compiled for various kinds ofdegradation (erosion, salt and others) due to anthro-pogenic influences. Soil degradation maps arecompiled on the basis of exact soil maps. In this waythe natural and anthropogenic factors influencingsoil cover can be given significant meaning. As anexample we may take the map of the soil coverdegradation of Mil-Karabakh plain. The plain is aspacious territory (772,000 ha) and is used for agri-cultural production (40 per cent of the general area).Its soil–climatic conditions are favourable for culti-vating valuable agricultural plants (cereals, bean,grape, pomegranate, cotton and others).

On the basis of the Mil-Karabakh plain soil map(scale 1:200000) a map of soil cover degradation hasbeen composed for this zone (Figure 7.1). It reflectsthe geographical location of types of soil cover degra-dation. In the key to the map, all degradation typesand sub-types of soils are shown, as well as the areathey occupy, agro-industrial characteristics and limit-ing factors, agromeliorative measures and potential forchanging use.

By bringing together experience of long-standingcomplex soil investigations in the AzerbaijanRepublic, a system of expertise of the state of soildegradation in Azerbaijan has been created. Thisapproach differentiates the level of soil degradationthat applies. Maps of soil cover degradation are there-fore drawn up for the separate regions of the Republic

46

and a choice of prophylactic measures for removingnegative processes is recommended. Methodical rec-ommendations about soil degradation in AzerbaijanRepublic are prepared, and on this basis a computerdatabase of soil degradation expertise is composed.

These technologies are parts of the struggle tosolve the problems of soil degradation and desertifica-tion. We are not attempting to go against nature’sstrength; on the contrary, we aspire to restore theregional natural ecological balance.


BABAYEV, M. Degradation of soils in Azerbaijan: influ-ence of increasing anthropogenic effects. In: Soils in CentralEuropean Countries, New Independent states, Central AsianCountries and in Mongolia, pp. 69–72. Proceedings ofthe Conference on Prague–Czech Republic, 26–29August 2000. Italy, 2000.

RUELLAN, A.; DOSSO, M.; LAHMAR, R. Soils incentral European countries, new independent states, centralAsian countries and in Mongolia. Proceedings of thePrague Conference on Soils, Prague, Czech Republic,26–29 August 2000. Italy, 2000.


Figure 7.1 Soil cover degradation map of Mil-Karabakh plain of Azerbaijan, 2002(See next page for key)

Soil degradation

Normal soils

Soil erosion

Salinity, concentrating

Salinity-solonetz gardenand repeated saltingsoils

Soils

Virgin, greyish-brown(chestnut), meadow

Brown exposing to erosion of soil

Salting, greyish-brownserozem, meadow and meadow-swampyvirgin soils

Garden-saline meadow–marl soils

I. Influence of natural factors

Extent (ha)

163,000

20,000

115,000

114,000

Agro-industrial differences andlimited factors

An even surface, with slight slope;under ground water level(UWL) 3–5 m, humus layer30–50 cm, with N,P,K; schistous,with signs of claying

Surface severely degraded (sharplychanging); concentrations of car-bonate; little thickness, stony

Somewhat degraded surface, goodfor watering; carbonate, developson loess forming stratum andaffected by salinity, condensation;signs of claying; thick layer offine soil, provided by elements ofnutrition

An even surface, with a slightslope, UWL 1.0–2.5 m, strongsalinity, solonetz, clayey

Agromeliorative measures

Regulating pasturage, grasssowing, afforestation, planningsurface, irrigation-drainagesystem; agricultural direction –forage preparation, crop rotation, mineral organic andlocal fertilizer

Unfit for watering, concentrat-ing crack, phytomelioration,hydrological structure,afforestation, grass sowing

Complex of meliorative meas-ures: appropriate irrigation,improvement of collector-drainage system, planning ofsurface, deep ploughing, sow-ing of bean fodder crops

Planning of surface, watering onthe collector-drainage, use ofmeliorant on clayey soils

Agricultural potential

Cattle breeding, cultivat-ed grasses, watering,technical and cereals,gardening and sericulture

Cattle breeding, garden-ing, grape production

Cereals and technicalcultures, grape production, grass ofhigh crop capacity,stockbreeding

Cotton growing, cereals,growing vegetables andmelons, grain–bean,cultural pasturage

Key to soil cover degradation map of Mil-Karabakh plain

II11

II22

II33

II44

II. Influence of human factors

Normal soils

Salinity, concentrating

Stepped soils

Cultured, irrigation-accumulative soils

Normal soilsCultured greyish-brown irrigated

Salinity, concentratingIrrigation, saline,solonetz greyish-brown, grey andmeadow soils

Stepped soilsStepped greyish-brown soils

Cultured, irrigation-accumulative soilsIrrigation-accumulativedry steppe and halfdeserted soils

57,000

136,000

15,000

102,000

An even surface with a slight slope;UWL 3–5 m; thickness of layerof the fine fertile soils 25–40 cm,average provided by nutritiousmatter

Flatter surface, with a slight slope;good for irrigation; waterresources available; present signsof salinity, solonetz, condensation

Unfit for irrigation, surfacedestroyed; soils developed on car-bonate stratum; thickness of finecultured layer of soils 30–50 cm

Flatter surface, with water resourcesavailable; soil developed in agro-irrigation alluvium; has thickcultural layer of soil, structural,fertile

Terracing in mountain zone,irrigation with rain water,organically, mineral and localfertilizers; crop rotation inplain zone, bean culture plant-ing, wide use of siderates etc.

Complex of meliorative meas-ures, improvement of collector-drainage systems, appropriateregime of irrigation crop rotation

Terracing, afforestation and gardening

Crop rotation, maintainingwatering regime, differentnorms of organic, mineral andlocal fertilizers, deepeninglayer of sowing, resist irrigatederosion

Cereals and technicalculture, viticulture,sericulture, melongrowing

Grain–bean technicalcultures and croprotation ofcereals/bean cultures

Forestry, melon grow-ing, viticulture, cultureof high crop capacity

Cereals and technicalculture, viticulture,melon growing

Soil degradation Soils Extent (ha) Agro-industrial differences and Agromeliorative measures Agricultural potentiallimited factors

IIII11

IIII22

IIII33

IIII44

Table 7.1 Degree of soil degradation

The indices Degree of degradation 0 1 2 3 4

Loss of organic matters (humus), weakening of biological activity1. Humus AI+AB or thickness of the irrigated layer AI a, sm >50 41–50 31–40 21–30 <202. Decrease in humus supply, in % from norms: A+AB <10 11–20 21–40 41–60 >60

AI a <10 11–30 31–50 51–80 >803. Humus quantity, in %: AI+AB 5–10 4–5 3–4 2–3 <2

AI a 4–5 3–4 2–3 1–2 <14. Cf.a.: Ch.a.AI+AB 0.8–1.0 0.7–0.8 0.6–0.5 0.4–0.5 <0.4

AI a 1.2–1.4 1.0–1.2 0.9–1.0 0.8–0.9 <0.85. The quantity of CO2 in soil air supply, in % of the volume >0.5 0.4–0.5 0.3–0.4 0.2–0.3 <0.26. The activity of invertase, mg/gl in 1 gr soil, 24 h >35 31–35 26–30 21–25 <20

Physical degradation7. Compaction, g/sm3, in % of norms 1.0–1.2 1.3–1.4 1.4–1.5 1.5–1.6 >1.68. General porosity, in % >60 56–60 51–55 46–50 <459. Stoniness, in % <5 6–10 11–20 21–40 >40

10. Quantity of aggregates (>0.25 mm) stable to moisture, % >50 41–50 31–40 21–30 <2011. Ability to aggregate, % >55 46–55 36–45 26–35 <2512. Productive moisture, 0–25 cm >90 81–90 71–80 61–70 <6013. Water-permeability of soils, mm >3.0 2.6–3.0 2.1–2.5 1.6–2.0 <1.5

Soil erosion14. Thickness of the layer of agro-irrigation, cm,AIi >80 61–80 41–60 21–40 >2015. Soil profile decrease (A+B), in % of norms <5 5–20 20–40 40–80 >80

Salinity and solonetz16. Easily soluble salts, in %

Soda <0.15 0.16–0.30 0.31–0.50 0.51–0.80 >0.8Sulphate-chloride <0.25 0.26–0.50 0.51–1.00 1.10–2.00 >2.0Chlorine-sulphate <0.40 0.41–0.80 0.81–1.50 1.60–2.50 >2.5

17. Increase of absorbed Na, in % of absorption capacity <5 6–10 11–15 16–20 >2018. Increase of absorbed Mg, in % of absorption capacity <15 16–25 26–35 36–45 >4519. Depth of the level of mineralized subsoil waters (>3 g/l), m

Dry steppe zone >5.5 4.6–5.5 3.6–4.5 2.6–3.5 <2.5Half-deserted zone >5.0 4.1–5.0 3.1–4.0 2.1–3.0 <2.0

20. Rise of the levels of fresh subsoil waters (>1–3 g/l), mDry steppe zone >4 3.1–4.0 2.1–3.0 1.0–2.0 <1.0Half-deserted zone >3 2.1–3.0 1.1–2.0 0.5–1.0 <0.5

The indices Degree of degradation 0 1 2 3 4

Lack of nutrition21. Decrease of microelement quantity, in % of aver. provision. <10 11–20 21–40 41–80 >8022. Decrease of the quantity P2O5, in % of aver. provision. <10 11–20 21–30 41–60 >6023. Decrease of the quantity K2O5, in % of aver. provision. <10 11–20 21–40 41–80 >8024. Nitrifying ability, mg/kg

– 15 days >60 46–60 31–45 16–30 <15– 20 days >65 51–65 36–50 21–35 <20

Lack of moisture25. Irrigated waters, g/l

– Mineralized <1.0 1–4 4–7 7–10 >10– Quality (carbonate, sodium) <0.5 0.1–0.2 0.2–0.3 0.3–0.4 0.4–0.5

Chemical and technological pollution26. Polluted by oil and oil products, % <6 6–7 7–8 8–9 >927. Polluted by heavy metals >35 31–35 26–30 21–25 <1028. The crop capacity, wheat (c/ha)

– Real >40 31–40 21–30 11–20 <10– Potential >50 41–50 31–40 21–30 <20

Source: M.S. Salayev (1979), Z.R. Movsumov (1978), R.G.Mamedov (1979), G.Z.Azizov (2000),A.B. Jafarov (2000),V.A.Ahmadov (1986) and others.

and the effects of urbanization dynamics on localtraditions and culture.

3. Description of indigenous, adaptive and innovativeapproaches.The strategies of the local communitiesto adapt to conditions in Omayed BiosphereReserve (OBR) and its hinterland,and the questionof whether such strategies are sustainable in thelong-term, were assessed in the field via interviewsand observation.Various management approachesand technologies – indigenous, adaptive and inno-vative – were considered, including water resourcemanagement practices, management of rangelandsand grazing patterns,soil degradation identification,and use of land suitable for agriculture.

The use of an Environmental Information Systembased on participatory GIS is recommended to repre-sent the required master database of the project. It isstructured to manage all forms of information, spatial(base maps, satellite imagery and the like) and non-spatial (texts, tables, graphs, statistics and so on), fromexisting literature, previous projects, field observationand data analysis and interpretation. It will facilitate dataarchiving, analysis and query as well as combining thescientific, administrative and social data obtained on thelocal inhabitants in one common repository. Imple-menting this geo-database will enable comparative eval-uation of study sites and dissemination of informationamong the partner institutions.

GGeenneerraall ddeessccrriippttiioonn aanndd llooccaattiioonnOmayed Biosphere Reserve is located in the westernMediterranean coastal region of Egypt (29°00'–29°18' Eand 30°52'–20°38' N). It runs about 30 km along theMediterranean coast from west El-Hammam to El-Alamein, extending 23.5 km to the south. Its landscapeis divided into a northern coastal plain and a southerninland plateau.The coastal plain is characterized by alter-nating ridges and depressions running parallel to thecoast in an east–west direction.This physiographic vari-ation leads to the distinction of several main types ofecosystem.They are arranged in the same sequence fromthe north (on the Mediterranean coast) to the south.

The major habitats found in the Reserve includefive main habitat types:


Omayed Biosphere Reserve and its hinterland

Boshra Salem, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, University ofAlexandria, Egypt

8

The current paper considers research aimed at develop-ing management strategies for marginal drylands thatsupport the resilience of ecosystems.These are vital forsocial systems in the western coastal desert of Egyptthrough their production of goods and services. Thewestern coastal desert of Egypt and its hinterland isrenowned for its wealth of natural resources, and hasbeen a point of attraction for development projects dueto its richness in natural resources, fine location, goodweather and pleasant conditions. Except for the coastalstrip, most of the northwestern desert lies in the aridregion.Water resources are scarce and variable, and as aresult the local community has developed a wide rangeof strategies for managing water resources in this region.Traditionally, the inhabitants have moved around insearch of water, pasture and croplands, with their move-ments determined by the rainfall pattern. However, therecent sedentary trend has combined with populationgrowth, overuse of water resources, overgrazing anduprooting of indigenous vegetation,climate change,andother political and social forces to exert greater pressureon land resources.This has affected the productivity ofthe area and the provision of goods and services.

The work described here was carried out by agroup of Egyptian researchers for a UNESCO-UNU-ICARDA project named ‘Sustainable Management ofMarginal Lands’ (SUMAMAD).The project is underimplementation in eight countries, including the Arabstates of Egypt, Jordan and Syria.

The project involved the local inhabitants in identi-fying, evaluating and promoting the local communityresource management system that conserves ecologicalprocesses and embraces biodiversity to generate incomeand cope with changes in social and natural conditions.The outline of the work is an assessment methodologythat comprises information gathering and evaluation ofthe following three elements:

1. State of existing natural resources.A detailed descrip-tion of the current state of existing ecosystemservices in terms of its natural resources – water,soil and biodiversity – at the local level, and theirrelationships at spatial and temporal scales.

2. Characterization of stresses. An overall characteriza-tion of the typical environmental stresses, includingscarcity of water, land degradation, overgrazing,irrational cultivation and reliance on agriculture,social stresses and the deficiencies of social services,

1. Coastal dunes.2. Inland ridges.3. Saline depressions.4. Non-saline depressions.5. The inland plateau.

A complete description of these habitats and theirmajor vegetation communities is provided in thesection on ‘Habitats’ later in this paper.

The faunal species found in all five habitats includemammals such as dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas), anumber of gerbils (Gerbillus spp.), the east Mediterraneanendemic mole-rat (Spalax leucodon), the fennec fox(Vulpes zerda), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), hare (Lepus capenis)and North African endemic fat sand rat (Psammomysobesus). There are some fifty to seventy bird species,including kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) and quail (Coturnixcoturnix), and between seven and thirteen reptile andamphibian species such as the horned viper (Cerastescerastes) and the tortoise (Testudo graeca).Common insectsare represented by the families of Terrebrionidae,Scarabaeidae and Carabidae. There are also records ofsand roach (Heterogamia syriaca), harvester ants (Messorspp.) and a localized protozoan, Acanthamoeba.

A comparison of meteorological records from twostations, one close to the Mediterranean coast (BurgEl-Arab) and the other about 40 km to the south(Dammanhur), demonstrates the north–south climaticgradient in this region (Table 8.1).These records indi-cate the increase in environmental aridity and thermalcontinentality from north to south.

The geological formations of the region are essen-tially quaternary and tertiary.The surface is formed ofMiocene strata, about 300 m in thickness, overlain bypink limestone, tentatively assigned to Pliocene. TheHolocene formation is formed of beach deposits, sanddune accumulations, wadi fillings, loamy deposits,lagoon deposits and limestone crust. The Pleistoceneformation is formed of white limestone in the form ofexposed ridges stretching parallel to the coast, and pinklimestone of oolitic sand with Pleistocene microfauna.

Moghra Oasis is in the hinterland of the OBR. It is asmall uninhabited oasis (latitude 30°14'N, longitude28°55'E), situated on the northeastern edge of theQattara depression with a brackish lake at the centre. It

has an area of approximately 4 km².The lake representsthe area of lowest altitude (–38 m).The shallow watertable and outward seepage of the lake’s water, accompa-nied by excessive evaporation, create the wet saltmarshes (saline flats) that surround the lake. Theseproduce thick surface crusts of salt that may prevent thegrowth of several plant species. Sand formations domi-nate on the western and southern sides of Moghra Lake,with deposits in the form of dunes in areas adjacent tothe lake and of deep sheets of sand in other places.

Climatic data on Moghra Oasis, extracted fromWadi El-Natrun climatic data (at the same latitude asMoghra), show average temperatures range from13–30° C in January to 27–60° C in August. Annualrainfall is about 40 mm, with a maximum of 13 mmin November. Relative humidity varies between 44.6per cent in May and 63.0 per cent in November.Relative wind velocity ranges from 8.1 knots inDecember to 11.4 knots in April.

The vegetation of Moghra Oasis is diagrammaticallyrepresented in Figure 8.1.

SSttaattee ooff eexxiissttiinngg nnaattuurraallrreessoouurrcceess

HabitatsBiodiversity

RICHNESS OF PLANT SPECIES

A total of 251 species were recorded in OmayedBiosphere Reserve, of which 131 are perennials and120 are annuals (therophytes). These species belongto 169 genera and 44 families.The composites formthe highest proportion of the total flora (15.9 percent), followed by grasses (13.2 per cent) andlegumes (12.8 per cent).Thirty-two species (twenty-two perennials and ten annuals) have wide ecologi-cal amplitudes (recorded in at least six out of sevenprevailing habitats).

Eighteen species have a national distributionrestricted only to the western Mediterranean region,where the Omayed Biosphere Reserve lies: Asparagusaphyllus, Fagonia cretica, Lotus polyphyllos, Centaurea

54

Meteorological factor North station South station

Max. air temperature (° C) 24.1 28.4Min. air temperature (° C) 15.2 15.2Mean air temperature 19.5 20.4Rainfall (mm/year) 168.9 90.4Potential evapotranspiration (mm/year) 994.6 1 033.5Aridity index 26.9 10.7

Table 8.1 Annual average (over fifteen years) of some meteorological data at two stations, one near the Mediterranean coast (Burg El-Arab) and the other about 40 km to the south (Dammanhur)

alexandrina, Helianthemum sphaerocalyx, Prasium majus,Centaurea pumilio, Hyoseris radiata subsp. graeca,Rhodalsine geniculata, Ebenus armetagie, Leontodon tubero-sus and Thymus capitatus as perennials; andBrachypodium distachyum, Daucus syrticus, Hyoseris scabra,Crucianella aegyptiaca, Hippocrepis cyclocarpa, andMatthiola longipetala subsp. hirta as annuals.

ENDEMIC, RARE AND THREATENED SPECIES

There is only one rare endemic species, Helianthemumsphaerocalyx (Cistaceae) in the coastal dunes in thisregion. According to the scheme of rarity forms,40 rarespecies were reported in Omayed Biosphere Reserve:23 perennials and 17 annuals. Moreover, the speciesuniquely occurring in the coastal sand-dune habitat areconsidered to be threatened species.This is because theconstruction of coastal summer resorts is leading to thesevere fragmentation and destruction of this habitat.

RANGELANDS

Some of the most common rangeland species in theMediterranean coastal region are Anabasis articulata, A.oropediorum, Artemisia monosperma, A. herba-alba, Aspho-delus ramosis.Convolvulus lanatus,Carduncellus eriocephalus,Eciochilon fruticosum, Echinops spinosissimus, Gymnocarposdecandrum, Helianthemum lippii, H. kahiricum, Lyciumeuropaeum, Noaea mucronata. Deverra triradiata. Periplocaaphylla, Scorzonera alexandrina, and Thymelaea hirsuta. Ofthese species, 63 per cent are palatable and 42 per centare considered highly palatable.

Grazing activities take place mainly in three habitatsin Omayed Biosphere Reserve and its hinterland: thenon-saline depression, the ridge habitat, and the inlandplateau habitat. In the early 1990s it was observed that

the annual above-ground dry matter production of therangeland in Omayed Biosphere Reserve in the differ-ent habitats (maximum values in different seasons) wasabout 2,833 kg/ha in the non-saline depression, 1,448kg/ha in the ridge areas, and 4,416 kg/ha on the inlandplateau habitats. In general, preliminary field observa-tions of the behaviour of grazing animals indicated thatalmost all the forage consumed throughout the year ismade up of sixteen perennial species (most common)and annuals. In general the total phytomass of newgrowth is highest in the habitat of the inland plateau,and lowest in the ridge habitat.

ECOSYSTEM BENEFITS

The benefits offered by the OBR ecosystems are bothenvironmental and economic. Environmental benefitsinclude the following:

• Biodiversity conservation. One of the main ben-efits of the OBR is its role in conserving biodi-versity resources (in terms of habitat and speciesdiversity).This area is efficient in the sense that itencompasses a sequence of interdependent habi-tats in a relatively small area, including marinewaters, sandy beaches, coastal calcareous sanddunes, saline and non-saline depressions, inlandridges, limestone plateau, inland siliceous sandformations (flats, mounds and dunes) and artificialrain-fed farms. These habitats support diverseflora and fauna (about 250 flowering plants, 300invertebrates, 200 avifauna, 30 herpetofauna and28 mammals). Some of the biota are endemicand/or threatened.

• Some of the habitats act efficiently for water stor-age (e.g. coastal sand dunes and the depressions at


Figure 8.1 Moghra Oasis

J = Phragmites communis, t = Juncus rigidus , N = Nitraria retusa,T= Tamarix sp.,Y = Phonix dactylifera,C = Cressa cretica, Z = Zygophyllum album, R = Arthrocnemum macrostachyum , H = inula crithmoides

the foot of the ridges formed by runoff water inaddition to rainfall).

• Many of the plants play an important role inpreventing soil erosion, increasing soil depositionand improving drainage of the lowlands. Theseinclude the species that form phytogenic mounds(e.g.Ammophila arenaria,Liomoniastrum monopetalumand Artemisia monosermum).

• Maintenance of the rich and colourful traditionalcultural heritage of the local inhabitants, whichforms an important and integral part of theregion’s landscape.

Economic benefits include:

• Grazing. Domestic and wild animals graze andbrowse on 94 species growing in this region(72.9 per cent of the total economic species).The highly palatable species in this area areEchiochilon fruticosum, Plantago albicans, Stipa lagas-cae, Deverra tortuosa, Helianthemum lippii,Artemisiaherba-alba, Althaea ludwigii, Malva parviflora andGymnocarpos decander.

• Fuel. Almost all desert woody perennials are cutfor fuel. Local inhabitants usually use the dry partsonly, while travellers, workers or other visitorgroups cut down green plants when they cannotfind dry ones. Most of the shrubs are cut and har-vested for fuel, including: Anabasis articulata,Thymelaea hirsuta, Echiochilon fruticosum,Gymnocarpos decander and Lycium europaeum.

• Medicinal resources.There is a lengthy list of medicinalplants in the desert areas. Examples of these plantsinclude:Artemisia herba-alba,which is widely used asan anthelmintic in traditional medicine; Herniariahirsute, which is used to prepare a concoction forsore throats; and Emex spinosa, whose boiled leaf isused for the relief of dyspepsia,biliousness and as anappetite stimulant. Seeds of Malva parviflora are usedas a demulcent for coughs and bladder ulcers, andSonchus oleraceus is reported to be useful for livercomplaints, jaundice and as a blood purifier. Salsolakali is used as an anthelmintic, emmenagogic,diuretic and cathartic.

• Foodstuffs. The fruits, flowers or/and vegetativeparts of 33 species in this region are eaten by localinhabitants. Malva parviflora is a popular pot herbin Egypt. Deverra tortuosa and Sonchus oleraceus areeaten as salads. Colchicum ritchii is used as one ofthe numerous ingredients added to a beverageprepared from the rhizomes of ‘Moghat’(Glossostemon bruguieri), usually offered as a tonicat childbirth in Egypt. Mammals such as rats andrabbits, and birds such as quail are eaten by thelocal population

• Traditional materials. Rope is made using Thymelaeahirsuta.

Characterization of Stresses

ENCROACHING DEVELOPMENTS

An almost continuous row of tourist facilitiesstretches along the coastline between Alexandria andEl Alamein, and there are plans to develop the rest ofthe north coast in a similar manner.This has not onlyled to the complete destruction of the habitats onwhich the developments are built, but has also led tothe degradation of the vast areas of habitat surround-ing them. Urban development is taking place alongthe north coast at a very rapid pace, to the extentthat most of the structures found currently along thecoasts of the region have been erected over the lastfive to ten years, and new developments are beingestablished at an accelerated rate.

UNSUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

Traditionally, the native inhabitants of the north coastcultivated small areas of rain-fed winter cereals,olives andfigs.Today,with the growth of local populations and theintroduction of modern machinery,almost all seeminglycultivable land that receives sufficient rain to grow cropsis ploughed, usually to cultivate winter cereals on anannual basis. The areas most intensively cultivated arethose that once were prime habitats for biodiversity.

Much of the western Mediterranean coastal areacannot support intensive agriculture,which is leading todegradation of soil, water and rangeland resources.Ploughing using modern machinery is the most destruc-tive recent development for agriculture.Modern machin-ery indiscriminately and completely removes perennialshrubs,which provide complexity and shelter to wildlife,and flattens the landscape, penetrating through areaspreviously difficult to cultivate by traditional technology,and probably also killing animals in the process.

OVERGRAZING

Unlike the impact of agriculture, which is very easy toobserve even from long distances (as it entails thecomplete removal of natural vegetation), the impact ofgrazing is relatively subtle, but is probably as serious.Sheep and goats severely deplete the natural vegetationand compete directly with native wildlife for the samefood resources. Close examination of areas thatappeared in good condition from a distance reveal thatonly unpalatable woody perennials remain (such asThymelaea hirusta and Artemisia monosperma), whileannuals are heavily browsed.Traditional pastoralism inthe past was more limited than today.The human popu-lation was significantly less and summer grazing oppor-tunities were very limited (thus limiting the possibilityof maintaining excessively large herds).

OVER-CUTTING

There is an increasing demand for fuel wood (largerwoody perennials) by local Bedouin populations.This

56

leads to a notable degradation of habitats, particularlyin areas distant from other sources of energy. Theelimination of large woody perennials (which takemany years to reach maturity) severely reduces thestructural complexity of an already highly exposedenvironment, and has the effect of rapidly acceleratingsoil movement and erosion, reducing retention poten-tial and the chances of annuals and smaller plants togerminate and become established. In fact the removalof woody perennials is the first step in a process ofcomplete transformation of the natural landscape.Thecollection of wild native medicinal plants for com-mercial trade has no formal or informal regulation.The most serious aspect of this practice is that it usu-ally targets rare and localized flora, increasing thedepletion of these vulnerable species.

OVER-HUNTING

Hunting and falconry have had a profound impact onall wildlife in the region.Gazelles and Houbara bustardshave been the most severely affected, as they are themain targets for hunters.The use of off-road vehicles byhunters, the military and Bedouins is a major contribu-tion to the degradation of natural habitats in this region.

INTRODUCTION OF ALIEN SPECIES

The introduction of non-indigenous species of plantsis a widespread practice in many parts of Egypt,although it is recognized throughout the world as oneof the primary factors in the erosion of biodiversity.The Australian Casuarina spp. and Acacia saligna havebeen widely introduced throughout the landscape ofthe north coast, including within the Protected Area,primarily to act as windbreaks and provide wood.Several native alternatives are available. Many othernon-indigenous plant and animal species are expectedto be found in the area when the Nile waters finallyreach the El Nasr Canal. In addition to these maintypes of stresses, other specific stresses such as quarry-ing, pollution and waste disposal, and uncontrolledoff-road vehicular use, are discussed in detail in thesection on the ‘Characterization of stresses’.

EExxiissttiinngg ssttaattee ooff wwaatteerr rreessoouurrcceessThe existing water resources are:

• Groundwater. This is the only significant watersource in the northern part of the area (thecoastal ridge and second ridge).

• Runoff water.This is the main source to the southof Khashm El-Eish and directly on its slopingnorthern surface.

• Nile water. This is provided through extendedcanals.

Groundwater

Precipitation is the main recharge source for ground-water aquifers in the northwestern Mediterraneancoastal zone, and this greatly affects the amount ofwater stored in such aquifers. The Mediterraneancoastal zone of Egypt receives notable amounts ofrainfall, especially in winter. The rainy months arebetween October and February. In summer, no rain isrecorded, while in autumn, occasional heavy rain mayoccur. The rainfall shows a general steady decreasefrom north to south, ranging from 168.9 mm/year atthe coast (Burg El-Arab) to 16.2 mm/year at SiwaOasis to the south. The Omayed Biosphere Reservereceives most of its rainfall in winter.The total is about151.8 mm/year, which accounts for 106.26 × 106 m3

of water. The catchment as a whole would receiveabout 140.415 × 106 m3, which contributes to waterresources within the catchment.About 98 per cent ofthis recharges the groundwater aquifer system duringheavy storms, and 2 per cent is returned back to theatmosphere via evapotranspiration.

WIND

The prevailing wind is from the northwest and is gen-erally cool. However, variable wind directions wererecorded in the different seasons; for example, inspring the area is subjected to the southeast Kamasienwind, which brings severe sand storms and causes vis-ible degradation of the area.The mean monthly valueof wind speed may reach 27.75 km/hr.

GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS

The important groundwater aquifers in the OmayedBiosphere Reserve are classified into the followingcategories: sand-dune accumulations (Holocene);oolitic limestone (Pleistocene); and fissured limestone(Middle Miocene).

GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS

Groundwater in the area is governed chiefly bywater-table conditions. The only source of watersupporting the main water table in the northwesterncoastal zone is localized rainfall directly precipitatedon the coastal plain and the southern tableland.Thefree surface of the main water table has a level at orabout the mean sea level up to about 20 km inland.The main freshwater table forms a thin layer floatingon the main mass of saline water. The hydrologicalrelation between these two water tables is controlledby the well-known principle of saltwater intrusioninto coastal aquifers. Near the sea, the inflow ofseawater maintains a dynamic equilibrium, with acomparatively thin layer of freshwater lying on theupper surface of the salt water. Most of the wellsalong the coastal zone depend on the main watertable for their supply.


Runoff water: hydro-physiography anddrainage pattern

A great number of drainage lines dissect the elevatedtable-land that acts as a major watershed area.Rainwater flows to the north, following the regionalslope of the table-land surface either towards the lowcoastal plain or towards the sea. The remaining rain-water infiltrates through joints to feed the lower lime-stone aquifers. However, the presence of a thin, hardcrust accelerates surface runoff to the north, as in thecase of Khashm El-Eish.The low coastal plain acts asa collecting basin for the rainfall and runoff waterfrom the southern tableland.The coastal ridges help toconserve soil and surface water, and the elongateddepressions act as collecting basins for the runoff waterfrom both the ridges and the table-land.The dominantfactors are evaporation and evapotranspiration, surfacerunoff, and infiltration.

EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Evaporation is the process by which water is transferredfrom a liquid to a gaseous state. It includes evaporationfrom ground surfaces, from open water surfaces, fromshallow water tables and plant transpiration.The totalmean annual evaporation increases towards the south,where desert conditions prevail. The values of freesurface evaporation and potential evapotranspirationincrease to the west along the northwestern Mediter-ranean coast. These values also increase towards thesouth as the temperature becomes higher and the windspeed becomes less than in the coastal areas.

SURFACE RUNOFF

In the northwestern Mediterranean coastal zone, sur-face runoff is generally scant due to the low averageprecipitation. However, some ephemeral streams mayoccasionally flow through channels of dry wadis thatwere already engraved in the table-land during thePleistocene era. Infiltration in the northwesterncoastal zone appears to be as follows: a coefficient of20 per cent in the wadi runoff zone, of 30 per cent inthe plane zone, and of 50 per cent in absorbed waterreaching the lower strata as groundwater.

The OBR hinterland, ‘Moghra Oasis’

The Moghra Formation occupies most of the floor ofthe Qattara Depression. It is made up of sandy andclayey layers of the Lower Miocene. The maximumthickness of the Moghra aquifer is about 930 metersin the northeastern part. Along the MediterraneanSea, the aquifer’s thickness decreases sharply to zerowhere it retrogrades into an impervious, clayey facies.The aquifer is recharged from five different sources:(1) direct rainfall on the aquifer’s outcrops, (2)groundwater seepage from the overlying Marmarica

limestone aquifer, (3) the Mediterranean Sea, (4) theNile Delta aquifer, and (5) upward leakage from theNubian artesian aquifer.

The estimated amount of groundwater flow to thedepression is 3.2 m3/s, while the total evaporationfrom the depression is 7.2 m3/s. Evaporation leads toan increase in the salinity of the groundwater seepageto the Qattara Depression. The near-surface ground-water ranges in salinity from 3.3 g/l around theMoghra Lake at the east, and 38.4 g/l at the centre, toabout 300 g/l in the Sabkha area to the west.

Most of the water samples are of the chloride type(MgCl2 and CaCl2) of marine origin. A few samplesare of the NaHCO3 and Na2SO4 types of meteoricorigin. This indicates either the large influence oforiginal seawater invasion, or the dissolution of salts ofthe Moghra aquifer water from the host rocks or pre-existing salts. In the eastern part, the near-surfacegroundwater table has low salinity. During one of thefield visits, a groundwater sample was collected and itssalinity was found be about 2,400 mg/l, which meantit was useable as livestock drinking water during dryseasons in the Omayed Biosphere Reserve.

Characterization of stresses

In the last few years, the area under investigation haswitnessed many stresses on water resources that haveled to undesirable consequences related to both quan-tity and quality. Summer resorts recently established inthe coastal area have damaged the important fresh-water aquifer (sand-dune accumulation) near thecoast. In addition, groundwater pollution causedeither by saltwater intrusion or by sewage from septictanks or landfills (summer resorts) has been observedin some areas.

Groundwater has become an important source offreshwater in coastal areas because of the increaseddemands placed on potable water supplies. Indis-criminate utilization of groundwater from a coastalaquifer could result in saltwater intrusion thatrenders the aquifer unsuitable as a source of potablewater. As surface and groundwater are integral partsof the same hydrological whole, changes in the salin-ity of one will most likely affect the salinity of theother. While the objective of a saltwater intrusioncontrol program may be to maintain a zero increasein salinity of freshwater resources, this aim is seldomattainable, especially in areas of high water use. Adecrease in the amount of precipitation and numberof rainy days (climatic variability) leads to a decreasein the amount of runoff water and to ecosystemdegradation. In addition, most of the cisterns becomeclogged with transported sediments and their feedingchannels are destroyed by inappropriate activitiesthat have the effect of decreasing their efficiency inharvesting rainwater.

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Description of indigenous, adaptive andinnovative approaches

Local inhabitants of the Omayed Biosphere Reserveuse various methods for groundwater abstraction andrainwater harvesting. Most of these are traditionalmethods, some dating back to Roman times. Surfacerunoff water is collected by applying two principalmethods: cisterns (commonly known as Roman wells)and stony dams. In general, the water harvesting systemdepends on:

• average rainfall• number of rain storms• topography• evapotranspiration• surface roughness• land features.

SSooiillssThe arid climate plays a major part in the formationand persistence of soil cover in the Omayed area.Thescarcity of water for reactions within the soil, for theleaching of soluble components from the soil itself,restricts the extent of soil formation processes. All soilsin the area are considered to be very young andimmature, and as such are highly influenced by thegeological and geomorphological conditions of theirformation.

Soil texture is also controlled by geological andgeomorphological factors. Weathering of theomnipresent marine limestone produce soils of mediumtexture, sandy loam or, less commonly, sandy clay loam,but this tendency can be altered by two main factors.The first is the presence of Aeolian sediments; these aredeposited quite close to their source, and are conse-quently very sandy.The second factor is the sorting ofsediments.The sparseness of the vegetation cover andthe harsh climate cause extensive soil erosion.There isnot enough water enough to carry off most of theeroded material that accumulates in depressions. High-standing surfaces are generally bare, because of the hardparent rock, while soils of medium to high depth areformed by accumulation processes in depressions. Flatareas generally exhibit shallow and often stony soils,whose depth rarely exceeds 30 cm. In depressions, soildepth is proportional to depression level and catchmentsize,and increases progressively towards the centre of thedepression.

Chemical and physical characteristics

In Omayed, soils are characterized by their brightyellowish-brown or orange colours, and sandy andloamy sand textures. The chemical analysis of thesesoils indicates that they have a generally low salt

content. Organic matter and the total nitrogencontent are relatively higher in the cultivated (olivesand figs) soils than in non-cultivated areas. Calciumcarbonate is generally very high in the coastal areas.In general, the physical and chemical characteristicsof the soil exhibit a wide range of variation alongthe topographic gradient (Figure 8.2).

In the case of Omayed Biosphere Reserve, it isnecessary to lay stress on the origin of sand deposits,particularly those due to wind action, and on theirlime content, in the upper horizons. Accordingly,three categories of soils may be distinguishedextremely calcareous soils containing more than 60per cent carbonates; very calcareous soils containingfrom 20 per cent to 60 per cent carbonates andcalcareous soils with less than 20 per cent carbonatebut containing at least some calcareous elements (>2to 3 per cent).

Characterization of stresses

One of the typical environmental stresses in the OBRis land degradation. The approach adopted in thisproject is to view land degradation in general and soildegradation in particular as ‘umbrella’ terms, coveringthe many ways in which the quality and productivityof land and soil may diminish through the activities ofland users and of society at large. It therefore includeschanges to soil quality and the many other ways inwhich the overall integrity of land is challenged byinappropriate use. Land degradation also involvesmany urban and industrial problems, such as pollution,landscape alteration and waste dumping.

Description of indigenous adaptive andinnovative approaches

In the OBR, it has been observed that poverty andlack of water, even for drinking, tend to encouragepeople to focus on immediate needs rather than onbenefits may materialize only in the long term.This isnot to say that poor land users are necessarily landdegraders, while the rich are conservers. Soil con-servation is always viewed as being a cost to the landusers in additional effort and trouble. The traditionalknowledge of the local inhabitants enables them todetect soil moisture and water-holding capacity byvery simple methods. They examine the soil’s sub-surface consistency due to moisture, and the suitabilityof this moistness for agriculture, by rolling up a hand-ful of soil and testing its compactness and stability.Thistraditional method allows an efficient assessment ofsoil moisture before cultivation, a procedure thatenhances soil conservation.

Problems of soil erosion can be halted, and certainpractices can lead to soil enhancement and rebuilding.These options include:


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Figure 8.2 The physical and chemical characteristics of the soils along the different physiographic units in the El Omayed Biosphere Reserve

SiltSand

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• Stopping the overuses that destroy vegetation.• Controlling overgrazing by animals, since the

trampling and browsing diminish the vegetativecover.

• Enhancing rehabilitation techniques by propagatingnative species (preferably multipurpose).

• Implement agro-diversity with care, avoiding thecreation of monocultures.

• Shelter-belts planted perpendicular to the pre-vailing wind direction are effective in reducingthe wind speed at the soil surface (windbreaks).

• Strip farming involves planting crops in widelyspaced rows but filling in the spaces withanother crop to ensure complete ground cover.The ground is completely covered, thus retard-ing water flow so that the moisture soaks intosoil, consequently reducing erosion problems.

Description of Bedouin life and traditionalknowledge

NUMBER OF HUMAN POPULATION AND FAMILIES

The approximate numbers of people living within theproposed biosphere are as follows:

permanently seasonallyCore area(s): None NoneBuffer zone(s): 600 100Transition area(s): 5,500 2,000

The OBR comprises parts of four villages; the popu-lation numbers and number of families in each isshown in Table 8.2.

In the northwestern coastal desert in general, andparticularly in Omayed Biosphere Reserve and itshinterland, the local community is nomadic or semi-nomadic, though there is a trend towards a sedentarylifestyle due to government policy. The localcommunity has always lived in the area, but the shiftfrom a semi-nomadic to a sedentary way of life gotunder way when the Bedouins began to build stonehouses about 30 years ago. However, this does notimply that house dwellers give up grazing. Thepopulation of northern Omayed is the most seden-tary, a fact that is probably encouraged by registered

land holdings.This decreases toward the south, whereup to half of the Bedouins are still semi-nomadic.The community can be characterized by their inher-ited Bedouin traditions and values, which are bothtangible (handicrafts, housing configuration, tools,clothing and the like) and intangible (language,poetry, song, dance).

In the study area we find that traditional knowl-edge provides the basis for day-to-day living and forlocal-level decision making about many fundamentalaspects such as:

• agriculture and husbandry• preparation, conservation and distribution of food• location, collection and storage of water• coping with disease and injury• interpreting meteorological and climatic

phenomena• manufacture of handicrafts and tools• construction and maintenance of shelter• orientation and navigation on land for grazing

activities• management of ecological relations between

society and nature• adaptation to environmental/social change.

Women in Bedouin communities have an importantrole in managing and maintaining the family econ-omy; poverty is alleviated by the raising and selling ofanimals and by the production of wool handicrafts.However, Bedouin traditions are such that womenare prevented from selling the wares they produce.Women are responsible for such daily chores as foodpreparation and carpet weaving, and occasionallycultivating small patches of vegetables and breedingpoultry.

Innovative activities that have recently been devel-oped in the region include:

• running groceries and trading in agriculturalproducts

• selling electrical tools, especially since the intro-duction of electricity in the region

• transportation by trucks or kareta• employment in the private sector• brokers of land and houses.

Characterization of stresses in Bedouin life

In general, Bedouin communities experience stresseither due to harsh natural environmental conditions, towhich their way of life has adapted, or because of theinadequate provision of social services. Stresses may befurther classified according to the spatial or temporalcontext. Communities suffer more during the hot, dryseasons of the year because of water scarcity.They copewith these stresses by, for example,moving their herds to


Village name/ Population/number of families (>30 years)

Omayed/195 1 600/(640)Sahel El Omayed/112 1 280/(490)Shammamah/68 660/(220)Awlad Gebreil/60 465/(120)Total (average) 4 000/(1 470)

Table 8.2 Village population in the OBR

Moghra Oasis, storing water in cisterns, transportingwater by means of water tank trucks and similar strate-gies.Their houses are also built in a naturally insulatedstyle using palm midribs, with windows directedtowards the north. In summer, they use tents installedoutside their homes in the direction of the wind.

In terms of geographic distribution of stresses,Bedouin communities living in the coastal region sufferless, thanks to the better environmental conditions andgreater rainfall.This enables them to establish productiveorchards (particularly figs) and rangelands,and a relativelybetter quality of life. Even during the dry seasons,communities living in the coastal region cope betterwith the difficulties posed by environmental conditionsbecause they have access to such amenities as transporta-tion, potable water via water pipelines and electricity.

IInntteeggrraatteedd mmeetthhooddoollooggyyTASK 1

Assessment of the current status of integration betweenthe conservation of natural resources, communitydevelopment and scientific information (Year 1).

TASK 2

Identification and implementation of practices forsustainable soil and water conservation, aimed atcombating environmental degradation by means of acombination of traditional knowledge and modernexpertise (Years 2–4).

TASK 3

Training and handling of data collection and inventorytechniques, and implementation of proven managementtechnologies (Years 1–3).

TASK 4

Development of income-generating activities basedon the sustainable use of dryland natural resources(years 1–4).

TASK 5

Final reporting (year 4).

CCoonncclluussiioonnss aanndd rreeccoommmmeennddaattiioonnss1. The idea behind the SUMAMAD project is a

much needed plan that, if fully implemented,would indeed demonstrate a good example ofsustainable management in marginal drylands inthe sites selected.

2. The western coastal desert of Egypt,which includesOmayed Biosphere Reserve and its hinterland, is agood example of a marginal dryland and would

represent a perfect site for SUMAMAD-Egypt.3. The main purpose of implementing this project in

the case of the Egyptian site (the OBR and itshinterland) is to identify the basic elements neededfor the sustainable management of a marginaldryland,as a model,and to build on the existing dataon the natural resources, rather than re-creating anentire inventory (reinventing the wheel) that wasdeveloped between 1972 and 2002.

4. The OBR hinterland, extending to the Moghraoasis on the borders of the Qattarra depression,is a very good case for implementation bySUMAMAD-Egypt due to the following factors:– The local community is dependent on a very

sparse and fragile natural vegetation cover forgrazing activities, and consequently the area isprone to overgrazing and degradation, andtherefore needs sound management.

– There is a potential freshwater resource inMoghra oasis that can support and improve thevegetation cover of rangelands. Grazing capac-ity can be increased by developing a rangelanddevelopment scheme, including the possibilityof generating a ‘cultivated rangeland’.

– The proposed rangeland development schemewould be implemented with the involvementof the local community, with grazing activitycarried out on a rotational basis in winter inthe OBR hinterland on the basis of carrying-capacity figures. The local community wouldmove to Moghra oasis in summer to benefitfrom the cultivated rangeland development.The species selected for cultivation should benative and highly palatable.

– The local community could settle in Moghrafor at least five months of the year if sufficienthuman health, transportation and veterinaryservices could be provided.

– In other areas, grazing rotation schemes alsocould be implemented in order to encouragevegetation regeneration and rehabilitation.

5. With regard to water resources, there is an urgentneed for a detailed map of the Roman wells andcisterns,as well as an assessment of water quality andquantity in relation to use.The current project couldmake an ideal contribution through rehabilitationof selected wells,as well as supporting the construc-tion/reconstruction of water catchments areas forwater harvesting.

6. Supporting the quality of life of the local commu-nity by developing traditional practices andincome-generating activities,by involving women,and by providing essential services such as educa-tion, health and transportation would be central tothe successful implementation of the project.

62

Remote sensing technologies nowadays are amongthose advances that provide opportunities unimaginedeven ten or twenty years ago.The increasing resolutionand spectral range of space sensors, together with newmethods of processing satellite images, have provided uswith a powerful instrument for the regular automaticreview and updating of traditional maps and observa-tions. And, moreover, these new methods are muchcheaper than traditional field studies or aerial surveys.While they cannot altogether replace traditional scien-tific research,they can speed processes up and make themmore precise (Table 9.1).

MMeetthhooddss aanndd aapppprrooaacchheessFor our research and for mapping based on satellite-image processing, we use our own TIMAN (ThematicInterpretation and Multi-temporal Analysis) software,which has been designed for thematic decoding ofremote sensing data. The algorithms realized in theprograms are based on Generative Topographic Mapping(GTM) artificial neural nets which are used for dataordination, classification and thematic decoding.

As tools for classifying multi-dimensional data,

63Knowledge and technology in pastoral systems

SSeessssiioonn 22:: TTrraaddiittiioonnaall kknnoowwlleeddggee aanndd mmooddeerrnn tteecchhnnoollooggyy iinn ppaassttoorraall ssyysstteemmss

Space imagery processing for land use and rehabilitation ofecosystems in desertified conditions

German Kust and Dmitriy Dobrynin, Laboratory of Ecological Projecting, Institute of SoilScience, Moscow State University and Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia; and AnatoliySaveliev, Department of Ecological Sciences, Kazan State University, Russia

9

IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn

Remote sensing technology andtraditional land use: possibleinterrelationsTraditional land use in dry regions usually falls intothree main categories: pasturing, arable agriculture andirrigation.These lands have extremely high bioclimaticpotential due to high solar radiation, and tilling the soilis relatively easy compared with boreal or tropical areas;the only obstacle to development is the shortage ofwater resources.

These aspects of dry regions have enabled peopleto use their natural resources throughout history.However, the over-exploitation of drylands – in mostcases in the past as well as at present – has exhaustedsuch natural resources as soils, vegetation, surface andground waters, and biodiversity.The complicated phe-nomena of resource depletion and land degradation indry areas, leading to the economic decay we witnesstoday, have become widely known as desertificationand are increasingly the focus of global scientific andtechnological interest.

Table 9.1 Can remote sensing technology help in the traditional land use practice?

Previous assumptions

Satellite images are less informative than field observations and/or aerial-photos

Remote sensing methods need highly qualified personnel to process and explain them

Satellite images are much more expensive than aerial photos or field studies

Present trends

The level of information required should be judgedin terms of its purposes

Automatization and acceleration of expert assessment is facilitating decision making in thefield of land use

For a number of purposes (especially for middle-and small-scale mapping) space imagery is lessexpensive, and much cheaper in the case of astudy of the ecosystems dynamics

GTM neural nets possess important additional featuresused in most of the algorithms realized in the program.

GTM neural nets make it possible to go beyond thetraditional data classification, in which it is very difficultto determine the position of the classes against eachother in the features area. Data ordination assumesrepresentation of the classes along the plane that takestopological features into consideration.

The adaptability and self-organization features ofGTM neural nets, which do not require pre-calibrationof data,and their capacity to retain stability in the face ofnoise and distortions are valuable features. Because ofthem, such nets are among the best tools for the ordina-tion of the features area and for assessing its structure.

Another major advantage of GTM neural nets is thatthe ordination process can be described as ‘thematicallydirected’.This means that the classes of a neural net canbe determined in such a manner that they particularlyrepresent the phenomena of interest in the thematicarea. Unlike traditional classification methods,‘thematic

directing’ results in the thickening of the classes in thetopological neighbourhood of the features area relatedto the thematic subject of interest.

The ordination structure shows great stability whendealing with changes of initial values. This is anotheradvantage due to the fact that GTM neural nets createordination rather than classification. Thus, suppose aneural net is classifying a multi-channel image. If thespectral brightness of all the channels is linearly changed(by multiplication of the constant and addition of arbi-trary increments), the repeated training of the neural netwill result in the same ordination, even though thecentres of the classes created are substantially shifted.Since it is ordination that is used to interpret thethematic data,this unique specificity of neural nets makesthem reliable tools for mathematical interpretation.Theresults of such processing are replicable even if the initialdata are changed,as it takes place in the processing of theimages obtained in conditions of different brightness oreven in different seasons (Figures 9.1 A–D).

64

Figure 9.1.A Basic space images (Resource 01 No. 3, 150´150 M) 10.05.00 and 17.05.00 (Kalmykia, Russian Federation)

Figure 9.1.B Biomass: neural network revealed by the first image only

Knowledge and technology in pastoral systems

All the raster data used in the program can be dividedinto two large parts: scalar data (continuous values whichcan be used in arithmetic; for example, the brightnessvalues of the spectral bands) and ordinal data,classified orcategorical (for instance, layers with class values).

Initial data are preferably presented in the first formatand processing data in the second.The following typesof images can be created by the program:

• For scalar (continued) layers:– black-and-white single channel images (in grey

levels)– colour synthesized three-channel images (RGB-

synthesis).• For classified layers:

– classified images with the palette defined– classified images with the palette determined

on the neural net ordination of features area.

The visualization of scalar layers is realized by means of

standard software tools (channel choice, histogramtransformation, gamma-correction). However, there issufficient specificity in the presentation of classified data.This refers first to the visualization of the results of theneural net’s ordination. TIMAN makes possible thecreation of thematic pallets based on the neural net’sordination.This method allows visual representation ofcontinued thematic changes in the area.There are few, ifany, other methods that can represent continual naturalsystems on the maps without using artificial boundaries.

The creation of pallets is based on the separation of‘kernels’ among the classes of neural nets.These are theclasses in the area of features that have a pronouncedtheme, and are related to the particular colours of thethematic legend. In the next stage, the program assignsintermediate colours to the other classes, using interpo-lation based on their order in the neural net’s ordina-tion. This makes it possible to visualize the spatialtransfers of thematic classes from one point to another.The user has freedom in thematic orientation and

65

Figure 9.1.C Biomass: neural network revealed by the second image only

Figure 9.1.D Biomass: neural network revealed by both images

66

‘kernel’ choice and is thus given powerful tools to createthematic map models in accordance with his or herexpert knowledge and additional data.This method alsoallows for the use of consecutive approximations tocreate the cartographic model of the territory that bestcorresponds to the total available information.

The following procedures can be used to obtainderived layers:

• conversion of vector thematic maps• calculation of main components for the whole of

the scalar layers and their saving as new layers• filter use for scalar layers• use of the filters based on wavelet transformation

for scalar layers• calculation of derived layers of local characteristics of

scalar layers based on GLCM (grey level contiguitymatrix).

The procedure for neural net training includes:

• the selection of the layers used for training• the selection of the area part and thematic orienta-

tion of the neural net• the selection of the neural net features• the selection of the parameters for neural net

training.

As a result of neural net classification,each image pixel isrelated to a particular class of the calibrated neural net, sothat it is described with the distribution of probabilitiesof different thematic objects.Thematic decoding is usedto determine the boundaries of these classes, so that theclassification obtained calls for the following processing(above all, the context (spatial) dependencies of thematicobjects should be used for this processing). In TIMANsoftware the following tools for context re-processing ofthe classification results are available:

• object creation using random Markov fields• classification of vector objects (parsell-wide

classification)

• re-processing of the classification results using alocal window

• generalization of thematic objects created.

A TIMAN programme makes it possible to convert thecreated thematic objects into vector form for transmis-sion to the GIS.The user can select the objects to betransmitted in accordance with the legend. A subjecttopology is created (if ‘islands’ are present in the object,their boundaries are included in the list of object bound-aries).The user can specify the size limit of the object tobe vectorized. Objects that have a smaller size are notprocessed and hence not transmitted to the GIS.

The decoding features of land structures can beselected on the basis of the selection of specific changesof brightness related to these structures on the image.They are known as structure units of the image.Bound-aries and lines are the main structure units of the images,which do not refer to particular land structures.Bound-aries are delimited by the level of brightness.Thus darkobjects on a light background and light objects on adark background both form boundaries. Lines aredefined as objects whose section at any point contains asmall (not large) number of pixels belonging to theobject.The term ‘small’ or ‘not large’ reflects the uncer-tain nature of the definition, because even large linearunits with rather large ‘sections’ can represent linearstructures belonging to a smaller scale than the imageitself.The scale problem is one of the most important inthe selection and identification of the structural imageunits, and we therefore paid most attention to scaleproblems when developing the TIMAN software.Besides the boundaries and lines, their prevalent direc-tions should be specified at each image point. Diagramsshowing the probability estimate of the relevant direc-tion at each particular image point are used for thispurpose.The following procedures can be used for theselection of structure units:

• filter use• use of wavelet transformation• use of parametrical transformation.

Figure 9.2.A Desertification/land degradation map of Russia (original scale 1:2,500,000), part of Kalmykia:stages of the space imagery processing: initial picture, contour, automatic classification

Knowledge and technology in pastoral systems

RReessuullttss aanndd ddiissccuussssiioonnOur research on the application of TIMAN remotesensing technology for traditional land-use practiceand science has been conducted in various fields:

• desertification assessment, mapping and control• preparation of basic maps for land-use policy (soils,

vegetation, geomorphology, waters)• up-to-date quality and quantity control• correction of prognoses of soil and plant dynamics

on the basis of present meteorological conditions• assessment of the interrelations of the ecosystem

components and their reflection in the mainproperties of land use (integral ecological risksand trends, recommendations for the land usepolicy of the area)

• fire prevention.

A few examples of the usage of the technology arepresented below.

DDeesseerrttiiffiiccaattiioonn aasssseessssmmeenntt,,mmaappppiinngg aanndd ccoonnttrroollFigure 9.2 (A–C) shows parts of the desertification/land degradation map of the southern belt of the Russ-ian Federation, which has been created on the basis ofspace imagery processing. For this purpose, experts inthe state of desertification in different key regionsworked closely with specialists in remote sensing andTIMAN technology. Following this cooperation,special algorithms (visualized as the net of classes) foreach region were created (Figure 9.3 A–C) and used forautomatic mapping procedures.

PPrreeppaarraattiioonn ooff bbaassiicc mmaappss ffoorrtthhee llaanndd uussee ppoolliiccyy..Preparation of some pages of the State Soil map(1:1,000,000) was undertaken with the help of interac-tive technology. A map that had initially been initiallycreated in the 1970s had to be updated without incur-ring the high costs of field work. In the first stage of ourwork,we created a first-step net. After test classification,specialists in neural technology pointed out the mostquestionable key plots to soil scientists,who carried outspecial field work on these key areas. On this basis, theneural net algorithm were calibrated more precisely andused for mapping.A few examples in Figure 9.4 showthat the revised map showed more detail of the contourbase as well as of soil classification.

67

Figure 9.2.B Desertification/land-degradation map ofnorthwest Pre-Caspian Region (original scale 1:2,500,000)

Figure 9.2.C Desertification/land degradation map ofsouth of western Siberia

(original scale 1:2,500,000)

Figure 9.3.A Determination algorithm for desertificationmap: landscape classes for Northern Caspian region

CCoonncclluussiioonnThe technologies that are now available for processingsatellite images can be used in various ways to assistland use in arid regions.Special algorithms based on theTIMAN methodology of neural networks, oncecreated, could be used for repeated thematical mappingof the same territory on a regular basis.This makes itpossible to effectively monitor natural and anthro-pogenic ecosystems at different scales and at muchlower costs than traditional methods of mapping andassessment.

68

Figure 9.3.B Determination algorithm for desertificationmap: landscape classes for southern part of western Siberia

Figure 9.3.C Determination algorithm for desertificationmap: landscape classes for Baikal region

Figure 9.4 Examples of the State Soil Map (original scale of 1:1,000,000 using ‘Resource 01’ satellite and interactive technology)

Left: part of a map created using conventional technology, showing twenty-five soil classes.Right: the same part of the revised map with more a precise and detailed countour base, showing forty-seven classes.

NNootteeThe colour figures originally prepared for this paperprovide more precise information, which is not fullyrevealed in black and white. However, the figuresshown here do provide adequate visualization todemonstrate the utility of processing space images.

1998 and 2002 can serve as examples of the measuresincorporated in the national programme.These projectswere carried out by the National Institute of Deserts,Flora and Fauna (NIDFF) of the Ministry of NatureProtection of Turkmenistan, with support from theSecretariat of the UNCCD, UNDP/UNSO, GTZ andthe Regional Environment Centre of Central Asia(RECCA). The given projects are important examplesof the realization of Agenda 21, as well as programmesto combat desertification in the Aral Sea basin.

In the course of developing these programmes forparticipatory project planning and management tech-niques at the NIDFF, a pilot project was conceived thathas since evolved into an independent community-based resource management project in three pilot areasin Turkmenistan. For the first time ever in Turkmen-istan, participatory forms of project planning andimplementation are being tested in partnership withpeople in rural areas – under the extremely difficultconditions prevailing in a society that had been shapedby a planned economy for many decades.

Since the start of the project it has already becomepossible to plan and implement, together with thestakeholders, concrete measures to control desertifica-tion (such as dune stabilization, improvement ofpastureland, use of solar energy in shepherds’ housesand the establishment of small gardens for vegetablesand medical plants).

In Bahardok valley,where 500 km of railway and theAshgabat–Dashoguz motorway cross the Karakumdesert from north to south, pilot projects are beingcarried out on the stabilizing and reforestation ofmobile sand dunes on an 8 ha area. Also, thirty solargenerating plants have been installed to provide powerto raise water from wells and to light shepherds’ housesin the remote deserted pastures. The basic aims of theprojects were:

• to make possible the adoption of independent solu-tions for sustainable development by communitiesand groups of cattle-breeders

• to improve production systems so as to increaseproductivity in accordance with complexapproaches to the development of rural regions

• to provide alternative means of livelihood inorder to reduce the stress on land resources.


Traditional and modern technologies for sustainable development of Turkmenistan

Agadzhan G. Babaev and Chary O. Muradov, Institute of Deserts, Ministry of NatureProtection of Turkmenistan,Ashkhabad,Turkmenistan

10

At the United Nations Conference on Environmentand Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, andat the World Summit on Sustainable Development inJohannesburg in 2002, action plans for the achievementof sustainable development were adopted.

In 2000 Turkmenistan developed the Support ofAgenda 21 Process in Turkmenistan project, with theobjective of developing a clearly defined mechanismto realize sustainable development ideals.The projectalso aimed to assist the government in setting out thebasic rules of the programme of the President ofTurkmenistan, Saparmurat Turkmenbashi, on theenvironmental principles of sustainable developmentin the country.

The concept of sustainable development means theadoption of new approaches to integrate ecologicalquestions in all aspects of regional and branch plan-ning and management; that is, the development of acountry through self-organization within a frameworkfor external support that warns of any likely transitioninto a state of irreversible environmental degradation.

In Turkmenistan there are opportunities for furtheranalyses of socio-economic development, such as iden-tifying what has already been done, what is left to do,and how to move further along a chosen strategiccourse. In December 1999 a large-scale programme,The Strategy of Socio-economic Reforms in Turk-menistan for the Period to 2010,was adopted.The proj-ect is now being extended to 2020, and the strategy forthis will be open to national discussion.

In 1995 Turkmenistan ratified the United NationsConvention to Combat Desertification and began workon its National Action Programme on CombatingDesertification (NAPCD), which was completed in1996–7. This programme lays down important scien-tific, theoretical and practical principles not only toovercome the country’s pending ecological crisis butalso to convert the degraded lands into biologicallyenriched ones.

The parties to the Convention undertake to encour-age and use traditional technologies, knowledge andknow-how, to seek to adapt them for wider use, and tointegrate them with modern technology, thus providingan opportunity for local populations to receive directbenefits from any commercial use in the fight againstdesertification. Projects that were carried out between

The current means of earning a living and of usingresources cannot provide a reasonable livelihood forpopulations in regions that are suffering desertificationand droughts.The principal means of livelihood is basedon agricultural production, and does not provide a suit-able basis for sustainable use. Poverty is one of the basicconsequences of desertification.Therefore,measures areneeded to restore and improve agricultural systems toallow sustainable and rational use of rangelands as wellas small oasis agriculture and alternative systems for thewell-being of both people and the environment.

There are pasture massifs throughout the Karakumdeserts. Arborous shrub and grassy vegetation extendover almost all the desert areas and are used for pastures.Where there are no fresh underground water sources,cattle breeders and shepherds make the best use ofsurface runoff by means of collection and storage.Accumulated water is used not only for sheep andcamels but for drinking purposes and to satisfy theeconomic and everyday needs of the population.Wherethere is no system of collection but where the soil issaturated by means of precipitation, melons are grown.

New technologies that improve living conditions areavailable, most notably solar energy units, but they arenot yet readily affordable. For instance, the installationof solar units for a small house in a remote desert regionwill cost at least US$10,000. At the same time,however,traditional means of supplying electricity to small andremote desert settlements also demand large invest-ments.Technological development is gradually movingtowards a solution to this problem.Wind farms are alsoproving their value and are being established in manystates.According to the American Wind Energy Associ-ation, the production cost per kWh of electrical energyby a wind station is 3.3–6.0 cents. The same energyobtained through biomass costs 5.8–11.6 cents.This isrelatively expensive compared with the production ofelectrical energy by burning natural gas (3.9–4.4 cents),oil (4.0–5.0 cents) or coal (4.8–5.5 cents). A hydro-electric power station costs 5.1–11.3 cents per kWh,while for solar batteries the average cost is 12.0 cents.

In other words, the cost of electrical energyproduced by alternative methods is already beginningto come down to the cost of generation by hydro-carbon fuel.The lack of infrastructure is the principalconstraint on the development of new and alternativeenergies.A new industry clearly needs to be created.

Solutions for the further development of agriculturein Turkmenistan include the wider use of desertedpastures, collection and storage of atmospheric precip-itation for the watering of cattle, and the application ofrenewable sources of energy in agriculture.

Analysis of the land-tenure structure in Turk-menistan shows that 90 per cent of the territory is char-acterized by desert landscape, serving as ranges for sheepand camels all year round. About 2 million ha fall withinthe category of irrigated lands, which are concentrated

in oases. Nationally, the range economy is the mostprofitable and least labour-intensive economic activity.Across a considerable area, however, the rangelands haveexperienced desertification and now have low foddercapacity.Thus, of 39.5 million ha of ranges, 69 per centare degraded, 37 per cent are not irrigated and 5 percent have been transformed into bare, moving sands.About 10 million sheep currently graze on the range-lands; it is possible to increase the crop capacity two orthreefold and considerably increase sheep populationwhile conducting appropriate ameliorative techniques.

Problems of water supply and irrigation are keyissues in the sustainable development of settlements inthe deserts of Turkmenistan. Annual precipitation gen-erally varies between 100 and 150 mm, mainly as rain,but evaporation exceeds precipitation by about 20times. Turkmenistan thus has a great deficiency offresh water. Rivers have unstable runoff and they donot by any means satisfy the country’s needs. Hence,the search for additional sources of water supply todevelop the country’s economy is particularly urgent.

In Turkmenistan,the decisive role in climate-formingis played by solar radiation and climatic circulation.Thebasic climatic features – the country has the greatestextremes in the CIS region in terms of air and soiltemperatures, extreme air dryness in the summer periodand also great weather contrasts in the cold and even inthe warm period – are defined by these factors.Becauseof the clear skies over the country, the influx of radiationin summer is so great that atmospheric circulation isentirely secondary to the primary climate-formingfactor – radiation – which defines the characteristics ofits geographical location.

The duration of sunlight in the east of the countryaverages 2,800–3,100 hours a year, decreasing in lit-toral regions. In all, radiation generates around145–163 kcal/cm2 of heat a year. Of this total, 65–70per cent is the result of direct radiation. In many yearsthe average air temperatures in July reach 28-32 °C,with an absolute maximum of 50 °C and an absoluteminimum of –33 °C.

Active participation by the local population in carry-ing through the National Action Programme onCombating Desertification in Turkmenistan is a keyfactor in nature protection.About 10,000 people live on‘Erbent’ livestock farm, in Central Karakum.The socio-economic conditions there are directly related to desertecosystems.The population have experience of deserti-fication processes and therefore, from our perspective,their ecological understanding has a great role to play inthe conservation and integrity of the environment.

For several years the Institute of Deserts, togetherwith the German Agency on Technical Cooperation(GTZ), has been holding consultations and seminars ondesertification problems.The Institute’s staff have led anumber of seminars in order to extend the consultativeservice of the Institute, both in Turkmenistan and in

70

foreign countries. New trends of research using GIStechnology have been discovered and special attentionhas been paid to the socio-economic aspects of deserti-fication in Turkmenistan using PRA (participatoryrapid/rural/relaxed appraisal) methods.

When Turkmenistan gained independence, a newadministrative post was created that combined the func-tions of the leader/headman of a peasant group and ofan elected local administrator. The same person is alsothe leader of the gengeshi, a council of active andrespected people elected by a village population totackle issues of rural life.

The etrap (administrative area) of Rukhabat in Turk-menistan’s Akhal velayat (province) has been designatedas a centre for solar power generation, specially createdto achieve optimum ways of sustainable development inthe rural setting,making use of current achievements inscience and technology.

For example, one of the mine wells has beenequipped with a solar-powered water pump. This isintended to help raise water from small debit wells andunderground sources of fresh water with a depth of upto 30 m. It is driven by an electric motor with aconstant supply – 36 or 110 V. The pump is notable forthe simplicity of its construction and operation. It is notseriously affected by water salinization or the presenceof sand in the water.

The solar water pump installation consists of aphotoelectric unit with a power of 360 W, a water-pump device with a rate of 1.0 m3/h and a storagebattery with a capacity of 125 ampere-hour.

The photoelectric unit has an assembly moduleconstruction that includes twelve modules of the type‘START-BS-5-01’, with a frame and support. The

assembling and dismantling of such a constructioncreates jobs. The support frame has hinge joints withprops, set over a concrete base. The photo panels areoriented southwards, and the hinge joint makes it possi-ble to make seasonal corrections of the inclined angleof the plane of the panels (zenith orientation). Thephotoelectric unit only requires one technician to carryout maintenance and correction of the inclined angle.The photoelectric unit outlet provides two outputs of12V and 36V (or 110V) to charge the battery and thepump.The pump provides ecological protection of thewell as it prevents flows and merging of the fresh andsalt water in the well. More fresh water can be collectedfrom the water-receiving part of the well, which isprovided by a special watershed device.

Where photoelectric units and storage batteries areused they can be connected to domestic electricalequipment such as televisions, refrigerators, radios, lightsand so on. Solar installations are therefore of criticalimportance for shepherds’ farms and for the sustainabledevelopment of small settlements in the desert.They areguaranteed to have a long working life (more thanfifteen years) and energy can be accumulated in batter-ies for use at night. These advantages, as well as theecological benefits of solar power, confer an incon-testable advantage to these installations in remote desertregions.The project implemented with funds providedby a grant from the Regional Environment Centre ofCentral Asia (RECCA) for the provision of electricenergy from alternative energy sources in remote desertsettlements will create jobs for the local population inthe restoration of degraded pastures.

Increasing the fodder yield from pastures is one of aseries of measures directed at the intensification ofdesert cattle-breeding. The efficiency of phyto-meliorative action lies not only in the higher fodderyield,which has increased up to 1.2–2.0 t/ha,but also inadditional profits.The net profit obtained from 100 haof improved pastures is three to five times greater thancan be obtained from untreated ranges.To repay the costof creating pastures that will last for decades will takearound four or five years. The long-term pasturescreated will continue to preserve high productivity andgenerate higher profits for twenty or twenty-five yearsafter the costs have been paid off.

Interviews with local inhabitants of the remotedesert settlements reveal how interested they are inparticipating in activities to improve pastures as well asother measures to combat desertification, such asproviding a power supply to their settlements. Thewomen are particularly keen to lighten the burden ofhousehold chores. As projects were carried out, thelocal inhabitants of the remote settlements located 120km north of Ashgabat were convinced of the opportu-nity of improving their socio-economic conditions.TheNIDFF of Turkmenistan has received the go-ahead forfurther measures within the framework of the UN


PPEESS--336600 WW

CCUU PP

DDEEAAWWPPDD

GG ((WWSS))

SSBB112255 AA--hh

WW

36 V 12 V

Figure 10.1 Block scheme of solar water-pump device

PES = photoelectric station;CU = control unit of WPD;WPD = water-

pump device;P= protector for SB;DEA = domestic electrical appliances

(TV set,refrigerator etc.); SB = storage battery; G = gaudan (WS-water

storage);W = well.

Convention to Combat Desertification. The AarhusConvention also evokes public participation in decisionmaking concerning the further development of cattlebreeding industries in desert communities as well asenvironmental protection.

A number of priority projects to combat desert-ification in the Aral Sea Basin have been developedand submitted for consideration to the InternationalFund of the Aral Sea (IFAS) jointly with westerndonors, including the Global Ecological Fund and theWorld Bank.To extend the consultative service of theNIDFF, an English version of a book on the maintrends of its activities, with recommendations on therational use of desert territories for industrial con-sumers has been published (Desert Problems andDesertification in Central Asia, Springer, 1999).

On the basis of the recorded results of the project,RECCA has prepared a brochure entitled ‘Sustainabledevelopment of the remote settlements in deserts’; this isissued in Turkmen, Russian and English-languageeditions, and may be of interest to all countries sufferingfrom desertification.

In Turkmenistan in 1999 a company called Gekgushak (‘Green belt’) was established and has developedwide-ranging activities for the creation of a protectiveforested zone around the capital of Ashgabat and othercities and centres of the etrap.These forests are soundlyestablished and capable of protecting small settlementsagainst hot and dusty winds in desert conditions.Theyalso create a favourable microclimate and adorn the land-scape.Within the last few years more than 50 millionconiferous, deciduous, fruit and other trees have beenplanted.

Other effective measures in the field of natureprotection and sustainable development have beencarried out in Turkmenistan.One of them was to supplygas to all the small settlements around the country.Thishas considerably decreased anthropogenic pressure; thenumber of bushes cut down for fuel has fallen sharply,while the processes of natural forestation and the accel-erated restoration of natural pastures are producingimproved ecological conditions in the country.

The President of Turkmenistan has approved thedecision for a new state development project inCentral Karakum and the creation of Lake Turkmen,which is part of the huge programme of developmentin the country for the twenty-first century. The lakewill have a surface area of 3,460 km² and a capacity of132 km³. Initial estimates indicate that the project willcost approximately US$5 billion over the projectedtwenty years of its implementation.

The Karakum desert curves around from south andeast of the Karakum river and from the north byAmudarya.From the deserted areas in the south,numer-ous large and small drainage/collection systems such asMain Murgap, Jar,Tedjen, Ashgabat and Gekdepe wateran area of 450,000 ha of pastures in Karakum.

The two main systems for the collection of drainagewaters will be built in the first stage of the constructionproject.Their combined reach will be equal to morethan 1,080 km.Water will accumulate in Karashor inCentral Karakum,where there is currently a huge natu-ral depression whose base is 25 m below sea level. Itslength exceeds 100 km with a width in places of 12 km,and it can thus store up to 140 km³.This will minimizethe cost of reservoir construction.

Expert calculations indicate that there will be animprovement in the quality of water in lower Amudaryaand a melioration in the condition of land areas inDashoguz velayat, resulting in an overall rise of 25 percent in crop production and an improved water supplyfor the population.The projects described above willhave enormous value for further agricultural develop-ment in the country, for the substantial growth of waterreserves and their secondary use to meet the economicneeds of an Aral zone facing ecological crisis.

Lake Turkmen will be provided with up to 10 km³of water per year, which will drastically improve andmeliorate the status of irrigated grounds throughoutvirtually all the country. Currently 1,800,000 hectaresof land are irrigated and the creation of the lake willincrease the irrigated area to 2,250,000 hectare in thelong-term. Lake Turkmen will provide a powerfulimpetus to the development of fishing facilities in thecountry. It will also have an effect on the climate andwill certainly become an important factor in theimprovement of the ecological system, not onlynationally but throughout the region.

This international seminar takes into account theissues evoked by the sustainable development of aridecosystems combined with the use of modern tech-nologies. This workshop is taking place in Russia,which has a certain experience in the development ofmethods to produce rain artificially, including experi-ments to use artificial atmospheric precipitation forwatering purposes.

Transforming clouds into rain is big business, thedemand for which is growing all over the world.Thisartificial rain maintains field fertility and provides areaswith water. For Turkmenistan such artificial rains couldsolve irrigation problems and allow the planting of greentrees in the Kopetdag foothills. Once there have beensuccessful experiments on the use of artificial rain in thefoothills, this experience can be expanded for sustainabledevelopment of dry agriculture in Turkmenistan and inother Central Asian countries.

In order to raise awareness among the population ofthe issues associated with combating desertification, theNIDFF is creating a versatile Natural Museum of Turk-menistan Deserts in Karakum. The purpose of themuseum is to function as an original nature-study labo-ratory of the wild desert, combining the functions of anatural park for ecological purposes and for tourism andrecreation. The museum will display the traditional

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methods that have been in use for centuries in the devel-opment of desert resources, and that were practised inancient times by the Turkmen people. It is an originalway of depicting the way of life of desert peoples in thepast and present, and the extent of the combat againstdesertification will also be demonstrated.

Such experience in educational work on protectingnature in deserts and arid ecosystems in Turkmenistanhas been conducted over many years.The Museum ofNature was created in 1948 in Repetek State BiosphereReserve,and is now part of the World Network of Bios-phere Reserves (WNBR). The museum houses anddisplays collections of many kinds of the butterflies,insects, poisonous arachnids and snakes found in thereserve, and of reptiles, birds and mammals that livethere.The sandy landscapes of Repetek have no equiv-alent in the world and thus, quite rightly, the museumenjoys international status.

The Scientific Information Centre of the Inter-state Sustainable Development Commission ofcountries in the Aral Sea Basin (SIC ISDC), based inAshgabat with branches in all countries concerned,has an important role to play in decisions aboutregional and interstate ecological problems, espe-cially in Central Asian countries.The need for inte-grated processes to agree on decisions in theenvironment and development field on the basis ofeconomically effective, socially fair and sustainablyresponsible use of the environment is recognized.

The ministers for nature protection in the CentralAsian countries initiated the coordinating role of the SICISDC as a regional system to support decisions forsustainable development. Since reliable information is anecessary prerequisite for coming to valid, consistentdecisions,the SIC has been given a mandate to create andmaintain an extensive database of ecological, economicand social data at the national and regional levels.

Today the SIC ISDC is the regional centre fordeveloping the Central Asian system of support forreaching consensus on decisions in the field of envi-ronmental protection and sustainable development.The work will be carried out with support fromUNEP, UNDP and the Asian Bank of Development.


BABAEV, A.G. (ed.): Desert problems and desertificationin Central Asia: the researches of the Desert Institute.Berlin, Heidelberg and New York, Springer, 1999.

GRIBANOV, I. In twenty years oil may prove to bean unnecessary resource for anybody. Internet‘RusEnergy’, 2001.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF TURK-MENISTAN, RIO+10: National review.Ashgabat, 2002.


global ecology in Mongolia, and its conservation hasbecome an important planetary issue. More than 90per cent of this landlocked country has a sharply con-tinental climate and comprises arid and semi-aridareas with water deficits. The dryland ecosystem ofMongolia must therefore provide extraordinary scopefor conservation (Figure 11.1).

The Mongolian drylands extend for 400 km inwidth and about 2,000 km in length, and occupy 41.3per cent or 647 km2 of the republic’s territory, of which19.5 per cent is in the Gobi desert and 21.5 per cent isin semi-desert (Sarantuya, 1995). Desertificationprocesses in the Gobi desert move predominately fromnorth to south, and are notably manifest in a sparselypopulated, extra-arid tract along the frontier. Droughtin the Gobi desert tends to occur annually .

Human-induced land degradation and desertifica-tion is relatively intensive in half of the northern arid


Integration of traditional knowledge and modern technologies for the sustainability of dryland ecosystems in Mongolia

Baast Oyungerel, Institute of Geography, Mongolian Academy of Sciences

11

Arid and semi-arid regions make up 48.8 million km2,34 per cent of the world’s terrestrial surface.The drylandsare located between 15° and 45° in the northern hemi-sphere, and 13° and 22° in the southern hemisphere.Intensification of the desertification process is extreme insome areas. Conservation, adequate use and restorationof natural resources are important issues affecting allzones and regions, from the tundra to the tropics.

A quarter of the planet, or 38 million km2, is subjectto desertification, and more than a hundred countries(with 17 per cent of the world’s population) are deeplyconcerned about this problem. Significant activities ofinternational importance are being organized in orderto identify and conserve dry land ecosystems, and tomake better and more appropriate use of their resourceswithin the framework of national and internationalagreements.

The dryland ecosystem is the main concern of

Figure 11.1 Mongolia

International borderProvincial borderNational capitalProvincial capitalRailwayRoad

areas.Oases in desert areas are very sensitive ecosystems.Urbanization and agricultural development threaten theoases’ ecosystem with a decreasing groundwater table,intensified land erosion and emerging salinized area,with the negative impacts of water and wind adding tothe process. In Ekhiin gol,Bayan tooroi and Khurshuud,which suffer the same problem, large areas are seriouslyaffected by desertification (Dash, 2000).

Recent surveys reveal that 76 per cent of drylandsshow initial signs of desertification: 20 per cent are ata medium level, 3 per cent at an intensive level and 1per cent at a very intensive level of desertification. InMongolia, 42,200 km2 of the land area has sandycover, of which 3,800 km2 has appeared since 1940.Atotal of 96.5 per cent (42,175 km2) of the sand area isin Gobi, while 3.5 per cent (1,527.5 km2) is in thenorth; the Khangai landscape and sanded area is equalto 2.79 per cent of the territory of Mongolia. Illegallogging of saxaul trees in 125,000 hectares of forest hasresulted in the degradation of 38,000 hectares of land.The deterioration of 4.8 per cent of sanded areas,originally caused by wind erosion, is mainly due tofrequent drought and inappropriate human activitysuch as bad pastureland management and fuelwoodcollection.

Over the last seventy years, livestock numbers inMongolia have increased by 44 per cent, while thearea of pastureland has decreased by a fifth. Between1970 and 2000, the biodiversity of flora in the drylandpastures declined from 33 to 18, and the yield from 1ha of land dropped from 320 to 230 kg. During thelast decade, the increase of livestock was recorded as7.7 million or 28.9 per cent, while the area of pas-tureland decreased by 5–6 million hectares. In the last

quarter century, yield production dropped to between19 and 44 per cent, and 77.8 per cent of the entireland has been degraded by inappropriate farming thatopened the land to water and wind erosion, and by theimportation of damaging technologies and herdspecies. Around 46.5 per cent of the state’s rotationalland has been affected by soil erosion. More specifical-ly, it has become commonplace to leave uncultivatedthe land that becomes unusable for producing crops;this amounts to 28.5 per cent of the total. Almost 70per cent of this land suffers from heavy soil erosionand is not subject to crop rotation.

There are many roads that criss-cross the moun-tains and steppes and have ravaged more than 800,000hectares of pastureland. Thus, pastureland with apotential feeding resource of 1.9 million tones isdestroyed due to the presence of roads.The length ofderivative land is 200,000 km. A further large area ofland, 5 million m³, suffers degradation due to theextraction of minerals for geological research, wheremines and excavations are not restored when produc-tion ends. Since 1960, chemicals such as HCH phos-phoric zinc powder, NaCl, butyl ether and granozanehave been extensively used to fight rodents and weedsin pastureland.

The meteorological data of the last sixty years indi-cate that the driest weather was observed in the mid-1940s and 1980s. Drought in Gobi seems to occuronce every three years. During the period 1960–90,the Gobi region was characterized by a decreasedamount of precipitation.

Erosion of soil in dry areas is caused by wind andwater erosion, with dust storms in the Mongoliandryland lasting for thirty to sixty days. The longest

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Figure 11.2 Dryland ecosystems of Mongolia

1 High mountain

2 Dry steppe

3 Desertified steppe

4 Semi-desert

5 Desert

2 2

2 22

3

3

1

5

4

4

sandstorms occur in the Great Lakes depression, andmay last for 120 days. Since 1960 the number of dayswith sandstorms has tripled, which is evidence ofintensified land degradation.Therefore, ensuring thesustainable management of dry ecosystems is acrucial issue for Mongolia.

Not only is there a failure to invest in new methodsor know-how for pastureland management, but there isalso a disregard for methods that use traditional knowl-edge,and this despite the fact that the principles of natureprotection and development – the conservation,restora-tion and use of natural resources – are deeply rooted inthe local knowledge of people of every nation, includ-ing the Mongolians.Mongolians have a long tradition ofnatural resources management and rotational utilizationof pastureland.The latter prevents the erosion of grazinglands, as it keeps the springs clean and allows the animalsto survive while maintaining their strength.The Mongo-lian tradition of nature conservation can be divided intothe strands discussed below.

• The reforestation tradition. The Mongolian peoplehave inherited a strong, ancient tradition ofnature and pastureland protection, and the know-how to plant trees and bushes to create gardens.This experience is now of great importance.However gardening has become more difficultand complicated because of the dry climate andfragile soil. Over the last twenty years, we haveachieved some success in regions where the cli-mate is very dry. For instance, a strip of forest wasplanted with saxaul, wild olive, tamarisk, elm, sil-ver aspen and karagana bush to protect againstsand movements in the Khukh-Morit soum ofGobi-Altai province and Zamiin-Uud soum of

East-Gobi province. Experience has shown theeffectiveness in combating land degradation ofplanting indigenous trees and vegetation that areused to the local climate.

• The nature conservation tradition. Mongolians have anancient tradition of protecting and preserving thebeautiful nature and landscape.The ancient legalmanuscript called Khalkh Juram ordered the protec-tion and preservation of fourteen mountains,including Bogd khaan, Khan-Khentii, Khugnu-Khaan and Zorgol-Khairkhan Mountains. In 1778,the Bogd khaan Mountain was designated a reserveand strictly protected area (it and its surroundingarea are now included in the World Network ofBiosphere Reserves).Today, 13.4 per cent of thecountry’s territory (in fifty-four areas covering 15.6million hectares) has official protected area status.National parks with a typically dry climate includethe Great Gobi and the Small Gobi StrictlyProtected Areas (SPA), Lake Uvs basin SPA, LakeKhan-Us, Lake Khan-Khukhii and Lake KhyargasNational Parks, the Bulgan River, Sharga-Mankhaa, Zagiin-Us, Ergeliin reserve, Ikh-Nart,Toson-Khustai, Yakhi-Lake, Suikhent NationalParks.The Great Gobi and the Lake Uvs SPAs havebeen included in the World Network of BiosphereReserves (Figure 11.3).

• Traditions related to religion and religious beliefs.TheMongolian tradition of nature protection is linkedto Buddhist practices as well as to the fact thatMongolians sanctify and worship their motherland.For instance, it was specifically prohibited to dig upthe land, kill animals or cut down vegetation onsacred land.The Mongolians believed that if thisunwritten law rule was violated, nature would


Figure 11.3 Protected areas in dryland ecosystems of Mongolia

1

23

3

4

4

5

5

6

61 High mountain

2 Steppe

3 Dry steppe

4 Desertified steppe

5 Semi-desert

6 Desert

unleash drought, flood and fire to punish theculprits.

• Traditions connected with everyday life and customs.Cattle breeders have a surprising ability to predictthe weather.They are able to forecast tomorrow’sweather for the day-to-day management of thepasture and also predict it over a longer period.Thus they are used to resolving many everydayproblems, and these traditions are still being used.

• Pasture management practices. The proper use ofpastureland is one method of protecting the dry-land ecosystem. The main characteristic of thistraditional method is the change of pasturelandover the four seasons, which is widely practisedby cattle breeders. The pasture management ofthe cattle breeders, used in summer and autumnis called the otor method, and the grazing groundsare changed twice, in winter and spring. Theadministration, distribution and use of pasture-land was very important among the Mongolians.Throughout the history of Mongolia, livestockbreeding was the basis of economic life, and it washeavily dependant on precipitation and thegrowth of vegetation on the pastureland.

The main purpose of state policy for the protection of thedry climate regional zone is to protect its natural wealthand fertility,which are the basis for the sustainable devel-opment of the country, to halt the damage that threatensthe ecosystem and to remove the causes of desertifica-tion.The ultimate aim is to improve the environmentand the living standards of the local people.

The policy for sustainable protection of dryland eco-systems will be implemented within a concrete legal,social, economic, environmental and geographicalframework. It is necessary that this should follow theprinciples for ecological sustainability and help developan economy that supports the ecosystem and is appro-priate for the current condition of the environment inthe transition period.The dryland ecosystem is beingdamaged by the harmful effects of inappropriate humanactivity, and biological diversity has been reduced by thedeclining economic potential of the region; all thesefactors contribute strongly to desertification.

The tradition of nature protection needs to be skil-fully combined with modern scientific and technicalknowledge, producing the most rational approach toprotecting the dryland ecosystem. Distance educationand teaching methods will be widely used, along withcommunication and public awareness campaigns andother educational initiatives in order to bring tangibleresults, combating desertification by psychologicallypreparing the local population to change.

Having studied the difficulties associated with landutilization,and the reasons for desertification of a regionwith a dry climate, it is now important to improvepasture management. Relevant measures include the

formulation of recommendations to combat sandmovements, the planning and carrying out of practicalmeasures for protecting the dry climate region,complexanalyses of the social and economic conditions in theregion,and defining concrete measures for further steps.

It is also important to work out scientific grounds forprotecting the dry climate region, to organize mechani-cal protection against sand movements, to plant trees andbushes, to irrigate pastures, to avoid use of pasturesduring certain periods, to modernize land managementand to introduce new progressive technology into landmanagement.

Nowadays, the world’s main strategy for the con-servation of dryland ecosystems is to establish greenzones by planting trees and bushes. Sustainable devel-opment of dryland areas in Mongolia, in view of thepoints mentioned above, should involve the followingpolicy implementation and actions:

• To prevent pasture degradation, it is necessary tocreate forest shelter belts or massifs and regulatelivestock numbers.

• Saxaul forest should be reforested.• Plantation should be undertaken on sand dunes

to prevent sand movement.• Green zones are needed to prevent sand movement

in settled urban areas.• Shelters and forest plantation should be built to

protect livestock, herders, wintering camps andfences, as well as shelters from direct sunlight, duststorms and sand movement.

• Gardens should be introduced in cities and settle-ment centres.

• Tree belts are needed to protect railways androads from sand movement.

• Arid ecosystems should be given protective status,and enlisted into the world network of internationalbiosphere reserves.

Due to the climatic and natural characterisitics ofMongolia, especially during the spring season when thewind speeds and sandstorm frequencies increase in thedrylands, sand movements and sand dunes are likely tooccur, causing a disturbance in household activities.There are various ways to prevent sand movement.These include biological or biotic action, whichinvolves planting vegetation, and mechanical or abioticaction,using chemical substances. In the specific condi-tions of the Mongolian climate, the biotic method iscommonly practised, along with abiotic action in urbanareas, water units and mineral mines.

CCoonncclluussiioonnThe landlocked nature and sharply continental climateof Mongolia explains why more than 90 per cent of theland comprises arid and semi-arid areas with scant

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Principal directions of measures

1. To improve pasture management

2. To combat wind erosion

3. To combat water erosion

4. To combat salinization

5. Forest protection

6. To improve water supply

7. To improve land use management

8. To restore and utilize land

Measures to be implemented

release pasture from use for certain periodsreduce the grazing period of livestockre-use the less-utilized pasturerotate lands used for pasture appropriately irrigate the pastureland

prohibit the grazing of livestock on land exposed to severesand movements

set up forest beltsfix the sand movementprohibit the use of trees and bushes as firewood

create terraces on slopes exposed to erosionexclude open streams of water from irrigation systemsdig protective dykes and trenchescreate water accumulation reservoirs

protect the pasture around land and salt marsh from over-erosion

reduce amount of salt in soilstrictly observe the norms for irrigation of land under cultivation

prohibit the use of bushes, trees and elms river as firewood ortimber

supply the population with wind and solar generators

find new irrigation sourcesprovide research opportunitiesestablish wells for mining and normal wellsrestore damaged wells, protect them from sand pressinginvest in rainwater-collecting technology

include land with fragile and specific ecosystems in the stateand local special protection

improve specially protected areasdevelop ecotourismplant appropriate vegetation with provision for irrigation

cover up mine shafts, and restore exploited landreduce transportation problems by establishing straight, hard-

surfaced roads restore and improve overgrazed land around wells and springsrestore and use abandoned crop land

Table 11.1 Potential measures for dryland conservation and restoration

humidity. Consequently the drylands of Mongolia havean extraordinary interest for conservation.

The folk tradition of nature protection, its con-straints and experience, should be skilfully combinedwith modern scientific and technical knowledge.Distance education, organized communication andpublic awareness campaigns will bring tangible resultsfor combating desertification by psychologicallypreparing the people for change.

Having focused on the difficulties associated withland utilization while analysing the reasons fordesertification in the dryland areas, this paper hasindicated ways to improve pasture management.Among the relevant measures are: to formulate

recommendations for combating sand movements, toplan and carry out practical measures for protectingthe dry climate region, to make complex analyses ofsocial and economic conditions in the region and todefine concrete measures for further steps. It is alsoimportant to work out the scientific principles forprotecting the dryland region, and to organizemechanical protection against sand movements byplanting trees and bushes. Other actions include theirrigation of the pasture, releasing pasture from useover a certain period, modernizing land managementmethods and introducing new progressive technologyinto land management.

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predatory. Over the past century, the two forms ofmanagement of space and society have been incom-patible and mutually disrupting.The result is a complexmontage of the two civilizations where it is nonethe-less possible to recognize the distinctive traits of each.

From the beginning, it was imperative for the popu-lation of the oases to cover the absolute needs of thecommunity from the available arable land; these consti-tuted only the areas capable of forming an oasis andwere always of very limited size. The pre-SaharanMoroccan zone, which is well endowed by nature,receives its water – and therefore its existence – fromthe neighbouring Atlas mountains, which border it tothe north. The populations, who have lived here forthousands of years, have always believed that the onlyusable areas are the banks of the water courses from themountain, a small strip of land whose soil is providedonly by the fine sediment brought from the High Atlas, served by the replenished surface water, with theinhabitants excluding all use of fossil water.

In terms of the shrewd management of scarceresources in such conditions, three principles for thebest possible approach that will produce the greatestbenefit are outlined below.

• The extreme intensity and diversity of agriculturalexploitation is seen in the elaboration of the ‘stag-gered’ oasis. Just below the upper canopy of datepalms can be found a second level of Mediter-ranean fruit trees, and below them are cereals,fodder, vegetables and cash crops such as roses,henna, and gombo or saffron.There is also extremelyeffective cattle farming in the oases, typically usingcowsheds. Most of the agrodiversity, animal as wellas plant, is endemic and highly specialized.There isa whole drylands culture that covers the entirespectrum from the valuable Demmane ewes andSaharan bees to the multitude of date varieties.Thisshould be carefully studied, in terms of localexpressions and ecological knowledge, so as tofinally find its place in the register of officialscience.

• A pattern of ownership that is specific to the Sahara iswell designed to overcome the handicaps due tothe lack of space. It gives the community the rightto be involved in ‘oasian’ affairs and even to enjoy acertain flexibility in the application of Muslim lawin order to prevent loss of land.The very limitedarea that can be handed down from generation to


Traditional knowledge in Moroccan drylands

Driss Fassi, Secretary MAB National Committee, Rabat, Morocco

12Drylands are areas that are permanently deficient inuseful natural resources as well as being the theatre ofextreme conditions. We could therefore define thesustainable management of such ecosystems as a way ofmaintaining these impoverished environments so thatthey continue to provide essential needs on the basis ofcausing minimum disturbance to the natural heritagewith, as far as possible, a process of auto-regulation thatachieves an acceptable natural and socio-economicbalance.

For the inhabitants of the oases, the sedentary part ofthe desert population, this definition essentially meansthe production of food and services and the mainte-nance of a habitat that has been rigorously shaped bythe oasis and is concentrated in an extremely small area.This obviously implies shrewd water managementrequiring unique ingenuity both to achieve an optimalorganic and diversified production and to maintain thesolid social cohesion needed for major undertakings tosafeguard the community and, even more important,build and maintain its infrastructure. Apart from basicproduction, income is provided by subsidiary activitiessuch as handicrafts, small-scale mining and, most of all,commerce. Trans-Saharan commerce has long beenessential and lucrative because of its almost global scope,and crossing the desert required expertise and protec-tion that were practised in masterly fashion by nomads.A powerful sociocultural structure assured the generalcohesion of sedentary and nomadic groups, assigningroles and inculcating appropriate attitudes.

Today, this pattern,which was for the most part wellbalanced and structured, has largely been consigned tohistory. Economic and cultural expansion, as requiredby colonial globalization models as well as the subse-quent portrayal by the media in the twentieth century,has profoundly disrupted this way of life. It is actuallyimpossible to find traditional knowledge models insovereign existence anywhere. Instead the general rulewas to scorn traditional ways.

The pre-Saharan zone of Morocco typifies this sit-uation.The zone is in fact well endowed by nature andhas a great and splendid cultural heritage. However,due to its close position to temperate Europe, it hasendured all the processes of acculturation perpetratedin the twentieth century.Yet it has the precious advan-tage of having preserved much of both worlds in somuch as it retains the local structures relating to therational management of aridity as well as the invasivemodels and powerful technologies that are excessively

generation has rendered the notion of ownershipessential, and thus dependent on a common soli-darity. Moreover, in the same way as there are stag-gered layers of agricultural exploitation, we find amultiplicity of ownership levels superimposed atthe same levels. It is thus possible to distinguish aproperty that is marked by a tree on one side orwater on the other, as well as by the usual system ofland distribution. Inheritance rights are alsodecided by consensus so as to prevent the exchangeof agricultural land outside the oases, as happens forexample in the case of marriage. In the Djemaaoasis, responsibility is vested in a group of heads offamilies, thus preventing outside authorities frominterfering in local affairs.

• The ksar is a medina that is specific to the Sahara. Itconsists of a fortified urban unit that benefits fromat least three optimal spatial qualities and provensustainability, a formidable challenge in such asparse environment of extreme conditions. TheSaharan ksar takes advantage of the synergiesbetween an extreme concentration of inhabitedspace, a functional distribution of local elements,and a systematic adoption of collective services.Furthermore, the art of building the earthen ksarsgoes well with the defensive architecture that char-acterizes them to produce aesthetic masterpieces.The working space of the oases is so arranged thatthe urban districts never encroach on the arablelands, which are entirely reserved for organicproduction and which are given priority in termsof choice in land planning.

In short, the oases centres and the arid and hyper-aridarea of the steppes that surround them have always beenlinked by a sort of socio-economic pact.There are tworeasons behind this solidarity.The mainly sedentary andagricultural oasis populations perfectly compliment thesteppe dwellers with their pastoral economy andnomadic transhumant activities.The people of the oasisare known for the mild way in which they work thesoil, while the nomads, once fierce warriors, are impor-tant itinerant cattle herders who cover huge areas,mark-ing out their tribal territory as they migrate with theircattle, and totally disregarding modern-day nationalboundaries.

For these reasons, the social structures were inextri-cably entwined, and were expressed in their intelligencewith regard to the use of the environment, territorialplanning, resource exploration and human settlements.

The drylands of the Mahgreb, and particularly ofMorocco are,directly dependent on the Atlas mountains,which exert two major controlling effects on them:

• The mountain range is the principal supplier of strategicnatural resources, water and fine sediment to the desert.

Due to this geographic configuration,the Moroccanpre-Saharan zone relies on running water origin-ating from the mountains and the population hasalways followed the agricultural calendar on tangi-ble and renewable hydrological and nival resources.This makes it possible to follow a sustainable waterpolicy, whose consequences are easily foreseeable.The majority of oases are thus fluvial in origin andfor the most part do not rely on undergroundwater. More than 90 per cent of the production ofdates in Morocco, for example, is secured by fluvialoases.Only a mountain that is massive and elevatedenough (more than 4,000 m in the case of theHigh Atlas) is capable of providing this margin ofsecurity in the Saharan latitudes. Moreover, thewater originates in the Atlas within nationalboundaries, thereby removing any dependencefrom neighbouring countries.

• The Atlas chain isolates the Moroccan pre-Sahara of theMediterranean zone. Communication was histori-cally more common with other regions of theSahara such as Egypt and Mesopotamia than withnorthern Mediterranean countries. During morehumid periods of varying lengths, this circulationof ideas, knowledge, practices and lifestylesbecame even more easy and intense. Conversely,the same humid periods, which brought moresnow and even glaciers on the mountains, onlyaccentuated the region’s isolation from theNorth. Ancient trade routes can be reconstitutedfrom Egypt across dry arid stretches to Chad,Niger, Hoggar and Tassili.Traces can still be seenof the corresponding rivers crossing the Saharafrom their origins right up in the high massifs andthe dividing watershed in the heart of the Atlasmountains. Concurrently, a sort of cultural con-tinuum existed from archaeological times rightup to the nineteenth century, and through greathistorical events at a regional or even global scale.

Throughout the twentieth century, lifestyles seen asmodern and universal have systematically drained thevitality of traditional society, considered under-developed because it is less productive in terms ofoutput. European-style cities, mechanized agriculture,high-output mineral exploitation, successful industriesand services with a reputation for quality, notably inluxury tourism, and the prevalence of modern massmedia have more or less completely marginalized theksars.Their small-scale domestic agriculture, traditionalirrigation techniques, functional handicraft wares, in factall their activities are seen as laborious with low output.

Indeed, in view of the power of technology andtechnological outputs, the survival of traditional mod-els, with their techniques, equipment, lifestyles andconvictions, raises wonder. It proves beyond doubtthat the ancient arid civilisations possess a heritage of

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adaptation and self-assurance that makes them anongoing reference point for the world.

It is evident, however, that despite the vigorousresistance that has safeguarded Saharan traditions, lossesdo seem irreversible, not least because the principaldriving forces behind traditional attitudes have essen-tially disappeared. Security has of course become anational affair.There is no longer a need to reinforceurban settlements nor is there a sense of tribal solidar-ity. Moreover, inequalities among the population occurwith the introduction of large-scale infrastructuraldevelopments.At the same time, the easy accessibility ofservices from such projects threatens to nullify all tradi-tional forms of solidarity developed through workingtogether to meet the community’s needs.

There are numerous signs of the emergence of thisseriously imbalanced situation.Among others:

• The abandonment of the ksars is becoming commonplace.The traditional Saharan urban structures are det-eriorating and their residual population is becomingpoorer, in a way that is comparable to the fate of theMoroccan medinas. We are in fact witnessing thedisintegration of the ksars.This is accompanied bythe extra-mural construction of interminable rowsof concrete buildings,constructed on Western lines,which multiplies never-ending needs for resourcesand sophisticated ‘city’ commodities, and above allfor water.

• The development of the modern oasis is generally seenas an investment in quality, bringing in a constantflow of capital using scientific agronomic practices.However, that involves recent additions, whichprovide a certain leverage compared to traditionaloasian systems of a fluvial nature. Secure in termsof financial and technical means, people couldopen up new grounds and use of undergroundwater.But, in so doing, they ignore the fundamen-tal precept of traditional life, which essentially useswater from the surface network,well aware that theexploitation of underground reserves diverts thehydrological supply and constitutes a threat to thegeneral system of distribution.

• Finally, a massive urban system appears, itself struc-tured around the traditional centres but detachedfrom them and able to offer and manage modernadministrative, technical, socio-economic, indus-trial, commercial and security services. Moderncities are the most recent phenomenon in theSaharan environment, but have nonethelessbecome inevitable. Their institutions have evenmanaged to take control of the irrigation systems,through the powerful regional offices for agricul-tural affairs that manage the irrigation networks ofdams constructed in the early 1970s.The cities arealso home to some of the most sumptuous hotelsand palaces in the country, for tourism has come to

be considered the principal development activity inthe Saharan regions. It is obvious that these struc-tures and activities drive up the demand for naturalresources, particularly water. The limits onresources are disregarded as there is no generalassessment for the regional potential as a whole.Bearing these aspects in mind, the newconsumerist society in these towns clearly appearsas inappropriate and ruinous. This is the morestarkly evident since it exists alongside an oasisagriculture that is extremely respectful of environ-mental concerns and cautious in its approach towater usage, especially as the region is confrontedwith persistent droughts that manifest as severeshortages, endangering palms and increasing soilsalinity.

The reactions to the imbalance occurring in thenatural environment are complex and have beenexpressed throughout this period of changing atti-tudes. There are many examples of the renewedonslaught of desertification processes.

The deforestation of Acacia raddiana on the struc-tured steppes is essentially a recent phenomenon thathas completely denuded the interfluves bordering theoasian valleys. Due to wind circulation in increasinglyexposed areas, the sandy dunes have encroacheddangerously near to the human settlements. Artificialstructures that fix the dunes are appearing closer tothe villages along roads, and need to be increasinglyheavy. In some cases irrigation structures have beenburied.

The mountain valleys, whose lower portions extendinto the desert, have few landslides but have becomedangerously exposed.These valleys contain extraordi-nary humid landscapes of rich biodiversity, which isassociated with localized flows of water from wadiunderflows. Today, they too have been obliterated bysand that renders them completely sterile. A notablecase is the vast abiotic desolation of the Draa lowervalley.The evidence of its once-luxuriant past is shownby the abundance of surrounding archaeological sitesthat are rich in cave paintings. Some decades ago thelandscape was an attractive and advantageous site for animportant nesting colony of pink flamingos.There areeven sites that have recently been inscribed as nationalsites of biological and ecological interest (SIBE or sitesd’intérêt biologique et écologique). The coincidence intiming between such environmental degradation andthe construction of the Mansour Eddahbi dam (1972)close to Ouarzazate on Draa, more than 200 kmupstream, is disconcerting and teaches us a valuablelesson.

The principal lesson learnt is that water from theHigh Atlas after having formed a veritable pre-Saharanfringe with a powerful oasis structure of about 800 kmin length by 100 to 200 km in N-S width and thanks


to an original network of perennial surface flows,continues its work in naturally combating desertifica-tion by engaging itself further into the desert in theform of underflows. This water (in an undergroundmanner or locally in fairly wide flows) manages tosupply the steppe biotopes and the Acacia bush that iscapable of elaborating a slope of solidly rooted livingmatter and with proven efficiency to stop sandencroachment. Only traditional ‘oasian’ know-how,carefully adapted and fine-tuned over the centuries, iscapable of both maintaining life in the pre-Saharanzone and to keep the wind rushes of the African Saharaat bay. A few decades of short-sighted and totally ill-adapted behaviour is enough to reduce a significantportion of the entire zone of specialised civilisation, theonly type capable of creating an intricate and elaboratelife model learnedly inscribed within an historicaldimension in these latitudes of extreme shortages.

To conclude, the delicate survival of the pre-Saharanzone depends on a vast operation of successful rehabil-itation, moreover, it has a planetary role. In the case ofthe Maghreb pre-Saharan zone, it is situated on theSaharan front and is a living buttress providing agenuine obstacle in the combat against desertificationthat directly benefits the entire Northern hemisphereand probably the whole of humanity.

It has been proven that its function is essentially of acultural origin, as beneficial modifications of theextremely precarious bioclimatic conditions. It isevident and logical that the culture has developed incontact with nature over a very long period of time andis thus best adapted to the point of producing a genuinearid civilisation. Such a civilisation relies heavily on alllandscape components, as much in the dense andcomplex structure of the oasis as in the dull boundlesshorizons of the steppes.

The collapse of the pre-Saharan zone that occurredduring the twentieth century is too abrupt to beattributed to some form of natural bioclimatic changebut can also be linked to the introduction of animposed and discordant culture, that of a dominantworld economy. Furthermore, it emerged as beingtotally ill-equipped resulting in a definite retreat andgrowth of the pre-Saharan zone. For the first time inthe natural history of the planet, we are subjected toan unfavourable climate of entirely cultural origin.

Cultural rehabilitations are for most realistresearchers an impossible task. Attempts have neverthe-less been made particularly in Morocco to rehabilitatespecific separated elements: those that are decisively themost effective or the most attractive.

The ‘khettaras’, a Moroccan name for a system ofirrigation composed of a network of undergroundcollect tanks, are known to be the best approach tocapture and distribute water that has ever been devel-oped in the arid environment. Its effectiveness, whichhas never been rivalled, explains its return to servicefollowing a period of partial abandonment. Improvedmodels have been proposed.They attempt to maintainperformance while reducing the difficulty in construc-tion and maintenance.

A number of ksars, before their designation asUNESCO World Heritage sites, showed that theycould become an appreciable resource for tourism.Particular attention has been given to those that aremost aesthetic or the most representative.The Centreof Study and Research of Ksars and Saharan Casbahs(Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches sur les Ksars et CasbahsSahariens or CERCAS) was created under the auspicesof the Moroccan Minister for Culture to defend thecause in a rational way and capital was raised for thephysical restoration of the monuments.

In every case, success was moderate. It appears to bevery difficult to restructure a single element when thespirit of togetherness is lost.

The rehabilitation of the pre-Saharan zone is anincredibly difficult process involving oasis and steppesand quite simply implies the fate of the whole world. Itis obvious that continuing with the actual destruction iscompletely suicidal; however it is not conceivable toattempt a return to the original condition.The futuremost certainly lies along a third path that takes intoconsideration the richness and technicity of the presentin combination with tradition that remains intelligentand alive and that seeks a harmonious balance betweensociety and its environment.

When the stakes are this important it takes courage togo towards difficulty and to create the school of culturalrehabilitation in a conceptual sense, where all forms ofrehabilitation, including biotic and abiotic, organizethemselves to serve the diversity of civilizations.

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Species that were both relatively rare and had a high usescore have the highest conservation priority. Examplesof such species include Balanites aegyptiaca, all Acaciaspecies found in the area, Ziziphus spina-christi andplants of significance for medicinal and grazingpurposes.

Restoration of habitats by the development ofplantations as an alternative to the exploitation ofwild stocks has been proposed for fuelwood, buildingmaterials and medicinal plants. Modern and appro-priate low-cost technology was used to establishplantations in ecologically favourable habitats.

IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn Water deficit is the main constraint of the drylands,which cover about 41 per cent of the earth’s surface.About a third of the human population lives in thedrylands,which provide them with all goods and facil-ities. With increasing aridity, biological productivityhas declined and provides fewer services to humans.Most of the land resources of arid countries in NorthAfrica and the Middle East are, at best, only suited topastoral livestock keeping.The traditional system was,and in some areas still is, essentially nomadic or trans-humant, with seasonal movement of flocks in search ofwater and grazing (Upton, 1995).

This article focuses on resource use by Bedouins,who make up the main population of the vast desertareas of Egypt.

About 96 per cent of Egypt is desert land, withannual rainfall varying from about 100 mm on theMediterranean coast to almost nothing in the south-ern part of the Nubian Desert. In spite of the tempo-ral and spatial variations of rainfall, the Mediterraneanlands provide almost permanent pasture for Bedouin

85

Indigenous knowledge of plant uses in arid land:Wadi Allaqi case study

Irina Springuel, UNESCO Ecotechnie Chair at the Unit of Environmental Studies andDevelopment, South Valley University, Egypt

13

AAbbssttrraaccttThe livelihood of nomads and pastoralists dependson the limited resources of arid lands. The moresevere the aridity, the fewer the available resources. Inthe extreme arid desert where Wadi Allaqi BiosphereReserve (WABR) is located, nomadic and semi-nomadic people use almost every one of the 130plants growing in the area. For the management ofresources they use the hema system, a traditional landuse developed in the Arab lands and enforced bynomadic pastoralists. Only deep knowledge of theuses of these plants, combined with knowledgeabout the management of limited resources, enablespeople to survive in such a hostile environment.Traditional knowledge of plant uses is widely recog-nized by scientists worldwide. However, local knowl-edge about resources management where theconservation strategy is the key element in land useis not significantly acknowledged by developers

The management programme for the protection ofbiodiversity in WABR is based on the knowledge oflocal people about the uses of these plants together withscientific knowledge of plant ecology,and the applicationof new technology in the habitat restoration programme.

A scheme for assessing the economic and conserva-tion value of plants found in the Allaqi region wasdeveloped on the base of indigenous knowledge, withthe help and participation of indigenous people. Usinga simple scoring system, an importance value for vari-ous uses was calculated.The system was based on theactual and potential uses of different species. It allowedfor differentiation between those species of high actualand potential economic value, and those with some buta lesser degree of utility. This study of economic usevalue has formed a component in the establishment ofoverall conservation priority for particular plant species.

SSeessssiioonn 33:: TTrraaddiittiioonnaall kknnoowwlleeddggee aanndd mmooddeerrnn tteecchhnnoollooggyy ffoorr

wwiillddlliiffee mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ssyysstteemmss

livestock, which is intensively used. The more severethe aridity, the fewer the resources that are available. Inthe extreme dry conditions prevailing in the southernpart of the Eastern Desert, plant life is confirmed towadi drainage systems. In rainy years wadis are coveredby dense plant carpets, comprising mainly annualplants that provide excellent pastures. However, suchrainy years may happen only once in many years, andthe rest of the time only a few deeply rooted perenni-als survive the severe dry conditions.

Despite such harsh conditions scattered nomadicpopulations still inhabit these areas. Some of them aretruly pastoral nomads (for example, the Khushmaanclan of the Ma’aza tribe) who raise animals (sheep,goats and camels) and move them across the EasternDesert between the Nile and Red Sea hills followingthe rain, which provides the livestock with ephemeralpasture. ‘They have no fixed dwellings: home is amobile woollen tent or a temporary windscreen ofdead plants’ (Hobbs, 1989).

Others (like the Bishari tribe in Gebel Elba and theEastern Desert bordering Sudan) are more closelyattached to certain areas where water is available andwhere they dig wells and build wooden shelters, andfrom where they move to temporal pastures, returningto the water source during the rainless period. Thelivelihood of this nomadic population is based on theresource characteristics of the system of wadis.The maincomponents of their economic system are livestocktranshumance, charcoal production and collection ofmedicinal plants (Briggs et al., 1993).

Only deep knowledge of the uses of theseresources in combination with knowledge about themanagement of limited resources enables people tosurvive in hostile environments.

TTrraaddiittiioonnaall kknnoowwlleeddggeeKnowledge of the use of plants in Egypt goes back toancient times and has been well-documented sincethe Pharaonic era (from around 3000 BC). It has comedown to modern society by being well presented asdrawings and paintings on the walls of ancient tombsand temples, descriptions on papyrus, and even driedplants and plant parts such as fruits in the tombs of thePharaohs. In Bedouin society, traditional knowledgehas been orally transmitted from one generation toanother over thousands of years. This knowledge isvery dynamic and pragmatic, varying in time andspace. There is still a well-defined bridge betweenancient Egyptian and present Bedouin knowledgeabout the uses of desert trees. Fruits of Balanites aegyp-tiaca, Hyphaene thebaica and Ziziphus spina-christi havebeen found in baskets and pots in Pharaonic tombs(Hepper, 1990); these trees still grow in the EasternDesert and their fruits are widely used by Bedouinsand collected for sale in the local markets.

A quite astonishing phenomenon was recentlyobserved in the Eastern Desert. Bedouins, who hadrecently moved from the remote desert areas andsemi-settled on the shores of Lake Nasser, attracted bythe water available, have tamed the wild Egyptiangoose which was one of the domestic species for theancient Egyptians (Houlihan, 1995)

Testimony comes from the past on the behaviourof Egyptian goose in a text dating from the NewKingdom Ramesside period:

It (the Egyptian goose) spends the summer indestroying the dates, and the winter in destroyingthe emmer. It spends its free time of the year pursu-ing the cultivators, and allows not the seed to bethrown to the ground before it has got wind of it.

(Houlihan, 1995, p. 112)

This warning did not reach developers who in the 1990ssowed seeds of fodder plants from the plain to be grownon the shore of Lake Nasser. Not surprisingly all theseeds were eaten by birds, mainly by geese. Cultivationon the lakeshore suffered the same fate.

Indigenous (local, traditional) knowledge is the chainof knowledge of different resources: animals, plants, soil,landforms and energy sources. All are linked to eachother in maintaining the traditional livelihood thatoften is called traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)(Watson et al., 2003).

According to Pierotti and Wildcat (1997), TEKpromotes 1) respect for nonhuman entities as individ-uals, 2) recognition of bonds between humans andnonhumans, including incorporation of nonhumansinto ethical codes of behaviour, 3) appreciation ofthe importance of local places,and 4) recognition ofhumans as part of the ecological system, rather thanas separate from and defining the existence of thatsystem.

(Watson et al., 2003)

‘As a result of these connections with the nonhumanworld, native peoples do not think of nature as wilder-ness but as home’ (Pierotti and Wildcat 2000).

TEK is excellently described by Hobbs who studiedthe life of the Ma’aza tribe and travelled many hundredson miles on foot with nomads of the Khushmaan clanliving in the Eastern Desert: ‘The Khushmaan know agreat deal not only about interrelations of plants andanimals but about the life-cycles, habits, habitats, andother details of particular animals and plants’ (1989).The ecological value of Acacia and Balanites trees grow-ing in Wadi Allaqi is well known to the Bedouins inhab-iting this wadi. Both trees are drought resistant andcapable of growing on poor-quality soils, and do notattract snakes and scorpions (Briggs et al., 1999).

Traditional knowledge of plant uses is widely

86

recognized by scientists worldwide. However, the localknowledge of management of resources where con-servation strategy is the key element in land use is notsignificantly acknowledged by developers.

EExxaammppllee ooff tthhee hheemmaa ssyysstteemmThe hema system is an example of traditional land usethat was developed in the Arab lands and enforced bynomadic pastoralists.

From early times, land-use rights to particular areasof rangelands were ascribed to particular tribes undervarious systems of communal tenure.A particular formof communal tenure developed in the Arab heartland ishema. Certain areas belonging to Bedouin tribes weredeclared as hema, meaning protected and off-limits, andaccess to them or using them in specified ways wasrestricted by inter-tribal agreements or by force.

Draz (1969) enumerates the following forms ofhema management:

• grazing prohibited, grass cutting permissible bycontrolled licence during specified periods anddroughts

• grazing and grass cutting permitted in certainseasons

• grazing allowed the year round, but the numberof animals controlled

• reserved for bee keeping• tree reserves, with tree cutting prohibited.

Under the national land-reform policies of the 1950sand 1960s, hema was banned along with all tradi-tional communal land-use systems in most states.Thedesert regions were declared state-owned and opento unrestricted use by all citizens.

To some extent, land management similar to thehema system is still practised by local Bedouinsinhabiting Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve.

Intensive work on the social, economic and naturallife of the nomadic and semi-nomadic populationsinhabiting Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve has beenconducted during the last twenty years.

WWaaddii AAllllaaqqii BBiioosspphheerree RReesseerrvvee((WWAABBRR))Wadi Allaqi is an extensive drainage system that collectsand contains runoff water, when available on the rareoccasions of cloudbursts and spells of rain. Its catchmentarea stretches across the southern part of Egypt from theRed Sea coastal mountains to the principal wadidebauching into the River Nile (now Lake Nasser).TheRed Sea Mountains of the Elba group form the divide,with eastward drainage contained in the Wadi Allaqisystem up to the Nile (see Figure 13.1).

Wadi Allaqi is characterized as a ‘hyperarid environ-ment’ with an aridity index of less than 0.05. Annualrainfall in this area rarely exceeds 5 mm and is highlyvariable in both time and space. Inundation from thelake, forming inlets or bays named ‘khores’ has pene-trated into the wadis deep in the Eastern Desert, apreviously waterless, hyper-arid environment. Fluctua-tion in the water level of the lake has led, as it recedes,to temporary exposure of about 40 km of the once-inundated area of Wadi Allaqi, where a new ecosystemhas been established.This ecosystem, generally knownas an ecotone, represents a transitional zone betweenaquatic and desert land.

Wadi Allaqi as a system spans three ecological for-mations:

• The Elba mountain group at the upstream endrepresents a ‘coastal mist oasis’ that receives oro-graphic precipitation and provides habitat for arich biodiversity.

• The main reach of the Wadi extends over part ofthe ‘rainless desert’ of Nubia, where occasionalrain (or run-off flow) causes rich plant (and otherbiota) growth.

• The ecotone habitat at the deltaic part of WadiAllaqi, where water flow and ebb cause denseplant growth including tamarix woodland.

The Wadi Allaqi system has provided a subsistence habi-tat for its nomadic inhabitants for millennia. Before theHigh Dam development (in the 1960s) and the estab-lishment of a paved road that made the town of Aswanaccessible, these inhabitants subsisted on the naturalresources of the wadi. This has created a culture of intimate relations between humans and available biota.

At present, downstream Wadi Allaqi is inhabited bythe Ababda tribe and the upstream part by the Bisharitribe. The middle part is very dry and supports nopermanent human habitation.

Research in Wadi Allaqi has focused on the indige-nous inhabitants (Bedouins) as the essential componentof the ecosystem. A team of both local and overseasresearchers has studied different aspects of the livelihoodof indigenous communities. Indigenous knowledge isthe focal point in such studies (Briggs, 1989; Briggs etal., 1993; Solway, 1995; Belal et al., 1998; Briggs et al.,1998; Solway and Mekki, 1999; Springuel et al., 2001;Hamed et al., 2002.)

Examples of plant uses andeconomic valuePlant uses

In our study of the floristic diversity of the Wadi AllaqiBiosphere Reserve as well as other desert areas wealways refer to the knowledge of the local inhabitants,

87Knowledge, technology and wildlife management

who usually guide us in the remote desert areas.Thelocal names of the plants, their morphological charac-teristics, autecology, habitat characteristics and mainuses are well known to the local people, and theyseldom hesitate to share this knowledge with us.

A scheme for assessing the economic and conser-vation value of plants found in the Allaqi region hasbeen developed (Springuel, 1991) on the base ofindigenous knowledge with the help and participationof indigenous people. Using a simple scoring system,an importance value for various uses was calculated. Afragment of this system is presented in Table 13.1.Thescoring system was based on the actual and potentialuses of different species. Actual uses are by the localpopulation of Bedouins living in Wadi Allaqi, whilepotential uses are those obtained from differentsources (Bedouins from other locations, literature,research).The flora of the area comprises 127 species,and the uses of all but 32 have been recorded.

The scoring system allows differentiation betweenthose species of high actual and potential economicvalue, and those with some but a lesser degree of util-ity. This study of economic use value has formed acomponent in the establishment of overall conserva-tion priority for particular plant species. Species that

were both relatively rare and had a high use score havethe highest conservation priority. Examples of suchspecies include Balanites aegyptiaca, all Acacia speciesfound in the area, Ziziphus spina-christi, and plants ofsignificance for medicinal and grazing purposes,Cymbopogon proximus and Solenostemma arghel.

Economic value of acacia trees

Another example where indigenous knowledge playeda key role was the research assessing the economic valueof acacia trees in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve(Springuel and Mekki, 1994). The research wasconducted to throw light on the continuous disappear-ance of trees in the desert,particularly those close to largesettlements. Many people living in the Nile Valley,including some Egyptian researchers, believed that theBedouins’ activities caused deforestation by cutting treesfor charcoal production, and hence the biodiversity ofthe desert lands declined. In the research, by comparinguses of acacia trees for charcoal production (dead trees)and as fodder for livestock (living trees), we found thatthe latter brings a higher household income as well asproviding drought-reserve fodder, which is only fed tostock at times when other food is very scarce.This is why

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Figure 13.1 Topography of Wadi Allaqi

resource conservation (acacia trees) is a concept inherentin the Bedouin livelihood and value system. A similarobservation was made by Hobbs (1989) of the behaviourof nomads inhabiting the Eastern Desert of Egypt.

Palatability

An example of the combination of indigenous andscientific knowledge is the study of palatability of plants.

Grazing is the one of the main activities of pastoralnomads living in WABR. For this reason, many studieshave been directed to this particular topic. Indigenousknowledge of the grazing value in Wadi Allaqi is welldocumented (Springuel, 1991; White, 1995; Briggs etal., 1999; Belal et al., 1998). Springuel (unpublished)has reported that the majority of the plants in WadiAllaqi have two main uses: grazing (65 per cent) andmedicinal (45 per cent). Animals, both domestic andwild, can graze and browse on eighty-three of thespecies growing in Wadi Allaqi.Among the most palat-able plants are Leguminosaea (Acacia spp, Astragulus

fogelii), followed by Gramineae, amongst which Panicumturgidum is of particular importance.

Selective use of plants by animals provides an exam-ple of resource portioning among grazing stock. Thecamels’ diet is of a wider variety than other domesticanimals. In addition to the highly palatable species,camels can graze on twenty-three species that are usuallyavoided by other grazers.There are also a few examplesof selective use of different parts of the plants. Smallbranches of Tamarix nilotica are apparently good for camelsand goats, but sheep can only eat the flowers. Sheep andgoats can eat the dry seed of Lupinus varius when otherfood is not available.Bedouins believe that the dry flow-ers of Aerva javanica and pods of Acacia raddiana are goodfor sheep during the lactation period.

Observations and interviews in Wadi Allaqi indi-cate a considerable seasonal variation in grazing.Ephemerals provide the main forage in wintertime,and in dry periods phanerophytes (mainly Acaciaspp.) are the main browsing plant. In this context, itmight be noted that Tamarix has a better palatability


Table 13.1 Example of a few economically important plants in Wadi Allaqi Conservation Area, Egypt

Species UsesM T G H F C O TIV

(%)

Acacia nilotica 6 6 6 – 6 6 6 64Acacia ehrenbergiana – – 8 – 6 6 – 35Acacia raddiana 7 8 8 – 8 8 6 80Acacia tortilis 7 7 8 – 8 8 6 78Aerva javanica 5 – 5 – – – – 18Astragalus vogelii – – 6 – – – – 11Balanites aegyptiaca 8 8 7 8 8 6 8 94Calotropis procera 7 – – – 7 – 7 37Capparis decidua 7 – – 5 6 – – 32Cassia senna 8 – – – 6 – – 25Cleome droserifolia 8 14Cymbopogon proximus 7 – 6 7 – – – 36Cynodon dactylon 6 – 6 – – – – 21Fagonia indica – – 6 – – – – 11Heliotropium supinum 4 – – – – – – 7Hyoscyamus muticus 8 – – – – – – 14Hyphaene thebaica 6 7 – 7 – – 7 48Indigofera argentea – – 6 – – – – 11Solenostemma arghel 8 – – – – – – 14Tamarix nilotica 7 – 7 – 8 – 7 51Ziziphus spina–christi 6 6 6 6 6 – 6 64

Explanation of estimation TIV of plants, following Belal and Springuel (1996). An Importance Value (IV) has been ascribed for each of theseven use categories of each species presented in the table. A score of 4 suggest the minimal important value and 8 the maximum importantvalue for each use. No value is indicated by (–). For each plant the Total Importance Value (TIV) is given in the last column, which is the sumof the importance values for each uses, expresses as the relative percentage of the maximum possible score which is 56.Importance values as follows:

M = Medicinal use T = TimberG = Grazing H = Human foodF = Fuelwood C = CharcoalO = Other uses TIV(%) = Total Importance Value (%)

Source: Springuel, 1991.

Plant species DMD OMD CP CF EE Ash

Acacia raddiana 29–40 26–37 6–10 30–56 3.4–4.2 7.3–8.9A. ehrenbergianna 37–41 33–39 5–12 27–51 2.7–3.2 17–18Tamarix nilotica 37–43 33–38 8–13 26–36 2.5–3.1 14–15Senna alexandrina 35–41 31–37 8–13 27–37 3.6–4.2 17–25Aerva javanica 31–40 26–36 4–13 41–57 3.4–4.6 8.2–9.8Pulicaria crispa 31–38 28–32 7–13 33–39 2.7–2.4 14–16Hyoscyamus muticus 38–42 32–40 9–16 35–48 2.8–3.3 8.9–9.9Astragalus vogelii 35–40 31–36 10–15 39–45 3.4–3.8 10–11Glinus lotoides 35–42 34–38 7–13 31–39 2.6–3.2 7.0–9.1Najas spp. 31–38 28–34 7.9–10 49–61 2.4–3.1 15–17

in winter than in summer, because the high saltcontent in its foliage makes animals thirsty. Subse-quent high water consumption can be harmful underhot conditions.

Even among the Bedouins living in Wadi Allaqi, localknowledge varies, according to their locations(upstream or downstream part of the wadi), to wherethey take their animals,gender issues and the time whenthey resettled on the lakeshores. Because of newresources available on the lakeshores, the local knowl-edge is modified to be adapted to new conditions.Najasspp. growing in shallow water becomes an importantgrazing source collected by Bedouin women, but onlywhen this plant is dry.This is one example of a newknowledge developed (Briggs et al., 2003).

From Table 13.2, with forage analyses of dominantplants from the downstream part of Wadi Allaqi, it maybe noted that most plants have reasonably high palata-bility in terms of their crude protein content and in vitrodry matter digestibility. This is scientific knowledgeobtained through plant analyses. In reality however, as iswell known to local inhabitants, species such as Aervajavanica,Pulicaria crispa,Glinus lotoides and Najas spp.havelow palatability, but this can be improved if they aredried prior to being fed to animals (Briggs et al., 2003).On the other hand both Senna alexandrina and Hyoscya-mus muticus are very well known as medicinal plants andcould be poisonous for animals.This indicates that inreal life scientific knowledge should not be used inisolation from local understanding.

Application of knowledgeOn the basis of knowledge obtained of the economicand livelihood system of the Bedouins living in WadiAllaqi Biosphere Reserve, traditional ecological knowl-edge and a combination of scientific and indigenous

knowledge, a management programme for the restora-tion of habitats has been established. It is based onsustainable use, and recovery and enhancement ofeconomically important plants that have become rare ormay be threatened by overexploitation.

According to the criteria developed,the most impor-tant plants for the Bedouins’ economy and for theecosystem were selected for reintroduction into thedownstream part of the wadi in ecologically favourablehabitats. (We consider habitats to be favourable for reha-bilitation where sufficient water is available for plantgrowth.) Despite a good understanding of the physicalproperties of soil, soil fertility, and other soil characteris-tics among local inhabitants (Briggs et al., 1998), therewas only a minor contribution by local Bedouins to theselection of habitats for the restoration of and planting ofindigenous plants. At first, we took into considerationthe water level fluctuation of the lake for establishing afarm that was based on monitoring data and results of thesoil survey carried in this area.However,we subsequentlyaccepted the knowledge of Bedouins on wadi topogra-phy and followed their advice in planting trees at thelower levels of the wadi topography, where more watercollected and was stored in wadi deposits.

The selection of plants for rehabilitation in thedownstream part of the wadi was based on ecologicaland sociological criteria.The ecological criteria relate tothe keystone species of the natural Wadi Allaqi ecosys-tem and their ability to tolerate the extreme conditions(drought and flood) that characterize the ecotonalsystem.The plants successfully growing in both the NileValley and favourable desert habitats fulfil the criteria ofecologically suitable plants. The sociological aspectrelated to the value of plants in relation to their uses byhumans, and was based on the indigenous knowledge ofnomads living in the Eastern Desert.

Although modern irrigation technology has been

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Table 13.2 Forage analyses of ten pasture species from the downstream part of Wadi Allaqi

DMD: % in vitro dry matter digestibility OMD: % in vitro organic matter digestibilityCP: % crude protein CF: % crude fibreEE: % ether extract Ash: %.

Source: Springuel et al., 2003.

used to establish plantations in ecologically favourablehabitats, it does not provide for success in the growth ofdesert plants. Drip irrigation caused an increase of soilsalinity and the development of shallow roots.Runningwater in irrigation tubes attracted rodents from thesurrounding desert which destroyed this system in notime at all.More successful was the subsurface irrigationsystem (Springuel et al., 2000), whose design was basedon knowledge of the ecology of desert plants. Thepercolation of water downward through the sandy soilfacilitated the elongation of the roots. As soon as theroots reach the underground water, the irrigation canbe stopped.At the same time this method of irrigationconserves water and prevents salinization of the soil.

PVC tubes (10 cm diameter), open at the top andthe bottom, were installed vertically in the ground tothe depth of one metre, while half a metre of the tuberemained above the surface (see Figure 5.1.2).Three-to four-month-old seedlings of Balanites or Acaciawere planted close to the tubes. At the beginning ofgrowth, surface irrigation was applied to allow theseedlings to establish themselves in the soil and toenlarge the root system.When new foliage appeared,after about two or three months, water was addeddirectly to the tube, bringing water close to the rootsof the trees.Water was added to tubes to fill them upto the top twice a week.The tubes had a 10 cm diam-eter and 150 cm length (V =πr2l, where V is the vol-ume, r=radius of tube and l=length of tube), and eachtree received about 12 litres of water, that is, about 96litres per month. In all, 200 trees planted in one acrewould receive 19 m3 water monthly.

Bedouins help in planting and watering the plants.The farm will be transferred on a continuous basis to thelocal community to support its members’ livelihood, asan alternative to collecting plants in the wild.

CCoonncclluussiioonnFirst, it could be concluded from the example of WadiAllaqi that indigenous knowledge of ecology andmanagement of natural resources can offer a powerfultool for sustainable development of the Wadi AllaqiBiosphere Reserve. However, researchers have warnedthat indigenous knowledge in isolation should be notseen as ideal. For development to be sustainable thereshould be a good balance between scientific andindigenous knowledge.

Second, we would like to highlight the analogybetween TEK ‘which represents a constantly evolvingway of thinking about home’ (Watson et al., 2003) andthe ‘Ecotechnie’ concept which was proposed byCaptain Jacques-Yves Cousteau from the Greek wordsoikos, which means ‘home’, and tekne, meaning ‘art ofdoing’. Both terms complement each other.TEK is anapplication for understanding and maintaining the rela-tionship among the full community of human and

nonhuman entities found in nature (Watson et al.,2003).Ecotechnie aims holistically to consider ecology,economics,the social sciences and technology in order tounderstand the long-term consequences of managementand development decisions (UCEP, 2002).

Universities in many countries have been settingup an Ecotechnie network to promote partnershipsand capacity building through multidisciplinary edu-cation and research that combine theoretical problemswith specific cases.

The UNESCO Ecotechnie Chair at South ValleyUniversity is a Founding Member and the Co-ordinatorof the Arab Region Ecotechnie Network (AREN) unit-ing eight universities:the University of Bahrain,Bahrain;the University of South Valley, Egypt; the University ofJordan, Jordan; the University of Mohamed V,Morocco;the University of Khartoum, Sudan; the University ofDamascus, Syria; the University of Sana’a,Yemen; andthe University of Balamand, Lebanon.


BELAL,A.; LEITH, B.; SOLWAY, J.; SPRINGUEL, I.Environmental valuation and management of plants in WadiAllaqi, Egypt. Final report. Canada, InternationalDevelopment Research Center (IDRC) (File: 95-1005 01/02 127-01), 1998.

BELAL,A.; SPRINGUEL, I. Economic value of desertplant diversity. Nature and Resources,Vol. 32, No. 1, 1996,pp. 33–9.

BRIGGS, J. Human activity in Wadi Allaqi: a preliminaryreport. Project Working Paper No 3,Aswan, Universityof South Valley, 1989.

BRIGGS, J.; BADRI, M.; MEKKI, A.M. Indigenousknowledges and vegetation use among Bedouin in theEastern Desert of Egypt. Applied Geography, No. 19,1999, pp. 87–103.


Soil surface

0.5 m

1 m

10cm

Figure 13.2 Subsurface irrigation design

BRIGGS, J.; DICKINSON, G.; MURPHY, K.J.,PULFORD, I.D.; BELAL, A.E.; MOALLA, S.;SPRINGUEL, I.; GHABBOUR, S.; MEKKI, A.M.Sustainable Development and resource managementin marginal environments: natural resources and theiruse in the Wadi Allaqi region of Egypt. AppliedGeography, No.13, 1993, pp. 259–84.

BRIGGS J.; PULFORD I.; BADRI, M.; SHAHEEN,A.S. Indigenous and scientific knowledges: the choice andmanagement of cultivation sites by Bedouin in Upper Egypt.Project Working Paper No 32 , Aswan, University ofSouth Valley, 1998.

BRIGGS, J.; SHARP, J.; HAMED, N.;YACOUB, H.Changing women’s roles, changing environmentalknowledges: evidence from Upper Egypt TheGeographical Journal,Vol. 169, No. 4, 2003, pp. 313–25.

DRAZ, O. The ‘hema’ system of range reserves in theArabian peninsula: its possibilities in range improvement andconservation projects in the east. FAO/PL:PEG/13, 1969.

HAMED, N.; IBRAHIM, H.; MEKKI, H.A.;SPRINGUEL, I.;YACOUB, H.; BRIGGS, J.; ROE,A.; SHARP, J. Indigenous environmental knowledges andSustainable development in semi-arid Africa. Final Report.Department for international Development (DFID)(Project Number R 7906, limited distribution), 2002.

HEPPER, F.N. Pharaoh’s flowers:The botanical treasures ofTutankhamun. London, HMSO, 1990.

HOBBS, J. Bedouin life in the Egyptian wilderness. Cairo,American University in Cairo Press, 1989.

HOULIHAN, P.F. The animal world of the Pharaohs.Cairo,American University in Cairo Press, 1995.

PIEROTTI, R.; WILDCAT, D. Evolution, creation,and native traditions. Winds of Change, Vol. 12, No. 2,1997, pp. 73–7.

PIEROTTI, R.;WILDCAT, D.Traditional ecologicalknowledge: the third alternative (commentary).Ecological Applications,Vol. 10,No. 5, 2000, pp. 1333–40.

SOLWAY, J. Fuelwood resources in Wadi Allaqi: social, eco-nomic, and ecological aspects. Project Working Paper No24.Aswan, University of South Valley, 1995.

SOLWAY, J.; MEKKI, A.M. Socio-economic system ofWadi Allaqi. Project Working Paper No 33. Aswan,University of South Valley, 1999.

SPRINGUEL, I. Plant ecology of Wadi Allaqi and LakeNasser. No. 4: basis for economic utilization and conservationof vegetation in Wadi Allaqi conservation area, Egypt.Project Working Paper No 13. Aswan, University ofSouth Valley, 1991, (2nd edn, 1994).

SPRINGUEL, I. Role of biodiversity in the rangelands ofextreme arid ecosystems in the southern Eastern Desert ofEgypt. (Unpublished.)

SPRINGUEL, I.; BADRI, M.; RADWAN, U.; RAD-WAN,T.; MEKKI, H.;TAHER, M. Cultivation of bal-anites and acacia in the Allaqi farm. Project WorkingPaper No 35.Aswan, University of South Valley, 2000.

SPRINGUEL, I.; BRIGGS, J.; SHARP, J.;YACOUB,H.; HAMED, N. Women, environmental knowledge andlivestock production in Wadi Allaqi biosphere reserve.Project Working Paper No 37. Aswan, University ofSouth Valley, 2001.

SPRINGUEL, I.; HUSSEIN, A.H.; EL-ASHRI, M.;BADRI, M.; HAMED,A. Palatability of desert fodderplants. Arid Ecosystems,Vol. 9, No. 18, 2003, pp. 30–9.

SPRINGUEL, I.; MEKKI, A.M. Economic value ofdesert plants: acacia trees in Wadi Allaqi BiosphereReserve. Environmental Conservation, Vol. 21, No. 1,1994, pp. 41–8.

UCEP UNESCO Cousteau Ecotechnie Programme.Paris, UNESCO, 2002.

UPTON, M. Integrated management report. In:Sustainable range-dependent small ruminant production sys-tems in the Near East region. Cairo, FAO Near EastRegional Office, 1995.

WATSON, A.; ALESSA, L.; GLASPELL, B.The rela-tionship between traditional ecological knowledge,evolving cultures, and wilderness protection in thecircumpolar north. Conservation Ecology,Vol. 8, No. 1,2003. p. 2. [online] URL:http://www.consecol.org/vol8/iss1/art2

WHITE,T. Overgrazing in Wadi Allaqi. Project WorkingPaper No 25.Aswan, University of South Valley, 1995.

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http://www.consecol.org/vol8/iss1/art2

Aqaba to about 150 m above sea level in central WadiAraba, then down to about 410 m below sea level at theDead Sea, and ultimately reaches about 200 m belowsea level in the northern Jordan Valley.The valley tendsto receive modest amounts of rain due to orographiceffects. Average rainfall ranges from about 25 mm atAqaba to around 300 mm in the northern Jordan Valley(Salameh and Bannayan, 1993). Despite low rainfalllevels, the Jordan Valley is a rich agricultural area in thesegment extending north of the Dead Sea and in smallareas on the southern shores of the Dead Sea.This isbecause of the availability of water from runoff origi-nating in the adjacent highlands that feed the JordanRiver and its tributaries.

The highlands region is a mountainous strip whichbounds the eastern flank of the rift valley, with eleva-tions reaching over 1,000 m above sea level in thenorthwestern mountains of Belqa and Ajlun. Thisregion contains the largest proportion of the Jordanianpopulation. Here, the average rainfall ranges from about350 mm in the south (Karak) to over 600 mm in theAjlun Mountains (Salameh and Bannayan, 1993). Amixture of pastoral, agricultural and urban usage charac-terizes this area, which also contains some natural andplanted forests.This region ranges in width from 30 to50 km, and merges into the eastern and southernplateau deserts (Salameh and Bannayan, 1993).

The largest area of the country is covered by the east-ern and southern desert, which receives less than 200mm of rainfall per year, and usually less than 150 mm.The change between the highlands and the desert ismore perceptible from the sharp drop in rainfall andchange in plant cover than from any change in physiog-raphy.In general, this land is used for sheep herding withminor agriculture.Agriculture is concentrated near themajor oasis of Azraq,which derives its waters from adja-cent aquifers, and in areas where groundwater isextracted through wells.

Thus, it is fair to conclude that the entire countryrelies on the water resources which fall on the westernhighlands, along with groundwater which is partiallyfossil water, and thus non-renewable (Bajjali and Abu-Jaber, 2001). This places the country in a precariousposition. For while the boundary between the westernhighlands and the rift valley is defined by geologicalfeatures, the boundary between the shafa and the badia is


Traditional knowledge and practical techniques for combating desertification in Jordan

Ahmad El-oqlah, UNESCO chair for desert studies and desertification control,Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan

14

AAbbssttrraaccttJordan is a Middle Eastern country situated betweenthe arid Arabian Desert and the semi-aridMediterranean climatic zone. Peoples of the regionhave practised agriculture and livestock husbandry forthe past 7,000 years. During that time, much knowl-edge has been gleaned and is employed to sustain theagricultural and pastoral resource bases. Moreover,much of the social structure is built around sustainingthese resource bases. For example, the Himma andwajihat el Asahirieh (tribal lands) systems are designedto maintain the lands by empowering certain familiesto be responsible for them.Another example is the useof water harvesting for domestic and agricultural use.Water collected in cisterns and desert catchments(hafair) amount to 1.4 million cubic metres a year.Desert dams and pools (such as those at Jawa andBurqu) have been used for thousands of years.

Conservation of genetic resources has also beenpractised for a long time. Suitable animal species formeat, milk and wool production were specificallymaintained. The world-renowned Arabian horse wasbred and preserved in this region.As for plant species,wheat is a good example of the selection, refinementand preservation of a species that is now plantedaround the world, which began in the area 7,000 yearsago. For many generations, medicinal plants have beenharvested and conserved and soil reclamation has beenpractised.This is especially evident in the widespreaduse of terracing to preserve soil in the highlands.Other practical techniques have long been used tocombat desertification and maintain the sustainabilityof the land.These will be discussed in this chapter.

IInnttrroodduuccttiioonnGenerally, Jordan is divided into three distinct physio-graphic and climatic regions: the Jordan Valley (Ghor),Wadi Araba and Gulf of Aqaba area; the highlands(Shafa); and the eastern and southern deserts (badia).The Jordan Valley is a segment of the great African riftsystem that extends through eastern Africa, the RedSea, through the Jordan Valley and into Lebanon, ulti-mately fading out into the north.The elevation of thevalley ranges from sea level at the shores of the Gulf of

defined by rainfall patterns, which vary from year toyear, and may be affected by changes in the climate ofthe earth. Stakeholders in water resources include farm-ers (70 per cent of the available water), domestic users(25 per cent) and industry (5 per cent). Future pressureson this resource may lead to mining existing resources,causing irreparable long-term damage.

Jordan is part of the Middle Eastern area,which has along history of agriculture development and under-standing of desert life.The Jordanians, as part of the Arabpeoples, have developed and accumulated alongside arange of productive practices, traditional knowledge,local techniques and adaptable experiences for combat-ing desertification.These include irrigating agriculturalland in times of water scarcity, controlling salinizationand rehabilitating rangeland, revegetating eroded hillyareas and managing watersheds, developing irrigationsystems,and protecting the oases (such as Azraq Oasis) byutilizing groundwater in highly developed irrigationsystems.There are many universities and research institu-tions doing a substantial amount of work on developingmethods to reduce desertification.

Jordan is one of the poorest countries in the worldin terms of water and natural resources, and is there-fore facing a serious problem of desertification. Theaffected lands are mainly in the eastern parts of thecountry, extending to the Mediterranean region.Jordan covers about 90,000 km², and 80 per cent ofthe total area is affected by land degradation.

Desertification in Jordan is mainly caused by climatechange and human activities.The human factors can besummarized as follows:

• population growth as a result of immigration,which leads to societal damage

• heavy grazing• misuse of arable lands• use of agricultural water industrialization and

urbanization• loss of floral and faunal biodiversity in every

ecosystem in Jordan• irrational exploitation of fuelwood, desert shrubs

and vegetation cover• deforestation and shifting cultivation• salinization• a lack of awareness about issues of ecological

protection.

All of these have destroyed the vegetation coverage andaccelerated the uncontrolled spread of desertification.

The issue of climate change in marginal environ-ments is of prime importance for understanding thesusceptibility of these regions to environmental stress.Development plans for such regions will be seriouslydisadvantaged if policy makers and planners do not takeinto account the environmental history of the areaunder investigation and understand how this area will

respond to either global climate fluctuations or thestresses that may occur with large-scale development.

The Jordanian government and people attach greatimportance to combating desertification and improvingthe ecosystem and the environment, and have incorp-orated, as a basic state policy, environmental protectionand resistance to desertification into the nationaleconomic and social development plans.

EExxiissttiinngg ttrraaddiittiioonnaall kknnoowwlleeddggeeffoorr ccoommbbaattiinngg ddeesseerrttiiffiiccaattiioonnaanndd rreehhaabbiilliittaattiinngg ddeeggrraaddeeddllaanndd

Water harvestingThis involves the following aspects:

• providing water to isolated areas and for thecultivation of foliage plant species and animals

• recharging underground water• improving the local environment and reducing

the effect of drought• reducing runoff damage on human and agricultural

activities• reducing the pressure on drinking water net

systems.

The most important traditional methods used inharvesting water are summarized below.

Desert mud flats (gaa) and depressions

A gaa is a natural or artificial depression in the desertthat collects rainwater in winter and retains it untilspring and early summer.There are a about twenty-sixartificial pools with a full capacity of about 1.4 millioncubic metres (Table 14.1).

Desert dams

Some desert dams are historical and some are newlyestablished. Both types are used to collect rainwater andfluids.There are eighteen dams, with a combined fullcapacity of about 28.56 million cubic metres (Table14.2).The water in these dams is used for animals andagricultural purposes. The Roushed northern dam isthe largest,with a capacity of around 10.7 million cubicmetres.

Desert pools

The pools are made of concrete and rocks and arefound all over the country. They are used to collectrainwater for drinking, and for animals and small-scale

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Table 14.1 Desert mudflats and depressions

Serial no. Pool name Location Capacity (1,000 m3)

1 Alroushed Alroushed, Mafraq 2252 Umelmanghy Alroushed, Mafraq 1003 Umtarfah Alroushed, Mafraq 504 Albustaneh Alroushed, Mafraq 505 Admetheh Alroushed, Mafraq 376 Anqa Alroushed, Mafraq 507 Khabreh asraeal Alroushed, Mafraq 508 Algraa Alroushed, Mafraq 509 Aldubadeb Alroushed, Mafraq 5010 Qaa algatareh Alroushed, Mafraq 5011 Reshet Alnajelly Alroushed, Mafraq 5012 Almasahlye Alroushed, Mafraq 5013 Albowehy Alroushed, Mafraq 5014 Algaseeb Alroushed, Mafraq 5015 Alsateeh Alroushed, Mafraq 5016 Alzeharey Alroushed, Mafraq 5017 Abu elhussen Alroushed, Mafraq 3718 Alghssen Alroushed, Mafraq 5019 Alnajelly Alroushed, Mafraq 5020 Addehneyeh Alroushed, Mafraq 5021 Alseeb Alroushed, Mafraq 3022 Marab souad Alsafawi, Mafraq 2523 Hassa I Tafeleh 2524 Hassa II Tafeleh 2025 karak Karak 2026 Alrabeh Karak 8

Total 1 402

Source: Ministry of Water and Irrigation,Water Authority Jordan Valley authority, Annual Report 1999.

Table 14.2 Desert dams

Serial no. Dam name Province Dam height Type Capacity(m) (million m3)

1 Alaageb/Khaledyeh Almafraq 15 soil 1.12 Alghader alabyedh Almafraq 13 concrete 0.73 Sama alserhan Almafraq 8 soil ,rock 1.74 Dair Alkaheef Almafraq 5 soil,rock 0.055 Burqa Almafraq 5 soil 1.56 Alboudha Irbid 9.5 concrete 0.077 Algatraneh Karak 12 soil, rock 2.18 Alsultani Karak 13 soil, rock sedimentation9 Allahfi AlZarqa 8 soil 0.710 Wadi Rajel AlZarqa 9 soil 3.111 Aljalat Amman 10 rock 0.0912 Swageh Amman 19 soil 2.513 AlJardan Maan 15 soil 2.314 Almauqar Amman 10 soil 0.115 Alshaalan Almafraq 3 soil 116 Roushed Alshamali Almafraq 7 soil 10.717 Aluntha Almafraq 3 soil 1.0Total 28.86

agricultural irrigation. The total number of desertpools is sixty-six, with a water capacity of 363,950thousand cubic metres (see Table 14.3.).

Rainwater collection wells

Located just below groundwater reserves dug out fromrocks (especially calcareous rocks),these wells are used tocollect rainwater mainly to drink and for animals.Thewells are mostly archaeological remnants from theRoman and Islamic periods.Today, the government andMinistry of Agriculture help local people with funding tobuild such wells to reduce the pressure on the drinkingwater system.

Roman pools

These are water reservoirs built during Roman timesto collect surface water for drinking purposes and foranimals. In Jordan there are a number of historicalpools like Jarash, Zezya, Jawa and Gabla.

Springs

These are small water resources that have appearednaturally, although some of them were dug out in thefoothills or at the bottom of the wadis to collect waterin a special cavity (examples include Ain Almansouraand Ain Zoubia).

Water canals

These are simply narrow canals that were built intorocks, or constructed of rock and concrete, to transferwater to farms. Historically, most of these canals werebuilt by Nebatians in Petra and in Jarsh. In Wadi ElyabisOrjan they were built during the Roman and Islamicperiod.These canals are still used by local people andhave always enjoyed protection by the government andNGO associations.

RRaannggeellaanndd mmaannaaggeemmeenntt aannddpprraaccttiiccaall tteecchhnniiqquueess ffoorr pprrootteeccttiioonn aanndd rreehhaabbiilliittaattiioonnSince prehistory, during the Roman and Islamic peri-ods, the Jordanian people have managed their range-lands according to tribal understandings, by recogniz-ing specific areas of rangeland to be used by differenttribes for grazing their animals at specific times inorder to prevent excessive grazing by animals fromother tribes.

Al-HemmaThis is an old system of creating range reserves thatwere used under the control of a tribal leader or gov-ernor during drought years. In this system theBedouin used this reserved area during the winter ontwo trips to graze their animals in the eastern part ofthe country, while during the spring the local peoplegrazed their animals in the hilly western rangeland.The government establishes range reserves to protectthem from grazing for several years and to rehabilitateand enrich the vegetation cover by planting thereserve with drought-resistant plant species. Jordan hasestablished more than twenty range reserves such asSirra, Alkhnasreh, Dhabah, Aljarba and Rajib, whichare used by farmers with official permission from theMinistry of Agriculture.

Wajihat el AsahiriehThis system has existed in Jordan for a long time, andprovides the tribes with a piece of land for grazing theiranimals, which is managed by the tribal leader. Thesystem allows the tribe to graze their animals during aparticular season and over a certain period of the year.

Forestry and traditional knowledgeJordanian forests have been degraded by such humanactivities as cutting down trees to fuel trains during theFirst World War and for fuel over the past 100 years.Thispractice led to the removal of thousands of hectares oftrees from the northern and southern part of Jordan.The Forest Department has consequently begun anafforestation programme to plant trees in hilly areas likethe Ajloun and Salt mountains to prevent soil erosionand water loss.

The traditional method is to build terraces on privateland before cutting the trees, keeping the vegetation onthe terraces undamaged.The government and the localpeople intend to plant native trees such as Pinus halepensis

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Table 14.3 Desert pools

Province No. of pools Capacity (1000 m3)

Mafraq 43 117 700Karak 9 79 100Amman 3 126 500Ajloun 2 4 750Irbid 3 5 200Balqa 2 7 000Madaba 2 10 000Maan 1 1 700Jarash 1 12 000Total 66 363 950

and Ceratonia siliqua with exotic drought-tolerant treespecies such as Pinus brutia,Acacia cyanophylla and Tamarixaphylla. Religious beliefs play an important role inconserving the forest and preventing some forest speciesfrom disappearing from the Jordanian environment.Holy forests and trees such as Celtis australis, Quercusithaburansis and Pistacia atlantica are protected and plantedfor religious reasons.

The local people use forest tree products for fuel bycollecting dead trees and trees that have been removedduring road construction. In Jordan there is no period-ical utilization of the forest; the bylaws do not allowlocal people to cut down trees for any reason.However,the private forest is used with special permission fromthe Forestry Department. In any case, the Jordanianforest is not a productive source of timber but is valuablefor protecting the soil against erosion and for recreation.The local people also use forest products for food,collecting the fruits of species such as Pyrus syrica,Crategeaus azarrolus, Arbuts andrachne, Ceratonia siliqua,Pinus halepensis, Quercus ithaburansis, Pistacia atlantica,Pistacia palestina and Rhus coriaria. Products like the fruitof Quecus ithaburansis and Quercus calliprinos are used foranimal fodder, while others are used for dying leatherand clothes, and some are used in handicrafts.

Terraces and contour linesTerraces and contour lines constructed for farmingand for planting trees are normally set in hilly areas toprevent soil erosion.These methods have been in usesince Roman times and are still used by local people.Nowadays the government and the Ministry ofAgriculture give financial support to encourage thelocal people to employ this method. In Jordan thereare several major projects to build terraces, such as theSad Elmalik Talal Dam project and the Yarmouk riverproject in the northern part of Jordan.

AgricultureCrop rotation

Jordan like any other Middle Eastern country hasdeveloped its agricultural system over thousands ofyears of practice. Patterns of crop rotation include:

• planting wheat one year and barley the next• planting chickpeas in summer and wheat in winter• planting wheat one year and legumes the next.

Soil treatment

• Surface tillage. The soil is normally tilled two tothree times consecutively in opposite directions.Animals (faddan) and traditional almehrath (awoody tool for tillage) are used for this. Surface

tillage is undertaken to maintain soil fertility,employing a traditional tool (mehrath baladi) andanimal manure to produce two crops a year.Legumes are planted in the first year and vege-tables in the second (followed by grazing for oneyear and lying fallow for another).

• Minimizing soil erosion.There are various practicesfor this, such as: digging drainage rows in theground for water drainage;making tillage strips andallowing animal grazing in the summer; plantingflat areas and leaving the rocky slopes for animalgrazing.

• Improving soil moisture.Ways of improving soil mois-ture include: surface tillage to open the soil surfaceto receive the first winter rainfall showers; summersurface tillage to close the soil to prevent water lossand keep the soil moist; planting the land withwinter crops and leaving the land fallow in thesecond year; surface tillage to improve soil textureand harvest runoff while preventing soil erosion.

Traditional knowledge and cultivated wild speciesVarious cultivated plant species originated in Jordan, asdid wild wheat and viches (Vicia spp.), and the localpeople still plant some of these.They include Triticumspp. Hordeum, Aegilops,Allium spp., Vicia peregrena, Lath-yrus spp., Medicago spp., and other fruit and wild treessuch as Pyrus syriaca, Amygdalus communis, Olea europea,Prunus spp., Pistacia atlantica and Lens spp. It should benoted that most of these plants are threatened speciesand are cultivated by farmers in isolated villages.

Medicinal plantsTraditional medicine in Jordan can be divided into twotypes:preventive and curative.Preventive medicine,usedto avoid illness, includes practices such as hangingamulets on the body, writing verses from the Koran,taking vows, visiting the tombs of saints, outwitting theevil eye, and observing rules of behaviour, religion andhygiene.

Curative medicine on the other hand is used wheneither physical or mental illness has already struck. Itnormally relies on medicinal plants.

The flora of Jordan is made up of about 2,500vascular plant species (Al Esawi, 1998), of whicharound 25 per cent are considered to have medicinalproperties (around 485 species of medicinal plantsare recorded).

Medicinal plants are mostly managed by women whodeal with the whole procedure, including planting,collecting and processing.There are special routines forcollecting specimens as collection depends on timing(plants wither in the early morning or late afternoon),


and drying and processing also require special methods.The women working with medicinal plants know thesemethods and practices.

Animal husbandry (traditionalpractices) Animal husbandry is widely practised in the easternpart of Jordan. The local people (Bedu) may benomadic or sedentary and remain in the badia, andmake up only about 4.7 per cent of the total popula-tion of 4.15 million (Ministry of Planning, 1989). Inthe badia, the Bedu settlements are tribal based, with allmembers living on land given to the tribe by the gov-ernment as a way of encouraging them to settle. Asthese settlement are far from urban centres, the Beduhave been better able to keep their cultural values andtraditions than other populations, and their economyis still dependent on livestock and livestock products(Al-Oun, 1998).

Animals play a central role in the social andeconomic life of the Bedu and are well adapted to theharsh environmental conditions of the desert. Theseanimals are raised in an extensive nomadic systemwhere they graze throughout the year, travelling severalkilometres in search of scarce food and water.Very oftenthe owners travel with their animals from one region toanother, crossing national frontiers to secure food andwater.The animals depend mainly on grazing, and arevery rarely provided with straw, particularly during thewinter.The mating season is July and August. Milkingis performed manually,mainly by women.The kids andlambs remain with their mothers for two to threemonths in order to receive the necessary amount ofmilk before the owners sell their animals in the marketon Mondays and Thursdays, using the Rouz method.Little professional animal health care is provided; treat-ment chiefly depends on the acquired experience of theshepherd and elders, whose traditional approachincludes such methods as oil drinks and flame (cauter-ization). Sheep are sheared at the beginning of the

summer hot season and the fleeces are sold by the jizeh(the amount of wool from one animal).The Bedu usetraditional practices to rear animals, selecting certainstrains of camels, sheep and goats that are resistant todiseases and thrive on natural vegetation. At the sametime, they produce milk and meat (for instance, awasisheep). The Bedu rear Arabian horses as symbols ofstrength and dignity.

Extensive grazing and increased numbers of animalsper unit of land, as well as policies and regional politics,have affected the zone of desertification in the region,which requires an immediate strategy and policy forcorrection and intervention.


AL-EISAWI, D.M. List of Jordanian vascular plants.Mitt. Bot. Munchen,Vol. 18, 1982, pp. 79–182.

AL-OUN,S.The current situation of the Bedu in the badiaof Jordan. Dakar, Global Biodiversity Forum, 1998.

BAJJALI,W.; ABU-JABER, N. Climatological signalsfrom paleoground water in Jordan. Journal ofHydrology, No. 243, 2001, pp. 133–47.

EL-OQLAH,A.A. Report to the FAO on the present sta-tus of medicinal, culinary and aromatic plants in Jordan.Cairo, FAO Cairo office, 2000.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE. Annual report1999. Amman Jordan, 1999.

MINISTRY OF WATER AND IRRIGATIONWATER AUTHORITY. Jordan valley authority: annualreport 1999. Amman, Jordan, 1999.

SALAMEH, E.; BANNAYAN, H. Water resources ofJordan; present and future. Amman, Potantilas FESRSCN, 1993.

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as well as land cover changes, in order to help dwellersand authorities understand the current situation and topredict the future of the area.

The use of existing indigenous knowledge/practicesof the Mongols, such as nomadic pastoralism, and ofmodern technologies in sustainable use of the naturalresources in dry areas of Great Gobi is presented fordiscussion.

GGrreeaatt GGoobbii SSttrriiccttllyy PPrrootteecctteeddAArreeaaThe Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area is one of themost significant protected areas in the world in termsboth of size and of the biodiversity it supports.The needfor its continued protection was recognized and priori-tized by the Mongolian Biodiversity Action Plan. Itsglobally significant biodiversity was also identified in theNational Action Plan Against Desertification.


Natural resource management in the Great Gobi StrictlyProtected Area

Davaa Narantuya and Tserendeleg Dashzeveg, Great Gobi Conservation Project, Ministryof Nature and Environment, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

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IInnttrroodduuccttiioonnThe Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area (GGSPA), isone of the biggest protected areas in Mongolia andwas designated as a UNESCO biosphere reserve in1991. Habitat loss of globally significant fauna andflora of the park (including the buffer zone), landdegradation and loss of ecosystems are a result of themismanagement of the limited resources.

The main aim of the Great Gobi ConservationProject is to ensure the long-term conservation of theGreat Gobi ecosystem and its umbrella species byconsolidating the park management authority, improv-ing participation of local communities in making deci-sions about the SPA, and supporting research andenvironmental monitoring activities through the devel-opment of a model conservation programme, using thewild Bactrian camel. Geographic information systems(GIS) and remote sensing techniques may assist in deter-mining and analysing the potential habitat of the fauna,

Figure 15.1 Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area (A)

International borderProtected area borderRoadTownOasis (permanent shelter)

Mountain summitSpringSaxaulTakhi (Przewalski’s horse reintroduction programme enclosure)Sand

Eej Khairkan mountainnationalmonument Bayantooroi

55 km

Mongolia’s Great Gobi reserve (Figure 15.1) pro-tects largely undisturbed parts of the vast Gobi desert,and provides a last refuge for representatives of theancient terrestrial fauna of Central Asia.The GGSPA(Figure 15.2) was established in 1975, and in 1990,UNESCO designated the Great Gobi as a BiosphereReserve, the fourth largest Biosphere Reserve in theworld, and the largest in Asia.

The protected area is divided into two ecologicallydistinct parts, the Southern Altai Gobi (Gobi A) and theDzungarian Gobi (Gobi B), separated by 300 km.GobiA comprises the Altai, Tsogt and Erdene soums (sub-provinces) of Gobi Altai aimag (province), and the BayanOndor and Shinejinst soums of Bayanhongor aimag. Itcovers a geographical area of 4.42 million hectares, andlies between 42°30'N, 95°30'E and 44°20'N, 99°10'E.

The terrain features small mountain ranges andmassifs broken by wide valleys and hummocks. Despitewhat many people imagine, very little of the area iscovered by sand.The Atas Mountain, at 2,695 m asl, isthe highest point in the GGSPA, and the lowest pointis 586 m asl.

The area exhibits flora and fauna typical of thedeserts of central Asia. Scientists have identified 410species of plants, forty-nine species of mammals, fif-teen reptiles and amphibians and over 150 bird species

in the protected area. The Southern Altai Gobi isuninhabited except for park staff and border guards.Desert steppe species are primarily found at higherelevations, with saxaul forests occurring on mountainslopes. Southwards, the climate becomes increasinglyarid, and low elevations of the Southern Altai Gobi arecharacterized by stone-covered super-arid desert.

Unique flora and fauna include such wildlifespecies as the wild Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianusferus) and the Gobi bear (Ursus arctos gobiensis).Reptilesfound that are endemic to Central Asia include theGobi gecko (Cyrtapdion elongates) and Tatar sand boa(Eryx tatarica).

Water sources in the area are critical for largemammals and many other desert animals. Springs areparticularly scarce,and are concentrated in mountainousmassifs and low hills.

The internal zoning of the strictly protected area(SPA) plays a significant role in its management. SPAterritories are classified into three protection zones (seeFigure 15.2): the core, buffer and transition zones. Outof a total of 4.42 million ha of GGSPA, 27.8 per cent isin the core or pristine zone, 57.5 per cent is in theconservation zone and 14.7 per cent is in the limitedzone (under the system for internal zoning of strictlyprotected areas of Mongolia).

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Figure 15.2 Zones of the Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area (A)

Soum centreGobi bear locationsState borderProvince borderSoum border

1 Pristine zone2 Limited zone3 Conservation zone4 Buffer zone

1

2

3

4

DDeessccrriippttiioonn ooff bbuuffffeerr zzoonnee((MMoonnggoolliiaann SSPPAA iinntteerrnnaall zzoonniinngg))The GGSPA buffer zone covers an area of about 1.8million hectares and includes the areas of five sur-rounding soums belonging to two aimags: Gobi-Altaiand Bayanhongor.

About 12,000 people reside in these soums; theTsogt soum of Gobi-Altai aimag has the highestpopulation, with 4,500 inhabitants. All five soums arecharacterized by the extensive use of the saxaul treefor fuelwood (see Table 15.1). The reason for thishigh consumption is the enormous amount of live-stock that died during the consecutive harsh wintersof 2000–2. Nearly 250,000 head of livestock (mainlycows and horses) died. This caused a scarcity ofanimal dung, which was used for fuel, and as a resultpoverty increased. At the same time poaching wastaking place. Some herders sold belongings such asmotorcycles to buy livestock.Tsogt soum uses saxaulspecifically for heating in schools and hospitals. Altaisoum has the highest saxaul consumption for its half-yearly usage.

The northern border of the GGSPA is Edryn ridge,the only wintering shelter for the local herders. Itextends over 200 km from west to east, and 20 km fromnorth to south.There is quite significant competitionamong locals to secure sites for the winter. In order todevelop adequate pasture management planning, theproject conducted field surveys on biophysical andsocio-economic data about the area for further analyses.The survey revealed that most households’ livestock hadbeen hit by the consecutive drought and zud of 2000–2,and that wolves are another threatening factor. House-hold income is generated mostly from cashmere; there isvery little income from livestock raw material or value-added milk products as they are not worth very much.Households do not cooperate with each other in termsof labour, objectives or activities due to their lack ofknowledge about cooperation and sharing experiences.The ail (neighbourhood) of Khot is not included inEdryn ridge, possibly because of the shortage of pasture

and water.The poor quality of water means that it is notused for drinking purposes; instead, water from snowand ice is used during winter. (Livestock are givenwater once every three days.) Some families crossbreedwild camels with domestic breeds, as they believe thatcrossbred camels are faster and have finer wool.

Households in the transition zone often see graz-ing wildlife (ibex, argali), which suggests a conflict inthe habitat and at water points between livestock andwildlife.

Some activities have taken place in Edryn ridge torestore the springs.The park staff made a small pond(1 m2) to collect running water through a 10 m metaltube, and the spring water collected in this way wassufficient to meet the needs of wildlife.This approachwas singled out as the best option for wildlife.

EExxiissttiinngg ccoonnssttrraaiinnttssThe GGSPA is under increasing threat from habitatloss and degradation along its northern border andthroughout its buffer zone as a result of mismanage-ment of the limited water resources.There is a dangerof loss of ecosystem integrity and depletion of speciesabundance and diversity, with species such as the wildBactrian camel at risk.

Overgrazing and range deteriorationMost of the core Great Gobi SPA is in pristine ornear-pristine condition as there is low human (andconsequently livestock) intervention. However,human incursions lead to habitat degradation alongthe northern border of the park and in the immediatebuffer zone. Both overgrazing and over-collection oftrees and shrubs have tangible impacts on biodiversity,affecting for example the Argali sheep, ibex, goiteredgazelle,Asiatic wild ass and snow leopard.

Local grazing patterns and rights are complex, andthere is increased transhumance movement along thenorthern border of the park that is caused by:


Table 15.1 Saxaul use and livestock numbers in GGSPA buffer zone

Buffer zone soums Saxaul use (ton) Wells No. of livestock Deep Manual In disrepair

Altai 280.0 6 19 4 9 044Tsogt 258.0 16 29 4 19 894Erdene 75.0 8 44 5 11 175Bayanondor 125.0 5 48 16 16 978Shinejinst 104.5 25 71 16 24 000Total 842.5 60 211 45 81 091

Source: Dashzeveg, 2003.

• family-based groups appearing as a result of de-collectivization in the early 1990s

• reversion to traditional grazing areas and seasons,especially wintering camps along the northernborder of the park’s Edryn ridge

• abandonment of past collective grazing areas• increasing herd size • new markets for cashmere wool, leading to a

greater proportion of goats, which are known forcausing compaction of fragile soil systems and forbeing indiscriminate foragers

• less nomadic movement• longer periods spent in wintering areas bordering

the park where reliable water sources are available,due in part to the disrepair of wells in the bufferzone

• poverty.

Under exceptionally harsh winter circumstances, peo-ple are allowed to bring their livestock into the bufferzone of the park.The GGSPA management authoritycontrols permission, but illegal incursions occur andsome herds may venture into the pristine zone.

Over-collection of dung, saxaulbushes and downy poplars forfuelPeople have traditionally relied on animal dung, saxaulbushes and downy poplars for fuel. Due to over-harvesting, mismanagement and lack of regeneration,the quantity of saxaul and downy poplar has decreasedaround traditional grazing areas and settlements.Thereis increasing pressure on more pristine areas and withinthe park itself. In some cases illegal incursions and large-scale ‘stripping’ of saxaul and other shrubs has beenreported. The latter may lead to direct and lastingimpacts on the desert ecosystem where slow growth ofperennial ecosystem is the norm.

There is too little understanding of biologicalrequirements for sustainable management, and harvest-ing occurs without taking biological needs intoaccount. Most saxaul is culled and the harvest impactson the ecology of the area, since the removal of deadmatter causes wind erosion and loss of the nutrientcompaction of topsoil.At present, the use of dead saxaulis restricted.

The situation is worsened by the lack of steward-ship by local communities who are excluded fromthe resource use decision-making process. Lack offormal access and use rights serves as a disincentivefor communities to control resource access. Aspeople have few opportunities to make a living inareas further outside the bag (administrative unit ofsub-province) centre limits, they come under pres-sure to collect from areas within the park. This in

turn creates greater pressure on the already stretchedpolicing and enforcement capabilities of the parkmanagement staff.

Decline of water resources Water resources and management are a key factor inthe Gobi because all humans, livestock and wildlifedepend on a safe and reliable water supply. In recentyears there has been a decline in the availability andquality of water resources across the great Gobi SPA.In particular, the numbers of functioning springs oroases in the core and protected zone are decreasing.Desert oases in pristine, near-pristine and protectedzones have decreased by 60 per cent in the last fewdecades, and this is likely to have a direct impact onwildlife movements, mortality and fitness.The declinein water resources is due to:

• increased use of the natural springs (in otherwords, competition for water by livestock andwildlife along the northern border of the park, or‘capping’ of springs to prevent access by wildlife)

• collapse in the maintenance and operation of thedeep wells in the buffer zone, leading to morereliance and pressure on natural springs and parkborder areas

• little rehabilitation or management of water sourcesdue to a lack of funds, leading to a dependence onthe natural springs along the northern border

• erosion, sedimentation, a drop in the water tableand climate change.

Water resources for wildlife such as the Bactrian cameland Gobi bear are becoming scarce; this may lead to ahabitat shift. Erosion may also contribute to the habitatshift of wild animals.Also, the probable effect of globalwarming on local water supply is not fully understood.The Mongolian water agency indicates that the perma-nent water table (above 5 m) has changed little over thepast twenty-five years. However, in the core area of thepark there are oases where the water table has droppedand standing water no longer exists. It has beensurmised that as some springs dry up, there is excessivepressure on the remaining ones. In some sites this hasresulted in physical degradation of the oases brought onby extensive wildlife use, with consequent trampling,sedimentation and loss of resources.

DDeepplleettiioonn ooff ssppeecciieess aabbuunnddaannccee aanndd rriicchhnneessssThere is a general consensus that the populations of rarespecies such as the wild Bactrian camel, Gobi bear andArgali sheep are at a critically low level.The Gobi bearis endangered by the effects of inbreeding depression.

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The genetic pool of the wild Bactrian camel is weak-ening because of interbreeding with domestic camels.Argali sheep are easily disturbed by human presenceand suffer from substantial poaching and grazingcompetition by domestic stock.

Though the actual causes of species decline are notyet defined, a number of factors are hypothesized ascauses, including:

• wolf predation of wildlife young• wildlife migration to China • cross-breeding of wild camels with domestic strains• disease transmission• limited water and forage• poaching.

Recent studies suggest there is competition for foodand water between the domestic camel and otherwildlife roaming inside the park. Moreover, largeintermixed herds of domestic and wild camels havebeen reported at oases in the SPA’s western part.Thisleads to concern about interbreeding and the geneticerosion of wild camels. Apart from the interbreedingthreat, vector-borne diseases are transmitted to wildcamels through contacts with domestic camel herdsbelonging to the military outposts.

The values of biodiversity and conservation are stillnot seen as sufficiently important among local commu-nities, the military or the government.Targeted trainingin more modern techniques of ecosystem managementis urgently needed. Management actions must be basedon the sound evaluation and monitoring of potentialcausal factors and results.For example, the revitalizationof water resources may be a useful management action,but its efficacy needs to be properly tested.

Common problems characterizing the territory ofthe GGSPA buffer (transition) zone include:

• poor quality of drinking water that threatenslocal health

• land degradation caused by overgrazing and goldmining

• scarcity of water sources/water shortage• herder families moving into wildlife habitat areas

due to shortage of water sources• shortage of winter and spring camps• overlapping of wildlife and livestock habitat • desertification, sand movements• deforestation of oases.

AApppplliiccaattiioonn ooff mmooddeerrnn tteecchhnnoollooggyyaanndd ttrraaddiittiioonnaall kknnoowwlleeddggeeIn order to combat species decline and preventfurther land degradation the government of Mongo-lia aims to launch a package of conservation and

human development initiatives. In particular, govern-ment funds will be used to support sustainable liveli-hood options for nomadic communities and assist inbasic water supply and management schemes. Bothmodern technology and traditional knowledge mayhave considerable value in retrieving, analysing, andstoring and managing natural resources.

RS/GIS applicationsEvery resource survey involves ground sampling, andthis can be speeded up by new satellite technologiesthat can provide ground navigation. Particularly inremote areas without good base maps, roads or refer-ence points, determining geographic location is amajor task. Satellite-based global positioning systems(GPS) can identify positions for ground sample pointsquickly, inexpensively and very accurately.

A geographic information system (GIS) permitsthe capture, storage, manipulation, analysis and displayof spatial data.These may be in the form of maps (e.g.land use), images (e.g. satellite), point data (e.g. rainfall)or tabular data associated with geographic areas (e.g.census data). A GIS is capable of storing, processingand displaying all these types of information.

A GIS can be considered in terms of more generalroles (Wadson and Treweek, 1999), including:

• visualization and communication that help peopleto understand what is known about the distributionof particular species

• audit and inventory that help understand andmeasure how much of a resource is present andhow it might be changing

• analyses, predictions, modelling and decisionmaking that help people to understand the signifi-cance of information and to make better-informeddecisions.

Remote sensing (RS) includes instrumentation, tech-niques and methods to observe the earth’s surface at adistance and to interpret the images or numerical valuesobtained in order to acquire meaningful information ofparticular objects (Janssen, 2000).

The use of remote sensing, combined with a GPS-navigated ground sampling strategy, yields a more accu-rate and credible product (in the form of estimates ormaps) than can easily be produced through groundsampling alone. It is impossible to generate resourceestimates (for example, range production and animalcensus) or produce maps quickly, inexpensively andaccurately using ground samples alone. Remote sensingand statistical methods are critical for balancing theimprovement of information accuracy (that is, moresampling) against the added cost of that improvement.

The use of GIS and remote sensing techniquessupported by statistics has great value in sustainable


management of natural resources (Skidmore et al.,1997).Warren and Hatchinson (1984) have producedsignificant findings through monitoring rangelandchange with the aid of remote sensing data, and haveidentified causal factors.Toxopeus (1996) and Aligulaet al. (1997) demonstrated successful spatio-temporalmodelling for sustainable management of semi-aridrangelands, as well as geo-information use forsustainable rangeland management of a park inKenya, taking biophysical and socio-economic datainto account. NOAA data for drought monitoringhas been extensively used in Mongolia, and over tenyears time-series data reveal drastic vegetation coverdegradation in the study area (Oyun, 2004). Manyother findings and research can be referred to. Socio-economic and biophysical data collected by the proj-ect personnel will be used to produce comprehensivevisual output specifically designed for end users suchas communities and higher authorities. These mayinclude digital elevation models (3D) and pasture orland cover/use maps with data on winter campsites;some analyses are to be done specifically on a land-use suitability map.

The following outputs can be produced with RSfor further sustainable land use management:

• wildlife distribution and potential habitat mapping(Lamperierre et al., 1980), for example of the wildcamel, Gobi bear and Argali sheep

• species richness and diversity of both flora andfauna (Narantuya, 2001)

• interaction between wildlife and livestock• land cover change detection (Westinga and Thalen,

1996)• degree and scale of patchiness (Rietkerk et al.,

1998)• vegetation regeneration possibility detection

(Milton and Dean, 1995)• pastureland maps showing degradation level and

pasture availability (Rasmussen et al., 1990)• land suitability for certain uses such as silvo-culture

or grazing• assessing suitability of areas for safaris or ecotourism• effects of climatic disasters on livestock and wildlife

population (Ottichillo et al, 2000; Kay, 1997)• many other products taking different factors into

consideration.

Such information can successfully be used for monitor-ing, evaluation and management, and can be scaled upto the regional and even global scale taking slightlydifferent factors into consideration. Such applications,supported by traditional practice of Mongols, willproduce beneficial results.

The government of Mongolia has emphasized theneed to promote the application of traditional knowl-edge for purposes of nature conservation. The

Mongolian national security concept (Law onEnvironmental Protection) fully supports and respectsthe traditional practices of local communities for theutilization of biological resources (Convention onBiological Diversity, 2002).

Indigenous knowledge embodies local values andmanagement systems as well as awareness of therelationships among other resources, for examplesoil–vegetation associations.

Mongolia has a long history of good practice inconservation and sustainable use of natural resources.From ancient times the Mongolian people have relieddirectly on natural resources for food and materials, andhave accumulated a wealth of traditional knowledgeover thousands of years of nomadic animal husbandryculture. For example, Marco Polo noted that theMongols had a closed season for hunting or disturbingwildlife as they respect mating and birthing seasons. In1709, the Khalkh Juram Law set aside sixteen mountainswhere hunting, cultivation and timber felling wereprohibited.Those who wanted to hunt for food had tofirst appeal to the Spirits of Sky,Mountains and Land toforgive them for the sin that was to be done. Moreover,water was actively protected, mainly by means ofprohibiting tree felling, earth digging, rock moving andpollution of water sources.

Local knowledge is the starting point for workdirected towards animal health, livestock productionand environmental conservation, and provides thebasis of more socially oriented strategies for copingwith drought, resolving conflicts and sharing commonproperty.

A recently established NGO in Mongolia is usingancient scripts to restore and rehabilitate indigenousknowledge. Its work will make a significant contribu-tion in training and applying traditional knowledgefor nature conservation purposes.

Suggested applications of traditional knowledge/practicePasture management

Traditional practices developed by the Mongols overmany centuries to manage pastureland (which providesthe forage for their livestock) have implications not onlyin the management of over and under-utilized grazingland but also in combating desertification. Nomadschange their pasture from season to season to make rota-tional use of pastureland.The grazing land managementmethods of the Mongols can be divided into two kinds.One is otor:a transhumance type of pasturing practised inlate summer and autumn when herders take advantageof the seasonal growth of vegetation by moving theiranimals from place to place, following good grassland inorder to avoid trampling and overgrazing and thus landdegradation.

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Another management method is used in winter andspring, when pasture productivity is low. In this case,pastureland is divided into basic resources for horse andmilked cows. Use is first made of the furthest pasture,when livestock is still fattened and able to movedistances.As the conditions become harsher, livestock isherded in closer pasturelands to prevent any loss.

This practice is being improved through pasturemanagement training and encouragement of localparticipation. In this context, herders are made tocomprehend the value of having higher-quality live-stock, rather than a greater number of animals withdisease and parasites. Pasture utilization practice, assist-ed by GIS and remote sensing products such as 3Ddigital terrain maps and pastureland degradation-stagemaps of the area enable locals to visualize the existingcondition and location of their own and their neigh-bours’ camps. In this way, the carrying capacity andplant regeneration status of the area will be deter-mined. Meanwhile, a participatory rural appraisal toolhas been applied among the herders to identify theproblems confronted by the community itself, and toassist and mobilize them in forming herder groups.

The remoteness and isolation from the market ofthe Gobi region makes training on market determina-tion necessary. Many of the relatively less-educatedherders are still not convinced that high productivitylivestock is better than huge but less productive herds.

Forestry to combat desertification

Afforestation,natural vegetation management and agro-forestry systems can be used to control and combatdesertification. The reforestation tradition of theMongols is documented in legal documents and booksfrom as early as the thirteenth century (for example,Chapter 58 of the legal code of 1294 indicates thenecessity of reforestation and gardening). That theselaws were effective and obeyed is confirmed by MarcoPolo’s note on Mongol tree-planting practices alongthe roads and trails that enabled strangers to travel with-out difficulty and not lose their way. There are veryearly documents containing information about fruit-tree gardening practices in the Gobi oases and rivervalleys. In the seventeenth century, in order to ensure aclean environment, it was prohibited to fell trees, to cullwildlife or pollute the environment near the capital city.Those who disobeyed the law were punished by seizureof their equipment.

The above practices of reforestation can be appliedto the successful re-establishment of saxaul trees. It issuggested that every saxaul that is cut down should bereplaced with three to five replants.

Water resource management

In order to restore wells and water supplies in the

buffer zone, and to reduce impacts due to the overuseof natural spring water along the park border, it is wiseto use historical, local knowledge as well as lessonslearnt from previous projects on water rehabilitationand management.

Local people in the Gobi region can detect watersources by the distribution of saxaul, karagana, poplarand budargana. They have a rich knowledge ofbotany, invasive flora, disaster signals and so on. Forexample, they are aware that collection of shrubs andfeather grass will result in water table decline.Appli-cation of such knowledge in practice will simplifyany existing problem. Using their knowledge andcapacity to visualize the effects of changes that willtake place in time, dwellers understand and becomeinvolved in taking action towards the sustainable useof natural resources.

Wildlife conservation

Restrictions on hunting were adopted in the thir-teenth century to prevent disturbance of wildlife inthe mating and birthing seasons.These were enforcedby strict punishment in order to prevent the loss ofwildlife species, including their possible migrationfrom the territory of Mongolia.

To ensure that local dwellers recognize the effect adecrease of wildlife inhabitants would have, they needto be taught that conserving wildlife will generateincome, at least in long run. Community-basedwildlife conservation will become a good techniquefor family income generation, supported by domestictourism and photo safaris.

Weather forecasting

Mongols have a great tradition of using their knowl-edge to predict the weather using flora, animal, stars,the moon and so on in relation with each other. Forexample, if Stipa grass dominates in the summer pas-ture, this indicates a harsh winter (zhud). If the sun issurrounded by a halo, it is a sign of imminent rain; andif the moon is surrounded by a halo, it will becomecolder. If marmots hibernate earlier and roe deeroccur in large numbers, this indicates zhud. If thecolour of the rainbow is bright or salt becomes moist,bad weather is on the way.

Local predictions of weather and seasons from thebehaviour of wild or domesticated animals are wide-spread in the region, varying from area to area.Typicalexamples are:

• If a cuckoo sings early in the spring, summer willbe short and autumn longer.

• If birds fly low, expect a rainy year.• If a ruminant makes a sound while breathing in,

it is a portent of a dust storm.


RReeccoommmmeennddaattiioonnssThe natural resources of these fragile environments canbe better managed through the integrated application oflong-practised traditional knowledge together withremote sensing and GIS supported by spatial modelling.The best indigenous practices such as otor pasturemanagement,which prevents over and under-utilizationof grazing land, should be adopted and used.

Community participation at all levels of manage-ment should be encouraged: communities themselvesshould define the problems and realize the need forrational utilization of natural resources, and will thustake part in and support management and planning.


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MINISTRY OF NATURE AND ENVIRON-MENT Mongolia’s wild heritage. World Wildlife Fund,United Nation Development Programme, 1996.

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RASMUSSEN, M.S.; JAMES, R.;ADIYASUREN,T.;KHISHIGSUREN, P.; NARANCHIMEG, B.;GANKHUYAG, R.; BAASANJARGAL, B. Support-ing Mongolian pastoralists by using GIS to identifygrazing limitations and opportunities from livestockcensus and remote sensing data. Geojournal, No. 47,1999, pp. 563–71.

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pseudoacacia L., Gleditschia traicanthos L., Elaeagnus angus-tifolia L.Shrub species include:Ribes aureum Pursh.,Coti-nus coggygria Scop., Caragana arborescens L., Loniceratatarica L., Tamarix. These shrub species can also befound on solonetzs.

The eastern zone of Kalmykia is in an area ofbrown soils. In the northern part (Sarpinskaya low-land) brown loamy soils and solonetzs predominate,while to the south (the ‘black lands’, or in RussianTchernye zemly) soil types change from loamy toloamy-sand. Frequent sand masses are found here,whose quantity increases towards the seaside–deltabelt. The main shrub species found here includeCalligonum aphyllum Gurke., Eurotia cratoides L. andvarious kinds of Tamarix.

The resilience of species in specific types of soils isthe principal consideration for selecting plants for for-est cultivation.When planning cultivation of arboreal/shrub plants on a territory, they should be classifiedaccording to the type of forest-cultivable conditions ofcertain soils. Furthermore, specific species should bematched to particular types of soils, taking intoaccount their ecological growth characteristics.Takingecological aspects into consideration is one of themain guarantees of the survival and longevity ofplants. It provides an opportunity for the efficientusage of species, within an assortment of differenttypes of forest planting conditions.

Protected forests have high meliorative, agronomicaland economical effectiveness and can be regarded asthe determining factor in the organization of highlevels of land use. Improvements in land-use culture,agricultural and industrial employment, and the gen-eral living conditions of the inhabitants in woodlessregions of Kalmykia require a system of planning andthe concept of protected forests to ensure close andbeneficial interaction between the different types ofagroforest landscapes in the republic.


The biodiversity of agroforest landscapes of Kalmykia

Andrey P. Bogun, Kalmyk Institute of Social, Economic and Legal Research, Elista,Republic of Kalmykia

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The character of forest vegetation is influenced by manyfactors (climatic, edaphic, biotic, historical and others).But of all the factors affecting forest vegetation ofKalmykia, two are most important for the growth andstate of arboreal/shrub plants: the dry climate, whichprovides little moisture for the soil; and soil diversity,which influences the growth, condition and pattern ofspecies.

There are about 160,000 ha of protected forests inKalmykia today. If managed appropriately, they wouldbecome an active regulator of the ecological and biolog-ical equilibrium in meliorative areas, thus forming a newtype of anthropogenic landscape – the agroforest.

The growth,health and longevity of trees and shrubsdepend heavily on the pattern of afforestation and thecultivability of the soil. It is for this reason that thechoice of tree species should be carefully related to thesoil type and the characteristics of its salt regime andsalinization. Long experience of afforestation inKalmykia makes possible a clear understanding of howthe arboreal/shrub group depends on the soil–climaticconditions of natural–economic zones of Kalmykia.

On chernozem and dark-chestnut soils in the west-ern zone, more than thirty tree and shrub species aregrown. Here the following tree species are found: Quer-cus robur L., Robinia pseudoacacia L., Gleditschia triacanthosL.,Ulmus pumila L.,Ulmus laevis Pall.,Ulmus foliacea Gilit,Fraxinus lanceolata Borkh., Acer negundo L., Ailanthusglandulosus Dest., Populus alba L., Pinus Pallasiana Lamb.,Pinus silvestris L.. Shrub species include: Ribes aureumPursh, Caragana arborescens L., Amorpha fruticosa L., Rosacanina L., Crataegus L. Fruit tree species include: Juglansnigra L. and Armeniaca vulgaris Lam.

On dark-coloured soils of the central zone, the samegroups of plants can be found. On light-chestnut soilwith different salt content and salinization, however, thearboreal/shrub assortment is more limited. Among thegroup of tree species the following demonstrate stabil-ity: Ulmus pumila L., Fraxinus lanceolata Borkh., Robinia

Another moral rule involved the cutting down oftrees, which was only allowed in the case of an emer-gency. The Kalmyks believed that trees understoodhuman speech, and strictly upheld the cult of thelonely tree as a symbol of the district. Such trees wereconsidered sacred objects of worship.

In the Kalmyk territory today one can see manylonely trees.There is a legend about one that grows inthe north of Kalmykia and is called ‘Tree of Heechi’.Heechi was an old man who lived with an old womanand their only son, Chotny. The woman becameincurably ill and died. Having buried her, the old manlater understood her illness and himself became ill. Hecalled three old men and forced them to migrate toanother district and not to come back for three years.Meanwhile, he remained alone and began plantingtrees along the border of the lake. When three yearshad passed, Buddhist priests from the Dundu Templeread prayers, and after this ritual the old men decidedto return to the area. There they discovered onesprawling apple tree in which, the temple attendanttold them, the soul of the old man, Heechi, wasembodied. Thus, he brought happiness to the peoplewho lived in the settlement. Since that time the ‘treeof Heechi’ has been a subject of worship for adults andchildren, and its leaves and fruits became ‘arshan’, amagic medicine. People who were unwell would walkor be carried around the tree forty-nine times as partof their treatment (Zyltrhn, 1976).

The meadow-sweet was another tree that was highlyvalued by the Kalmyks. In Kalmyk fairy tales, bogatyrscarried whips made of meadow-sweet grafts. In fairytales, the whip took the role of the soothsayer’s omen.One fairy tale hero called Zorigte left his whip to hisbrother after thrusting it to the ground and saying:‘If oildrips from the cutting of this whip, it means I am alive;if blood, I am dead.’ The whip thus takes on all themagical,protective functions of the meadow-sweet tree.

In the epic Djangar, the description of the bogatyr’swhip is one of the transitive formulas of the heroic tale.This is typical of the repertoire of such storytellers asEljan Ovla and Mukebjun Basangov. The distinctive

109Poster presentations

SSeessssiioonn 44:: PPoosstteerr pprreesseennttaattiioonnss

The ecological traditions of the Kalmyks

Tamara G. Basangova, Kalmyk Institute of Humanities Research

17The establishment of moral, legal and social norms bythe Kalmyks also included a code of conduct or attitudetowards animals.The herder–nomad lived in completeharmony with the surrounding world, and in order topreserve this harmony lived according to a whole systemof prohibitions and symbolism, which was taught froman early age. According to the Kalmyks, it was incon-ceivable to cut a lone-standing tree,or whistle pointlesslynear the herd (which could provoke a strong wind).Tokill a frog would cause rain,and to kill a crane would,theKalmyks believed, bring a curse on the offender.

The Kalmyks were prohibited from shooting gamebirds, especially eagles, swans and cranes.They believedthat animals, game and fish understood the worldsconnected to them, and that any disrespectful huntingwould bring misfortune; it was believed that animalswould keep away from the offender,who consequentlywould be left without a catch.Part of the fish catch wasreleased back into the sea as a sacrifice to the owner ofwater: to the khan of luses.

According to the Kalmyks, the White Old Man wasthe owner of the district and they believed that hecould wander with the herd of saigas, preserving them.Echoes of the hunting cult are still marked today in theKalmyk language, and is expressed in the forbiddennames of animals: Thus, people say ‘teepn’ instead of‘noha’,‘chushka’ instead of ‘gaha’,‘bor’ – the wolf – insteadof ‘chon’.The particle ‘jumn’ is attached to the names ofanimals and various things: for example, ‘ovrte jumn’meaning ‘the cow of letter ju’ (horned), or ‘turuta jumn’for hoofed cattle; ‘ondg jumn’ is a horse that can besaddled, ‘saadg jumn’ a cow that can be milked; ‘meeldgjumn’ are bleating goats.

The cattle-breeding tradition of the Kalmyks wasreflected in their prohibitions and taboos:

• If the cow had calved, it was forbidden to removethe milk from the house within three days.

• The birth of twins by cows was considered a badomen and one of them had to be given to relatives.

• During cattle migration it was forbidden to pick updroppings, dust and other objects from the ground.

feature of the whip’s handle is that it is made from a treethat grows alone (tnchn, jarsa modn) (Burikin, 2002). Alone tree (which could be of various types) was a subjectof worship because the spirit of the owner of the districtwas said to be embedded in it. It was forbidden to cutdown a lone tree, but if a powerful weapon was madefrom it by the masters (yrchud – sacred persons whowere able to work with it), then their magical propertieswere transmitted to the weapon. The bogatyr foughtagainst his enemies with the help of his whip; onewhipped his horse so fervently that ‘drops of blood,about the size of a bowl flew from the whiplash’.

The careful attitude of the Kalmyks to their districtis reflected in the ceremony of the burial of nails. (TheOirats from Western Mongolia also practised this cer-emony.) The burial of nails was a special ceremonyinvolving the pronouncing of a charm, consisting ofeleven strophes. This charm represents a dialoguebetween the participant in the burial of nails, togeth-er with the owner of the ground (sazrin ezn), and thenails. At the ceremony a piece of land is requestedfrom the owner, and the participants of the ceremonythen sacrifice a gold and a silver coin.The text of thecharm concludes with wishing the nails to become ‘awhite transparent rock’ (had bolh). This expression isconnected to the ancient custom that people were

usually buried on a rock, close to a dry mountainslope; after death the person becomes one with themountain and departs up the hill, merging with it.Thecouplet ‘Bi zal byyrl sahlta, zasan gvgn bolnav’ (‘I shallbecome a white old man with a beard’) makes tangi-ble the invisible ceremony of the owner of theground: the White Old Man.

In the folklore tradition of the Kalmyks, there werea number of myths concerning pets (cats or dogs). Inaccordance with the national beliefs of the Kalmyks,the souls of ancestors were reincarnated in dogs.Thefirst thing the Kalmyks did upon seeing a hungry dogwas to feed it, and they believed that it should carryout only sentry functions and help its owner in hunt-ing. Keeping a dog indoors in the house, however, wasconsidered a sin.


BURIKIN,A.A. Why is the handle of Hongor’s whipmade from a lonely tree? In: The Kalmyks and theirneighbours in the Russian Federation, pp. 162–4. Elista,2002.

ZYLTRHN, B.A. Teegin nohan, p. 259. Elista,1976.

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Nature. Its personified, canonized image can often befound in Buddhist iconography,and even more so in thedepiction of characters of pre-Buddhist folk beliefs.

Art is a projection of an artistic reflection of reality.Ethnic consciousness designs the mytho-poetic,syncretic model of the Universe.The unique wholenessof the folk worldview was denominated in ancientanimistic beliefs, animating Sun, Sky and Land.Nomadism implies the organic unity of Nature andpeople, which never conflict with one another. It findsan expression in the spiritual culture of the people inreligion: the traditional way of seeing the world, defin-ing the relative positions of the person,Nature and soci-ety. There the archetypal structures have their being,realizing primary connections between the phenomenaof world perception and world reflection.The archetypeas an element of the structure of the primitive genericconsciousness is transformed in the process of mythcreation into images of the external world.

The patterns of graphic art represent the idealorganized system, a model of Being in the mytho-poetic vision of the ‘epoch of the world tree’. Graphicart is the single authoritative source of mythologicalinformation, as it creates conditions for its visual recon-struction. The traditional culture of the Mongoliannation, which is its distinguishing ethnic feature, isrepresented in the anthropomorphous image of Nature.It is a distinctive reconstruction of the Buddhist graphiccanon; the central character of the animistic outlook isDelkyan Tsagan Ovgon (in Kalmyk): the White Old Manof the Universe.His sources lie in the ancient culture ofthe matriarchal epoch. In Buddhist paintings, he isdepicted in ways that vary in the different regions of theMongols, Buryats and Kalmyks. The Kalmyk variantmost brightly and deeply expresses the ecologicalbalance of Nature and the individual in the nomadicfolk culture. The specific ethnic variations in theiconography of this image are a characteristic elementof Kalmyk traditional culture.

In the foreground, the White Old Man growsfrom the ground in the Buddhist icon. In this image,Sky, Sun, Land and the Person are equal.Their unityis naturally represented by the person, who emulatesthe condition of the surrounding world.This imageis an ecological representation of the invigoratingpower of Nature. One could hardly find a more all-embracing formulation of the ecological balance oflife, understood as a harmonious alliance of Nature,the individual and society.


An ecological aspect of Buddhist iconography

Svetlana Batyreva, Kalmyk Institute of Humanities Research, Elista, Republic of Kalmykia

18The Mongolian folk art of Central Asia is unique. Itdeveloped at the time when a canon of Buddhist fine artevolved under the influence of folklore.Old Kalmyk artin the historical-cultural context represents an organicstewardship of artistic traditions and the wholeness of thenation’s traditional culture. Indigenous representationswere incorporated into the complex philosophicalsystem of Buddhism, as it was perceived in Central Asiaby the Oirats, the ancestors of the Kalmyks. Buddhisticonography is syncretic in interpreting Mongoliannomadism: it represents a further development of theancient Buddhist cultural traditions of India and Tibet.

The content of traditional graphic art informs usabout the Mongolian mytho-poetic consciousness. It isstrictly mythological, representing the traditionalculture’s universal complex of symbols. Culture is notonly moulded by the influence of the environment buthas also an internal dynamic, expressed in ethnic artistictraditions. Among the Mongols, the sources of thesetraditions are in the spiritual sphere of the categoriesand symbols of traditional nomadic culture, representingthe ‘unique cultural world of the Mongolian peoples’. Itis an interconnected system of views on the harmony ofNature, the person and society.

The generic structure of society is seen as fundamen-tal to the whole of Creation in its traditional relationshipbetween people and Nature.Nature is predominant,butthe phenomena of spiritual nomadic culture are deeplysocial.The memory of ancestors is a genetic mechanismhidden in the depths of the psyche and consciousness ofthe ethnic community. This is the original collectiveworld perception. It comes from the depths of the past,existing as a primary layer in the consciousness ofhumankind.C.G.Jung called it the ‘archetype’:a substan-tive characteristic of the prototype, fixed in graphic art.‘Archetype’is a term that indicates fundamental,originalschemes of representations that are the basis of artisticstructures of the consciousness.

In the iconography of Northern Buddhism, there isa specific regeneration of archetypal structures of thecollective memory.The phenomenon of the traditionalculture is born in the form of the cult of particular signs,phenomena and subjects embedded in the graphicmemory of ancestors. The history of art is a journeyfrom the ‘language of signs to the language of a seman-tically saturated culture’. In traditional art, the patternedspace of the depicted scene alludes to the ancientcosmogony of ancestors. It represents an archetypalbuilding block, revealing the attitude of the person to

In the composition, the iconography of the imagerepresents a mythological world tree, with the rootsdeeply embedded in the ground and with the crownrising skyward, connecting land and sky. This is themain idea of the scene. The archetypical worldviewdesigns the mytho-poetic space.The person is not theomnipotent conqueror of Nature, but is an equivalent,harmonious part. Such is the traditional world attitudeof the people, confirming the harmony of life. In theBuddhist paintings of the Kalmyks, Nature is the firstand fundamental home of humanity.

This unusual image of the Universe was born inthe prehistoric epoch of the matriarchal life of thepeople. It is the artistic foundation of the epic folkheritage, a profoundly distinctive concept of being.The iconography postulates the ecological balance of

Nature and person. In the worldview of ancestors,which is the basis of traditional culture, lies the con-cept of the spirituality of Nature in the image of theperson. Animism, nurturing the non-rational worldattitude, offers humankind a resolution to the globalecological problems faced by modernity.This takes theform of a cultural dialogue, eschewing conflictbetween Nature, the individual and society.

AAcckknnoowwlleeddggeemmeennttThis article was written with the support of a grantfrom the Russian Humanitarian Scientific Fund, No.04–04–6003.

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for the sustainable preservation of the ecological andcultural environment. Nowadays it is urgent to studythe invaluable knowledge that makes up the treasuretrove of the ethnic culture, to ensure it is preservedand, if possible, recover what has been forgotten.

One in ten of the respondents (10.4 per cent)believe that many of the nature-preserving traditionsshould be reviewed. 7.6 per cent of the participantsthink that the traditions, which in their opinion arerelics of the past, must also change. Fortunately, agreater number of the respondents think differently:41.5 per cent of those questioned think that nature-preserving traditions should be revived and reintro-duced into everyday practice, and 35.3 per centemphasize the importance of traditional knowledge inmodern life.

The answers we received to the open question‘What do you know about the attitude of our ancestors totheir land?’ give us an opportunity to understand whatthe contemporary inhabitants of Kalmykia knowabout the nature-preserving traditions of the Kalmykpeople. Some 17.2 per cent of the Kalmyk respon-dents (group 1) and 11.9 per cent of the non-Kalmyks(group 2) simply have no idea. Among the responses,we found unexpected and even utterly misleadingaccounts, whereby the respondents saw no correlationbetween livestock breeding, the traditional economicactivity of the Kalmyks, and the land itself. Some 3.3per cent of the respondents from the first groupremarked that their ancestors were cattle-breeders andhad no relation to land farming.

The following answers characterize the positiveattitude of the ancestors to the land:

• Took good care of the land: 29.4 per cent (group1); 17 per cent (group 2).

• Respected, valued and cared for it: 22 per cent(group 2).

• Respected it as the main supplier of their needs:5 per cent (group 1).

• Were more responsive to the land than we arenow: 3 per cent (group 1).

• Were in harmony with nature; wanted to pass iton to the next generation.

Another category of answers gives a more distinctpicture of the human–land relationship; 11.1 percent of the first group and 3.7 per cent of the secondgroup believe that the Kalmyks as nomads rotated


Nature-preserving aspects of ethnic culture

Ludmila Namrueva,Kalmyk Research Institute for the Humanities,Elista,Republic of Kalmykia

19In the course of centuries of life in the steppes, theKalmyks, steppe nomads, have developed a well-adjusted system to regulate the norms of humankind’sbehaviour and attitude to nature, taking into accountthe ecological fragility of the steppe landscape. In amodern civilization, where the problem of environ-mental protection is particularly acute, it is advisableto study and use traditional knowledge and ethno-ecological culture.With this and the historical past inmind, it appears indispensable to make use of tradi-tional knowledge of the people in the effort to adjustthe ethnic culture of the Kalmyks to the modernindustrial urban civilization.

In 2003, the Centre of Ethnic-Social Research at theKalmyk Research Institute for the Humanities (Russ-ian Academy of Sciences) conducted preliminaryresearch with the aim of defining the public attitudetowards ecological issues and testing its speciallyworked-out methodological procedure. The researchquestionnaire consisted of several blocks of questions,which were to formulated to:

• determine the public attitude to ecologicalproblems in Kalmykia

• evaluate measures taken by the authorities andsociety to tackle these ecological issues

• explore attitudes towards the nature-preservingtraditions of the Kalmyks

• identify the characteristics of ecological trainingat home and in schools.

Those taking part in the questionnaire numbered 289,a rather small sample due to lack of funds to conducta larger survey.Town dwellers made up 75.4 per centof those questioned; the remaining 24.6 per cent wererural dwellers. Male respondents made up 44.3 percent, and female respondents 55.7 per cent.As for theethnic affiliation of those questioned, 62.3 per centwere Kalmyks, 29.1 per cent were Russian, and 8.6per cent were representatives of other ethnic groups.

This paper is intended to provide a tentative analysisof some results of the survey.

AAttttiittuuddeess ttoo nnaattuurree--pprreesseerrvviinnggttrraaddiittiioonnssThe Kalmyks possess a unique ecological culture thatprovides the population with all its needs while caring

their pastures, allowing the land to rest and sopreserving the grass cover. Some 2.2 per cent of thepeople questioned from group 1 and 1.5 per cent ofgroup 2 remarked that the Kalmyks reared a specialbreed of flat-hoofed sheep, which do not trample thegrass and land. Only a few in both groups noticedthat the wise forefathers did not raise more cattlethan was necessary. Some 2.8 per cent of the Kalmykrespondents mentioned that the ancestors made useof the water springs and also took care of them.

In some questionnaires we find descriptions of vari-ous rites: for example, it was forbidden to dig the landthoughtlessly, to walk on one’s heels, to whip the landor perform various other acts, in order to avoid unnec-essary loosening of the soil. For the same reason, theKalmyks used to wear turned-up footwear. Theyworshipped the land as the most sacred of all things,begged its pardon for treading on it, and offered it lavishsacrifices.One of the tasks of our research was to definewhat aspects of ritual activities involved ecologicalelements: the presence or absence of ecologicallyoriented forms of conduct.

The responses given to the question ‘Do you takepart in traditional folk rites of passage?’ indicate that thepeople in our sample do not generally take part insuch rites. Negative answers were given by 46 per centof the respondents. The rest of the respondents takepart in the following rites:

• Festive occasions (both Kalmyk and Russian): 23per cent.

• Natal events: 2.2 per cent.• Weddings: 4.4 per cent.• Life-prolongation: 3.3 per cent.• Land, water consecration: 6.1 per cent.

It should be noted that most of the respondents (75 percent) were from urban areas, and according to theKalmyk ethnographists, they are less aware of the ritualculture than the rural population. This is definitelyreflected in the results of our research.

In spite of the fact that ethnic traditions are beingrevived in the republic, few people are actively involvedin the process, or particularly aware of that facet of theethnic culture.This can be confirmed by the results ofthe survey. Some 27.2 per cent of the respondents donot have any idea of the reasons underlying those tradi-tional rites. Among the answers to a question on thattopic, there are many widespread, stereotyped, mass-media clichés that show that the respondents had madeno effort to find the true reasons for such rites.Amongthe main motives mentioned were:

• Preservation of folk traditions: 18 per cent.• Preservation of the ancestral memory: 2 per cent.• Succession of generations: 2.5 per cent.• Striving for general well-being: 5.6 per cent.

• To improve the ecological situation: 4.2 per cent.• To foster patriotism: 2.1 per cent.• Rebirth of the national culture: 2.5 per cent.

There is no nation without tradition.Traditions uniteand strengthen the nation. Neglect of folk traditions,and blind adoption of technical and cultural innova-tions, result in the extinction of nature awareness, oftraditional nature-friendly economic activities and ofsustainable land-use, cumulatively aggravating theecological situation in the republic.

TThhee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff eeccoollooggiiccaallccuullttuurree aammoonngg tthhee ppuubblliiccThe west European experience in the field of eco-logical activity shows that the environmental situationcan only be radically improved if all social strata areactively involved. In turn, the degree of public activityin resolving ecological problems depends on the levelof ecological awareness and public consciousness, andon the distribution of information about the environ-mental situation. A question designed to assess thedegree of public involvement in nature-preservingactivities, was answered in the following way: 31.1 percent of the respondents said that no such activity hadbeen organized or ever taken place, 33.2 per centagreed that if there were good leaders and organizersthey would follow them, while 28.7 per cent weresceptical and observed that public passiveness hampersthe organization of such events.

One of the questions was intended to evaluate theefforts made by the local authorities to preservenature. Only 21.1 per cent of respondents are satisfiedwith such efforts.The overwhelming majority (73.7%)do not find the measures taken by the authorities suf-ficient to resolve the present ecological problems inthe republic, and 33.9 per cent think the ecologicalsituation is deteriorating.

There is huge public interest in the issues of socialecology (contemporary environment-friendly aspectsof social economic development of the region). Thevast majority (82.7 per cent) of the respondents areconcerned about the ecological problems facing therepublic, and only 5.8 per cent of the respondentsclaimed that these issues are of no concern to them.Some 26.6 per cent of the respondents are determinedthat the issues of nature preservation should beurgently addressed, otherwise it will be too late tochange anything.

The questionnaire data enabled us to rate the eco-logical problems on the territory of Kalmykia in thefollowing order of priority:

1. Low quality of drinking water: 86.2 per cent.2. Desertification: 56.4 per cent.

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3. Extinction of rare animal species: 34.6 per cent.4. Air pollution: 31.8 per cent.

Numerous tests on drinking water show that it does notmeet the normative sanitary, chemical and microbiolog-ical standards.The issue of water supply in the republicis therefore of vital importance.Which solution will besthelp to protect health and improve living conditions?

According to scientific data, 80 per cent of the terri-tory of Kalmykia is subject to desertification; soil degra-dation has reached critical proportions and isaggravating the ecological situation everywhere in therepublic.That is why the issues related to desertificationprocesses are given top priority in our rating.

The ecological awareness and behaviour of theKalmyks has been realized in the form of steady tradi-tional stereotypes, which have been passed from onegeneration to the next over many centuries: that is, theywere of successive character. In this transfer of experi-ence, knowledge and traditions, the role of experts infolklore and ritual culture is crucial. Some 6.2 per centof the respondents note that in the place where they livethere are many people who have preserved the ancestraltraditions and handed down their knowledge to theyounger generation. In some questionnaires we couldeven find references to the names of such people.However, more than half of our sample (51.6 per cent)think that there are very few such knowledgeablepeople, although these do pass on their knowledge.Another 28 per cent of the respondents think there areno such people left. There is no doubt that this factcomplicates the ecological socialization of the generalpublic.

One question was aimed at finding out how fami-lies pass on environmentally friendly and appropriateattitudes. Half of the respondents (50.5 per cent) admitthat their parents would seldom instruct them in thisregard, but that those useful instructions stayed withthem for life.Some 14.9 per cent report that it was their

grandparents who took care of their ecologicalupbringing; 19.7 per cent feel that their parents did notpay enough attention to raising their children’s eco-logical awareness due to lack of time; and 12.1 per centbelieved they learned a lot about nature from Kalmykstories and the works of Kalmyk writers. Thus, morethan two-thirds of the respondents stated that they weretaught within their families to treat nature respectfully.

The next question aimed to find out if the respon-dents’ relatives knew and were able to construct theirrelationships with nature. A total of 39.1 per centreplied that their close relatives could not treat theenvironment correctly because they were anxiousabout their daily needs (such as managing to supporttheir families). Some 8 per cent of the respondents arenot interested in environmental issues at all, and arequite unconcerned about it. In contrast to this group,a quarter of the respondents are concerned about theenvironmental situation, and are aware that the futureof their children depends on their attitude towards theenvironment now. Indeed, 9.3 per cent admit that pri-ority must be given to ecological issues, which arevital for human life and activity.

Ecological education and nature-consciousness areindispensable elements in sustainable nature use andenvironmental protection. They form the ecologicalculture, ethics and morality that regulate people’s con-duct and enable them to make correct decisions inecological practice. In this regard, the role of botheducational institutions and families as the main agentsfor ecological socialization is very important.

The results shown in Table 19.1 show that 39.1 percent of the respondents think the ecological curriculumof educational institutions is satisfactory. However, themajority of the respondents (56 per cent) disagree.Theythink that schools either approach ecological educationin a merely nominal, formal way or do nothing at all inthis field, and that the existing curricula need to berevised. Incidentally, it should be noted that effective


Responses % of total number

Yes, I am fully satisfied, my children go to nursery school where ecological education is given a lot of attention. 6.6

Yes, my children get a lot of information in the field of ecology.Then they teach elder members of the family. 8.6

Yes, school does a lot to form ecological consciousness in our children. 23.9

No, school does practically nothing in this regard 15.9

No, this issue is approached formally, leaving no impression in either the minds or the souls of the children. 30.4

No, this part of school curriculum must be reviewed. 9.7

Table 19.1 Survey of parents’ views of the quality of ecological education in schools

ecological education can only be achieved throughsystematic training of skills and paying attention to thechildren themselves and nature as a whole.

The problems brought to light in the course of thissurvey require insightful analysis. In this connection itis necessary to conduct sociological surveys to studythe ecological consciousness of the general public.Theconcern of the public about the worsening environ-mental situation is increasing year by year. The mainthing is that every person should be aware of his orher individual participation in and responsibilitytoward nature.There is truth in the statement that, of

all the world’s ecosystems, the fate of the steppe is themost dramatic, and the main protagonist in the finalacts of this drama is humankind.

AAcckknnoowwlleeddggeemmeennttThis paper was written with the support from theprogramme for fundamental research of the RussianAcademy of Sciences ‘Ethno-cultural cooperation inEurasia’ (‘Ethno-cultural cooperation of South Russiapeoples’).

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observed in the ethnic and local specificity of Kalmykcalendar knowledge.

The centuries-old experience of contact with natureis reflected in the cattle-breeding calendar of theKalmyks.The recurrence of seasonal natural phenom-ena actually led to the first representations of thetemporal cycles. The seasonal marking of time wascarried out on the basis of phenological features (forexample, planting trees and gardens, grass).According tothe Kalmyks’ world outlook, the year was divided intofour seasons of three months.The first season lasts fromthe middle of the first winter month to the middle ofthe first month of spring (tsagan ul’rl, ‘the white season’);the second season begins on the fifteenth day of the firstspring month and ends in the middle of the first monthof summer (devyan ul’rl, ‘the grassy season’); the thirdseason runs from the middle of the first summer monthuntil the middle of the first autumn month (nogan ul’rl,‘the green season’); the fourth season begins on thefifteenth day of the first month of autumn and contin-ues until the middle of the first winter month (kiryuul’rl, ‘the season of hoarfrost’) (Korsunkiev, 1977).Thebeginning of the year is supposed to take place duringthe winter solstice (21–3 December).The old month-names of the seasonal calendar represent the ancientoccupations of the Oirats (ancestors of the Kalmyks),taking the names of birds or constellations.

The month was divided into three decades: sarin shinfirst,then sarin dund,and third sarin khuuchn.The Kalmyksidentify four phases of the Moon: the first quarter, sarinekn; the full moon, arvn tavna sar ; the second quarter,khuuchn sar; and the new moon, dald sar.

The Kalmyk year was divided into two parts: thewinter and summer half-years. Winter and summersolstices served to mark the division, and were deter-mined in accordance with the length of a temple’sshadow and its movement during the longest andshortest days of the summer and winter (Korsunkiev,1987). The division of the year into two halves wasconnected with the important natural and climaticrhythms of economic activities: pasturing cattle fromearly summer, and bringing them back when the coldarrives. Such archaic forms of calendar are typical ofcattle breeding nations.

Although the Kalmyks now use the Gregorian calen-dar,traditional holidays are celebrated in accordance with


Folk knowledge in the life-support system of the Kalmyk ethnos

Ellara U. Omakaeva, Kalmyk Institute of Humanities Research,SSC Russian Academy of Sciences, Elista, Republic of Kalmykia

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The Mongolian peoples, and notably the Kalmyks, stillhold the ancient belief that all things and entities in theworld and in their environment have a spirit lord:mountains and rivers, trees and lakes, sky and earth, fireand water, places and even dwellings have their ownsoul. Many elements of traditional knowledge havebeen preserved through the cults and rituals that havebeen practised in this region and remain a living tradi-tion today.Traditional rites and customs concerning thelife circle of every person (birth, marriage, death) andcalendar (holidays) are still prevalent among the present-day Mongols in general, and among the Kalmyks inparticular.

In recent years, several books and articles on thissubject have been published (Bakaeva, 1993, 2003;Omakaeva,1995,2003).These works have enriched ourknowledge in this field, which had previously beenknown to us through the work of U.E. Erdniev (1980).

The main aim of this paper is to identify and analysethe characteristics of the Kalmyk system of traditionalknowledge on the basis of information taken from fieldstudies and Kalmyk old-script documents (manu-scripts). Most of the published manuscripts have beenout of print for decades, and thus beyond the reach ofscholars.

The system of folk knowledge is an important part ofthe spiritual culture of ethnos and is closely connectedwith its economic activity and world outlook.

CCaalleennddaarr kknnoowwlleeddggeeThe system of calendar representations of the differentpeoples, including the traditional Kalmyk calendar, is ofgreat interest for investigating many aspects connectedwith problems of ethnic and cultural genesis, traditionalceremonial rites and the outlook of the peoples. Thecalendar contains information about base categories ofthe worldview such as time (Omakaeva, 1999). Thecalendar stores the image of our ancestors’ life; it is arepresentation of the earth order and appears as one ofthe approaches for mastering the special knowledge ofmythology through the consciousness of naturalappearances (Braginskaya, 1997).The different naturaland climatic conditions, as well as the varying life-support systems, of the different peoples can be

the Kalmyk lunisolar calendar.This is the very point thatdefines the approach to Kalmyk holidays: to uphold thetraditional ceremonies and to keep a vow of one-daypost-macak.Every year of the Kalmyk lunisolar calendar,as well as each day, is named after one of twelve animals,its own element (makhmud), its own sign (menge), itsplace, its planet, its constellation (odn).

The twelve-year animal cycle is familiar to manyCentral Asian nations, including the Oirats. It wasadopted by the Mongolian peoples in the thirteenthcentury and is still very popular with them today.

This twelve–year cycle commonly starts with theMouse-year, but a distinctive feature of the Kalmykcalendar is that the cycle begins with the Tiger-year.ANew Year begins with the first Tiger-month, whichstarts between the twentieth days of November andDecember. In this way, the Kalmyks always begin thefollowing year of the animal cycle two months earlierthan other Mongolian nations.

The twelve years of a cycle, as well as the twelvemonths,are divided into ‘male’and ‘female’.Numberingthe days of the month depends directly on the Kalmyknational calendar. The ‘male’ months (Tiger, Dragon,Horse,Monkey,Dog and Mouse) always begin from theTiger-day. The ‘female’ months (Hare, Snake, Sheep,Hen, Pig and Cow) begin from the Monkey-day; theMonkey is thought to be the antipode (kharsh dzil) tothe Tiger. In this connection, it is very important tostudy the gender aspect of the traditional culture: thedifferent roles of men and women (regarding rites,taboos and the like) and their different relations withnature and the environment (Omakaeva, 2003).

Each day of the month, as previously mentioned, isalso connected with one of the twelve animals. If thereare skipped (tasrkha) or doubled (davkhr) days in themonth, then the animal character is also skipped orrepeated accordingly.

TThhee aassttrroonnoommiiccaall aanndd pphheennoollooggiiccaall kknnoowwlleeddggee ooff tthhee KKaallmmyykkssThe Kalmyks know the main celestial luminaries verywell. Observing the movements of the planets andstars, the people gained experience in meteorology,which was passed on from generation to generation.The Kalmyks had the cult of celestial luminaries: theSun, Moon, the planets of stars and constellations(Omakaeva, 1993). In addition to these, other planetssuch as Mars (Ulan nyudn, ‘Red eye’), Mercury(Ulemdzi), Jupiter (Pyurvya), Venus (Tsolvng) andSaturn (Bembya) were known to the Kalmyks. TheKalmyks distinguished the Morning and EveningStars. The Morning Star signalled the start of a newworking day. The Evening Venus was called Zal’gdgemgn by the Kalmyks (‘the swallowing old woman’).

The Kalmyks made a cult of the Ursa Major con-stellation (Dolan burkhn, ‘Seven deities’), considered tobe a measure of happy life. In the Kalmyk calendarthere are special days set aside for lighting icon-lampsto honour Ursa Major. Each of the seven stars thatmake up the constellation is thought to have a deitywhich is connected to one of the energy channels ofhumanity. The polar star was represented to theKalmyks as a sentinel (Altn gasn, Golden picket).People call it Bat odn or ‘Fixed star’.

The Pleiades, an accumulation of seven small stars,were reliable signs to orient oneself in time. Theirappearance in the sky was connected with the onset ofwinter, and their disappearance with the approach ofwarm weather. Several times a year the Pleiades comeclose to the Moon. The Kalmyk weather tellers paidspecial attention to the position of the Moon and thePleiades during such periods. On this basis they wouldpredict future meteorological conditions.People used tocall the Pleiades ‘cold stars’, and it was proverbial that:‘Ifthe Pleiades shine brightly, there will be frost.’ TheKalmyks connected various superstitions with the stars.

CCoouunnttaabbllee aanndd mmeettrroollooggiiccaallkknnoowwlleeddggeeOn specific days, the Kalmyks predicted the character ofthe forthcoming winter.One such day was the fifteenthof the middle winter month. If the weather was fine andsunny on that day, there would be blizzards and lack offood.If the weather was cloudy and rainy,late winter andspring would be warm.The Kalmyks also made forecastswith the help of a thread.They would hang a weight onit,and before sleeping they would hang it from a columnor a pole in their yurt (traditional nomadic dwelling). Ifin the morning the thread was twined round the pole ina clockwise direction, under the influence of the wind,it was considered a good meteorological sign. If it was ina counter-clockwise position, then a cold winter was tobe expected.

Numbers were also well known to the Kalmyksfrom childhood, going up to a billion and higher.Theyhad a system for keeping count on their fingers. Ourancestors were well familiar with geometrical con-cepts such as togrog (circle), gurvldzn (delta circuit),dorvldzn (quadrate) and so on.

The national system of measurements was widelyused in the everyday life of the Kalmyks. Their linearmeasurements were made with various parts of thehuman body: tokha (elbow), ald (sazhen), delm (half-sazhen), toe (span) and others. Containers of differentsizes served as the liquid measures: tsogts (a sacrificial cup,100 g), shaazng (drinking bowl, 400 g), borv (a leatherflask,3-7 π),bortkh (flask,4 π), suulg ‘karka’ (7 π),arkhd (aleather bucket, 30 π). Dry measures were alchur (a shawlparcel), uut (leather sack) and tulm (leather bag).

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GGeeooggrraapphhiiccaall kknnoowwlleeddggeeAccording to Kalmyk belief, there is a mountain calledSumeru at the centre of the Universe (somr uul).Situatedaround it are seven gold mountains, between whichthere are seven oceans. Mount Sumeru has four sides,each of which has a particular colour: the east side iswhite (made of silver), the south side dark blue (lazu-rite), the west side red (ruby) and the north side yellow(gold).The Universe consists of 4 major continents.

VVeetteerriinnaarryy kknnoowwlleeddggeeThe Kalmyks knew animal anatomy very well, as well ashow to cut up an animal.The knowledge of anatomyhelped in the treatment of their cattle.Treatments includecauterization and exorcism. They used a so-called‘dragon’s arrow’ or ‘devil’s claw’ to cure a cow with atumour on its udder,affixing it to the udder while saying:‘Let poison be taken by the arrow’. Usually this wasapplied three times. Each time the negative energywould diminish after the ‘dragon’s arrow’was laid downon the ground. Other charms included the fang of amole, claw of a black bird and the nail of a woman whohad given birth to twins (Bordzhanova, 1999)

KKnnoowwlleeddggee ooff bboottaannyy aanndd zzoooollooggyyThe nomadic life of the people taught them aboutflora and fauna. Plants played a great role in the life ofthe Kalmyks. Some served as raw material for the pro-duction of embrocations. Shagan budg, for example,was ‘an embrocation for an alchik’ (an ankle-bone).They were also used in dressing hide, pharmacologyand cooking national dishes.

MMeeddiiccaall kknnoowwlleeddggeeThe Kalmyks have their own traditional medicine(Omakaeva, 1997, 2000, 2002).This is determined by anumber of factors: local natural and climatic conditions,economic and cultural activities, and people’s ethnic andcultural contacts. The contacts made by the ancestralKalmyk with eastern nations, which had a variety ofmedical systems, were very important in the develop-ment of medical knowledge. The roots of Kalmykmedicine are found in Iranian, ancient Indian, Chineseand Tibetan medical schools.The latter approach waswidely used by the Kalmyks due to the spread ofBuddhism. In the Buddhist monasteries, the doctors(emchi) were particularly masterful, and the patron ofBuddhist medicine is Manla Buddha.The spread of theTibetan medicine among the Kalmyks is connectedwith Sangadzi-Aravg, a founder of ‘Emchin temple’

(‘emchi’ means ‘a doctor’). Kalmyk doctors, includingmany well-known monks (Dordzi Setenov, DamboUljanov, H. Baburkaev, O. Dordziev and N. Kichikov),received their education in Tibetan monasteries.

Kalmyk doctors were given different namesdepending on their form of treatment: emchi (treatingwith medicines and herbs), otchi (bone-setters), bo,udgn, medlgchi (shamans and masters). As experts inmedicinal magic, the shamans and masters providedtreatment with the aid of charms and spells.

Kalmyk national medicine had two main forms oftreatment: medicinal and non-medicinal. Medicinalremedies were divided into those of vegetable, animaland mineral origin. It is thought that the Kalmykemchi knew up to three thousand medicines.

Curative broths and powders were made fromvegetable raw materials. These were gathered in thesteppes or bought at chemist shops, where the medi-cines were supplied from Tibet and China;plants such asthe sage-brush and milfoil, among many others, werewidely used.Medicinal grass and tonic tea from curativegrasses were mentioned in the Kalmyk epic,‘Djangar’.

Bile, raw meat and milk products were also used.Among milk products, koumiss (fermented mare’smilk) should be noted. Drinking koumiss was consid-ered to be the best way to gain strength and health. Itwas prescribed in cases of exhaustion, tuberculosis,anemia and struma.

Animal fat, particularly badger’s fat, was consideredespecially effective for curing tuberculosis, and hasbeen used for treating many diseases. The badger’smeat was considered a useful medicine for stomachpain.There is a legend about this:

Once upon a time an old man lived with his son.The son came down with a stomach ache and hesoon died.To understand the cause of his death,theold man performed a dissection and found some-thing hard, like a horn, in the stomach of his deadson.The old man used this horn to make a handlefor a knife, which melted once the old man hadeaten badger’s meat.

Children were treated for scrofula by placing a sheep’sheart to the aching ears.The sheep was picked out fromthe herd without letting its ‘owner’ – nachtsnr (thematernal relatives) – know. In the case of appendicitis,the patient was prescribed fresh mutton broth. Theboiled water mixed with oil was often used as a goodremedy. Meat roasted in gopher’s oil was widely usedfor whooping cough.

Poultices and wrappings, made from cloths andsheepskin, were widely used for physiotherapeuticprocedures.This form of treatment is described in thewell-known medical manuscript Kok khutsin nom(‘The book of the dark-blue ram’). Baths, compressesand cupping-glasses were used in physiotherapy.


Natural resources such as mineral water, silver,sand, salt, clay, ashes and so on were of great impor-tance in Kalmyk traditional medicine. Metal treatmentwas also widespread, particularly the use of copper forfractures. Hydrargyrum, camphora and tar were alsoused. Glues and mountain resins were included in thecollection of medicines.

Non-medicinal forms of treatment included mas-sage, gymnastics, water treatment and acupuncture. Inthe seventeenth century, a treatise on acupuncture andcauterization was translated from Chinese into theOirat language.

The Kalmyk emchi thought that the human organismconsisted of five elements: earth, water, fire, wood andiron. Upsetting the balance of the five elements, or ofthe three regulative systems or the two types of energy,was thought to bring about illness. The treatmentdepended on which elements were lacking in theorganism at that time.The predominance or shortage ofone or another element in the organism depends on theseason. For example, the element ‘iron’ is weak in thefirst seventy-two days of autumn; this translates as thetime of the lung.The first seventy-two days of winterare linked with water: this is the time of the bud.Thefirst seventy-two days of spring are linked to the tree:this is the time of the liver.The first seventy-two days ofsummer are linked with fire, and this is the time of fire.The remaining eighteen days of each season are associ-ated with the element ‘earth’.Thus, everything is basedon the mutual relationships between the elements.

In Tibetan medicine, the laws managing the mutualrelation of elements were symbolically termed ‘mother’,‘son’,‘enemy’,‘friend’.These laws were of great impor-tance in explaining the state of energies in the humanbody, which in the West are called biorhythms.As this isthe purpose of the horoscope, it can be said that Tibetanmedicine was closely connected to astrology.

Illness is often linked to nutrition: rich and fattyfoods cause illness that is associated with bile; too muchstarchy food is also deleterious, and a calorie-poor dietis associated with wind. In all, Kalmyk medicine distin-guished 404 common illnesses and 360 diseases linkedto the nervous system.The 404 common illnesses weredivided into four groups, depending on the cause of theillness and the method of treatment. The first threegroups were caused by three fundamental morbidfactors, and illnesses of the fourth group by evil spirits.There were two methods of treatment: doctors curedcertain forms of illness, while the other kinds weretreated with charms and magic. One class of illness wastreated with special rituals (the shamanist ritual ga gargkhor the Buddhist ritual gurm) and the last groupcomprised illness that did not require any treatment.

The Kalmyk doctors could diagnose (by studyingthe pulse, urine and so on) and treat a number of ill-nesses, including typhoid fever. They distinguishedeighteen forms of typhoid, six forms of illness linked

to consumption, five forms of stomach catarrh andnine forms of smallpox. Black smallpox was consid-ered the most dangerous form of these, and themildest was chickenpox.

The ritual ‘ransom of life’was the most radical way ofrecovery. This ritual calls for a religious service that isperformed in front of the patient.A figure of the patientwas made with dough and spells were read to it. In thisway, the illness was ‘driven’ into the figure, which wasthen thrown onto the crossing of three roads or taken outon the steppes.The figure was thrown into a hole facedownwards and covered by earth (Smirnov,1881).In themore distant past, a real person might replace the doughfigure.The person would wear fine clothes and be placedon the patient’s favourite horse to be expelled foreverfrom the native nomad camp.The reading of spells wassaid to expel the spirits of illness from the patient bytransferring them into the ‘double/substitute’.If a personfelt in low spirits,apathetic or flaccid,then it was believedthat the soul had left the body. It was necessary toperform a ritual ‘calling the soul’ so that the personwould not die.

According to our records, two people could performthis ritual: the Buddhist priest (gelung) together with hisassistant whose horoscope had to be in harmony withthe patient’s.A tent was set up on the steppes with thepatient lying inside it, and food was placed in a basinoutside.The priest and his assistant placed a cap belong-ing to the patient on the big shinbone of a sheep’s rightleg.Twice a day during sunrise and sunset, the gelungcalled out to the soul, calling it by the patient’s name. Ifthe soul returned, the patient’s cap became heavier thanthe sheep’s shinbone.The assistant would then grasp thecap and place it on the patient.

The sumsn (the soul) was of great importance innational medical treatment.The Kalmyks considered itto be the vital power that circulated in a person’s bodyover a monthly cycle.According to the Kalmyk calen-dar, the soul was considered to be present in the big toeon the first day of the month; during the second day, itwas said to be contained in the malleolus or sexualorgans;on the third day, in the muscles;on the fourth, inthe loin or elbow; on the fifth, in the knee joint; on thesixth, in the femoral muscle; on the seventh, in the side;on the eighth, in the kidneys; on the ninth, in the edge;on the tenth, in the brachia or blade; on the eleventh, inthe arm (hand) and fingers; on the twelfth, in the palm;on the thirteenth, in the throat or neck; on the four-teenth, in the chin or cheekbone;on the fifteenth, in thewhole body;on the sixteenth, in the ear, chin or jaw;onthe seventeenth, in the neck; on the eighteenth, in thepalm; on the nineteenth, in the wrist muscles; on thetwentieth, in the blade or brachia;on the twenty-first, inthe edge; on the twenty-second, in the kidneys; on thetwenty-third, inside; on the twenty-fourth, in thefemur; in the twenty-fifth, in the knee joint; on thetwenty-sixth, in the elbow; on the twenty-seventh, in

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the muscles; on the twenty-eighth, in the malleolus orsexual organs; on the twenty ninth, in the anticnemion;on the thirtieth, the whole body.

In addition to the ‘daily’ soul cycle there wereannual, seasonal and hourly soul cycles. The annualcycle was a twelve-year cycle, the seasonal cycle tri-mensual, and the hourly cycle was a twelve-hour cycle(the Kalmyk hour usually equalled two of our mod-ern hours). The Kalmyks thus believed that the soultravelled as a material substance within the body andwas capable of leaving it under certain conditions.Theemchi therefore tried to avoid influencing the humanheart at the particular times when it housed the soul,as otherwise the soul could leave the body.A sick per-son who was left with his soul and did not die wouldlose the vital power of the whole body. This vitalpower the Kalmyks called amin sumsn (biotic energy,or ‘external soul’, as opposed to the ‘internal soul’ (soulconsciousness), which lived continually in the heart ofthe person from birth and left at the moment of death.The internal soul ‘supplied and fed’ the person’s brainand was responsible for mental activity. It is no sur-prise, then, that the Kalmyks believed that the brainwas not in a head but in the chest (where the heart is).

If a child became inert, it meant that the child hadbeen struck ‘with the black tongue’. To execute thehealing ritual, two threads were used, one white andone black, a metre in length.These threads were inter-woven, the patient holding one end while the personconducting the ritual held the other end and cut thethread into sections, performing the spell of ‘the blacktongue’.Then the pieces of thread were put together.The pieces were then spat three times and thrownoutside the house. To restrain evil spirits, specialamulets and rituals (such as those for ‘extension oflife’, ‘correction of menge’, ‘correction of a place’,‘restraining the baby’s spirit’) were widely used. The‘extension of life’ ritual could be performed with orwithout the help of holy persons. In the first case peo-ple would cut a collar from their clothes and place iton their body, together with old socks that had beenburied in the steppe.The man would wear knittedwhite socks with black toes. If a holy person per-formed the ritual, then special prayers were read.There were several variations on the specific rituals forthe ‘extension of life’.

People turned to charms when treating manydiseases, not least mental illnesses. For example, shingleswas treated by placing a fire charm above the patient’ssick bed. From the Kalmyk perspective all dermal andvenereal illnesses and smallpox were treated as externalillnesses, which were caused by microbes, bacteria andviruses.The Kalmyks called such illnesses khorkha gem(‘endless screw illness’).They were treated with the helpof special charms (khorkha tarni). Any wound mightbecome khorkha gem, if it wasn’t treated in time (withinfive or six months). To avoid this happening, the

Kalmyks burnt the bones of a dead dog, and the asheswere rubbed into the wound for two or three days.

Smallpox was considered the most dreadful disease.The early Kalmyks did not treat patients for smallpoxas they did not know any effective remedies againstthe illness. The patient was simply kept on a specialdiet: goat’s meat and warm gruel.

Another type of illnesses that was treated with thehelp of charms was named zedkr gem or ad gem (‘evilspirit illness’).A special charm (ad tarni) weakened theinfluence of evil spirits.The illnesses referred to werecaused by accidents and mental disease.

Internal ailments (‘dotr gem’) caused by fever weretreated with medicine.This group of illnesses includedtyphoid, colds and inflammation.

The disease named ‘chicken blindness’ was treatedwith the help of a black goat’s fresh liver.This had to becut into small pieces and boiled in vegetable oil; themixture would be drunk on an empty stomach in themorning for three days. Eye illness was treated by usinghorses’ and bears’ blood. Good eyesight was of greatimportance for hunters and cattle-breeders and wastested on the starry sky. If someone could make out asmall star near the sixth star of the Ursa Major, it meantthat person had good eyesight. It was a sign of worsen-ing vision if someone ceased to be able to see that star.

Tarantula bites were treated with the help of sheepwool and broth.The patient was covered by a sheep-skin that contained fat, and was given fresh broth.Theswollen bite area was rubbed with oil in which twotarantulas had previously been soaked, and the patientwas given warm, melted mutton lard to drink(P. Smirnov, 1881).

Generally in the case of accidents the ritual garkurgkh was performed before the arrival of the doctorwith the help of domchi. In the case of a dog bite, theritual involved wool that was set on fire, ashes that werescattered on the bite, and a grandmother’s thimbleturned and pressed down on it three times.

Gargling with a child’s urine was another remedy,andso was chewing of dried-up wolf bile.The well-knowndoctor, gelung Dordzhi Setenov, treated some ailmentswith the help of hare’s bile.Almost all the hare’s organswere considered curative, because the Kalmyks believedthat a hare ate seventy-two sorts of grass at night.A hare’sheart was used in the case of heart disease (the illness Ki).For illnesses of the kidneys or for constipation,wolf ’s bilewas applied.To stop bleeding,a piece of felt or cotton wasburned and placed on the cut.

Illness could also be qualified as a disorder in thethree governing systems: wind, phlegm and bile. Theposition and amount of wind,phlegm or bile dependedon climate, season and day, and on the patient’s age andtemperament:phlegm predominated during childhood,bile in youth, and wind in old age.

Minor ailments were not considered to requiretreatment. It was sufficient to follow a healthy diet and


lifestyle. Broth was prescribed for mild diseases, andpills for more serious ones.

Illness was also said to be caused by disruption of theharmony of the five units due to either internal or exter-nal factors.The balance of units could also be upset byage.Thus it was believed that senility was caused by a lackof fire. This could be compensated for by means ofwarming procedures (heaters and so on), and also by theapplication of vegetable-based therapy (grass growingon the solar side) and appropriate diet (products in whichfire predominated). Metal imbalance was said to causestruma, curvature of the legs, weakness and breakdown.

It is important to distinguish three aspects of tradi-tional Kalmyk medical knowledge. The first is folkmedicine, a process of healing rooted in the nationalexperience and based on oral tradition (transmittedfrom generation to generation). The second is thewritten corpus of Tibetan medical practice.And third,there is professional, scientific medicine.

The ethnic roots of Kalmyk traditional knowledgelay in the geographical environment associated withclimatic features. The medicine of the earliest periodwas characterized by syncretism, combining rationaland non-rational ways of thought as well as religion.Treatment was therefore the main occupation associatedwith religious–magic activity: shamans, charms and thelike. The source of medical knowledge was certainlybound up with the national experience, but it is impos-sible to deny that charm-workers and shamans also hadaccess to particular knowledge, which was transmittedand anchored by family traditions.

If 404 common diseases were identified many yearsago, many new illnesses have since appeared which arecaused by disturbances in the environment, radiationand new chemical products, as well as by the corruptionof ethical standards.The local population has carefullyaccumulated knowledge of the medicinal properties ofplants.Today we are beginning to revert to the experi-ence of our ancestors, and not without a certain sense ofurgency.The rather negative attitude towards traditionalmedicine of the last eighty years has changed withincreasing national self-awareness and the failure ofconventional medicine to treat some illnesses.

To conclude, I hope that the research work on tradi-tional knowledge I have previously carried out, and towhich I refer in this article, will be useful for furtherinvestigation in the role and importance of traditionalknowledge in the sustainable development of thedryland ecosystems and for combating desertification inKalmykia.


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Nacional’naya politika sovetskogo gosudarstva: repres-sii protiv narodov i problemy ikh vozrozhdeniya [Thenational knowledge of the Kalmyks and the nationalpolicy of the Soviet state: repression of the peoples andproblems of their revival]. In: Materials of the interna-tional scientific conference, pp. 120–3. Elista, 2003.

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to the dry climate and limited vegetative resourcesunderpinned an ethnic understanding that defined theappropriate economic strategy, in the form ofnomadic cattle-breeding, which was well developedby the Nogaii, Kazakh and Kalmyk people. The areaover which Kalmyk cattle roamed was enormous andvaried with the almost constantly changing routes.The nomadic lands were strictly distributed and pro-tected within a framework of community legal norms.The roving system was based on the seasonal use ofpasturelands and the need for a systematic search fornew pastures.The observance of a cycle of migrationswas the precondition for achieving stability in natureuse by the Kalmyks.The constant movement of herdseliminated the danger that they might totally uprootand trample the vegetation, and so helped to preservethe landscape. The migration routes were strictlydetermined in chosen directions.

Information about the land and its uses, as well asseasonal preferences in terms of migration, was con-veyed from generation to generation. On the whole,the marshlands and all the territory making up thearid and sub-arid area in southern Russia (with theexception of riverbanks and lakeshores) contributed tomeeting the demands for summer pastures. Duringwinter the herders used those lands where there wasthe least amount of snow, and thus in Kalmykia thearea that was called Khaar Gazr, or the ‘Black Lands’.

It can be seen that the Kalmyks’ seasonal system ofmigrations is deeply ecological and tightly bound upwith the landscape structure. The Kalmyks evolved ahighly developed nomadic society with a profoundknowledge of the ecological and economic niches ofthe steppe area.The pattern of their movements can beseen as optimal, and corresponds to modern ecologicaldemands and norms.

The grazing technology of nomadic stock raising,which can also be used nowadays, comprised variousdistinctive elements. During very snowy winters thehorses were the first to graze, and their hooves clearedthe land of snow; the cattle would then eat the upperparts of dried grass, and then sheep and goats wouldeat the twigs. If the snow was not too deep on pasture-lands for stock raising and sheep were able to reachthese twigs, then the shepherds drove off the horsesand allowed the cows and sheep onto the pasture. Itwas well known that different stock breeds preferred


Traditional knowledge in the Kalmyk Republic as a basisfor the development of ethno-economics

Kermen A. Natyrova, Kalmyk State University, Elista, Republic of Kalmykia

21

The south of Russia contains thirteen republics of theRussian Federation,which are characterized by differentcultures, traditions, lifestyles, customs and rites. Theethno-economic space of the south of Russia is repre-sented by a combination of ‘state economies’, ‘marketeconomies’ and ‘ethno-economies’. One of the majorcharacteristics of Kalmykia is the territorial, localizedpattern of economics historically based on a householdethnos, characterized by traditional, mainly agriculturalforms of activity, and the production of naturalcommodities by a predominantly manual labour force.

The republic’s territory mainly consists of aridecosystems, which for centuries were used rationally byapplying local traditional knowledge.The traditions ofthe Kalmyk people helped a great number of familiessurvive periods of crises, as well as defining the Kalmyksas a nation. Many modern ecological, social andeconomic problems in Kalmyk Republic have arisenbecause the unwritten laws of the steppe had beenforgotten and/or broken. The violation of the inter-connected laws of ethnic harmony with the environ-ment harmed the social and economic development ofthe nation. Neglect of the life-enhancing ethnic cultureundermined the basis of its existence, which was theessence of the traditional method of economic life.Theabandonment of the ancient ethno-economic lifestyleled to decreasing productivity or outright destruction ofarid ecosystems,and consequently a fall in the biologicalpotential of the territory.

To restore ecosystem productivity in the KalmykRepublic it is necessary to return to the use of tradi-tional knowledge that understands the potential forrestoration through pastoral stock raising, which hastraditionally been the basis for the use of nature in aridecosystems in southern Russia. The local populationacquired unique experience in the organization andutilization of pasturelands and the selection of localdomestic cattle. The distinguishing characteristic oftraditional pasture stock raising is the year-roundmaintenance of cattle on natural pastures. The tech-nology looks to the rational use of pasturelands withthe aim of restoring and preserving their productivityfor future generations.

The writings of N.N. Palmov, I.A. Zhitetskyi, N.P.Barbot De Marny and others contain invaluable infor-mation about the Kalmyk ethnos, mode of life, cultureand household structure. Long-established adaptation

different fodder types, which is why their influence onthe vegetation condition varies.This therefore deter-mined both the optimal correlation of stock breedsand numbers in the herds, in conjunction with theseasonal cycle of grazing that aimed at preserving thepastures and their productivity, and at maintaining themultitude of grass species.

To conclude, the Kalmyk economic life style,with its

traditional knowledge and experience of housekeepingunder the conditions of arid ecosystems, is an importantsubject for study, preservation and practical application.Traditional technologies have huge unrealized possibili-ties for the improvement and preservation of uniquearid ecosystems in the south of Russia and offer greatpotential for ethno-economic development.

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The tasks involved laboratory and field experimentsalong with observation of changes in meteorologicalconditions and a theoretical summary of the receiveddata. Methods used include geographical sowing,increased frequency of sowing, parallel or conjugatedfield observation,mathematical statistics, and mathemat-ical modelling.To fulfil all the requirements, ten experi-ments were made on the experimental plot of theKalmyk State University and on the experimental farmof the republic.The plots were arranged in blocks withan area not less than 50–100 m², or in some specificcases 10–50 m². More than 100 plants and soil sampleswere taken and analysed for laboratory research.A vastrange of well-known instrumental methods was used tostudy the metabolic parameters, chemical compositionand nutritive value of plants (Yermakov, 1972; Nasti-nova, 1994; Udovenko and Alexeyev, 1972; Rubin andGavrilenko, 1977; Photosynthesis and productivity:definition methods, 1989) and physical and chemicalanalyses of soils (Kaurichev et al., 1982;Nastinova 1994;1996).

Experimental data analysis – the definition of theinterconnection between various indices of agrocenoseson the basis of regressional analysis – was carried out bymeans of a special program of computer applied statisticscalled ‘Stadia’.The authenticity of average calculationsfrom 4–6 time recurrences of 3–4 laboratory and fieldexperiments done for two years were defined at the levelof p=0.05 (Strelkov, 1966).

TThhee mmaaiinn rreessuullttss ooff tthheerreesseeaarrcchhThe natural conditions and abiotic factors (climatic,edaphic) in the zones of the republic were assessed.TheRepublic of Kalmykia is situated in the southeasternpart of the Russian Federation and has three naturalzones: steppe, semi-desert and desert.The territory ofthe republic occupies most of the arid lands of thenorthwest Caspian area (79.4 per cent), minor parts ofthe Astrakhan region and the south of the Volgogradregion (20.69 per cent).

Kalmykia is the most arid region in the Europeanpart of the Russian Federation, and has a range of soils.There are various dynamic combinations of solonetz–solonchak soil complexes with specific dry and salt-


Ecological restoration and increase of productivity ofdegraded arable lands

Galina E. Nastinova, Kalmyk State University, Elista, Republic of Kalmykia

22

A new approach to the theory and practice of agricul-ture is being realized to experimentally recultivatedegraded arable lands in the arid Caspian lowland inKalmykia. The approach is aimed at increasing agro-ecosystem productivity by means of stable proteinbalances, unchangeable acids and major macro- andmicro-elements,and creating a highly productive fodderagrocenosis capable of partial self-regulation. For thatpurpose, once all relevant conditions had been takeninto consideration (Nastinova, 1989, 1992, 1994, 1998),complex multilateral ecological research was undertakento work out effective, resource-rich, environment-protecting systems of land tilling and agrocenosisexploitation of economically valuable new C4 crops:sorgo and amaranth.

One of the main goals of rational agriculture in thepursuit of food security in the region is the creation ofan adaptive, highly productive, fodder agro-ecosystem,following the principle of using, in the ‘plants–abioticenvironment’ system, the various plants that have byevolution adapted to the arid conditions.The concept isbased on the ability of agricultural crops (sorgo,amaranth) to use C4-type photosynthesis to realize theiradaptive potential and productive optimum.This capac-ity is due to their genotype and phenotype reaction tothe available elements in the abiotic environment of thearid Caspian area, including the Republic of Kalmykia.

TThhee mmaaiinn aaiimm ooff tthhee rreesseeaarrcchhThe main aim of the research is to restore and increasethe productivity of degraded arable lands, to obtainstable fodder of biologically high value and to intro-duce the economically valuable C4 crops sorgo andamaranth in Kalmykia.

RReesseeaarrcchh mmaatteerriiaallss aanndd mmeetthhooddssThe main object of the research focused on the typesand hybrids of sorgo (Sorghum mellitum Snowd) andamaranth (Amaranthus paniculatus, A. caudatus, A. hipo-hondriacus) from the world collection VIR (Russia) andfrom the NPO Don,VNII sorgo, and Rodal Institute(USA) collections.

resistant vegetation. At present a critical situation hasbeen reached on the agricultural lands, where veryacute degradation processes can be seen and there is adecrease of humus content (dehumification). InKalmykia, the decrease in humus content has beennoted at 0.1–1.4% or at 4–48% of the initial content. Inaddition, irrational economic activity has resulted in thewidespread water and wind erosion on the Kalmykiasoils.As a result of the inappropriate irrigation of agri-cultural plots, the rate of secondary salinizationprocesses has increased. According to B.V.Vinogradov(1993) more than 100,000 hectares have been destroyedbecause of secondary salinization and sinking.

The results of the research determined the responsereactions to extreme conditions of the crops – sorgoand amaranth – in accordance with organogenesisperiods and defined critical periods in the republic.

The significant characteristics of the species form-ing mixed agrocenoses establish the place of eachspecies (sort, hybrid) in the mixed agrocenoses, anddetermine its ecological niche. Identifying these char-acteristics involves estimating and compiling theindices of tropic compatibility of objects in two andthree component agrocenoses of fodder crops: the rateand form of plant growth, the peculiarities of leaf for-mation, their use of environmental resources and theirproductivity.

The dynamics and agrocenoses that produce a cyclefavourable to high productivity and stability have beenstudied. The behaviour of species and composition ofcomponent types influence the ways that componentsshould be arranged and sown. The optimal density ofsowing and the interrelations between components havebeen defined. In the sowing of amaranth with othercrops (maize, sorgo), the relationship is complementaryand the crops influence one another (mutualism).This isclearly seen in the uneven rate of growth, not onlyduring the early phases but also during the wholegrowth period.Thus, sorgo and amaranth are character-ized by differences in the height and rate of growth inmixed sowings.

The time of the onset of germination plays a deci-sive role in the growth and development of plants.Germination occurs three to five days later in ama-ranth than in sorgo. Because of this, sorgo plants pre-cede amaranth in development and overground bio-mass growth.The higher competitive capacity of sorgoplants at the beginning of vegetation is explained by

their biomorphological characteristics. During thisperiod the amaranth root system develops intensively.Circadian growth of amaranth plants increases sharplyduring the period of bud formation, when it reaches3–4 cm; during the first days of vegetation it is 1.5–2times less than in sorgo. A high rate of growth isobserved in amaranth until the end of the growthperiod. In mixed sowings, even during the early stagesof growth, the relationship between components thatare competing for light corresponds to the principle of inter addition: at the beginning of the vegetationperiod sorgo plants are dominant, while amaranthbecomes dominant in the later growth period.

The species studied suffer to a varying degree fromsoil and atmospheric drought. It is noted that environ-mental water resources are absorbed and utilized morefully in mixed than in single-species sowings. This isdue to the wider spread and depth of penetration ofroots in the area (see Table 22.1). The significantcapacity of the amaranth plant is its ability to formnew leaves during the whole vegetative period and toretain more leaves than sorgo.At the beginning of thegrowth period (the phase of panicles for sorgo andbud formation for amaranth) sorgo has higher values,and amaranth during the second half of the growthperiod.

The nutritive and economic value of the crops andtheir overall quality have been studied.It was found that,due to the chemical composition of amaranth, it signif-icantly exceeds sorgo and maize in content of ash,calcium, protein and nitrogen-free extractive substances(NES) contents (see Table 22.2).

The study of species diversity in amaranth showedthat green amaranth mass is rich in protein and canbecome a valuable fodder crop and nutrition additive.The nutritive value of amaranth protein (establishedby aminogram analysis and compared with ‘ideal pro-tein FAO’) is very high, and attains 97% (according tothe unchangeable amino acids sum).

The results of species, sort test and production exper-iments in different geographic regions of the Caspian,along with data on the agrobiological and economicvalue of amaranth,clearly demonstrate the importance ofits widespread introduction.

This, along with the widening of agrocenoses ofhighly productive crops (sorgo,amaranth) and the signif-icant increase of fodder value,accounts for the consider-able increase in fodder production. It has led to a

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Table 22.1 Productive moisture supply in the soil before harvest of single-species and mixed agrocenoses (mm)

Horizon (cm) Sorgo Amaranth Maize Sorgo + Maize + amaranth amaranth

0–20 5.9 6.5 5.4 13.7 12.50–50 15.4 20.2 14.2 22.2 21.40–100 25.5 39.0 24.8 39.1 39.7

diversification of agrophytocenoses to include two orthree or more crops, allowing considerable increases infodder quality and providing a stable quantity of fodderin the arid Caspian area. Continuing research willinclude a more detailed investigation of polycrop(amaranth mixed with sorgo and maize). Protectiontechnology for productivity increases on degraded arablelands will be developed.

CCoonncclluussiioonnssThe research demonstrated:

• the results of circadian and seasonal adaptive reac-tions and dynamics of experimental plants to aridconditions

• the ability of experimental plants to decreasesalinity, and the conditions for recultivation insaline soils in the field

• the principles for geographical selection ofeconomically valuable fodder crops

• the advantages and value of amaranth and sorgofodder in comparison with maize, and of one-species compared with mixed cenoses

A preliminary model of adaptive highly productivemixed agrocenoses for arid conditions in the Caspianarea has been developed.


ERMAKOV, B.N. Metody biochimicheskogo isledovanijarastenii. Moscow, Kolos, 1972.

FOTOSINTES I BIOPRODUCTIVNOCT:METODYOPREDELENIJA [Photosynthesis and productivity:definition methods]. Moscow, 1989.

KAURICHEV, I.S.; ALEKSANDROV, L.N.; PJPJV,N.P. Pochvovedenie. Moscow,Wyschaja shcola, 1992.

METODICHESKIE UKASANIJA KACHESTVAANALISOV POCHV. Moscow, 1975.

NASTINOVA, G.E. Ecologochescaja plastichnost v per-spectivy introduczii amaranta v Kalmykii. Grosny, Tesicynauchnoji konferenzii, 1989.

NASTINOVA, G.E. Primenenie NIR-sistemy dljaagrochimicheskich isledovanii. Tesisy II sjesda pochvove-dov Rossii. St Petersberg, Kniga 1, 1996.

NASTINOVA, G.E. Primenenie infrakrasnoji spec-troscopii dlja analisa pochv. J. Aridnye ecosistemy,Vol.2.No. 2–33, 1996, pp. 145–49.

NASTINOVA, G.E. Istorija i perspektivy adaptivno-go semledelija v Kalmykii. In: Sbornic nauchnych trudov,pp. 84–89. Elista, 1998.

NASTINOVA, G.E.;TASHNINOVA, L.N. Ekspress-ozenka kachestva i pitatelnosti rastenii. Materialynauchnoji konferenzii, pp.145–49.Volgograd, 1992.

RUBIN, B.F.; GAVRILENKO, V.F. Biochomija i fosi-ologija fotosintesa. Moscow, 1977.

STRELKOV, R.B. Metod vychislenija standartnoi ochibki.Suchumi, 1966.

UDOVENKO, G.V.; ALEKSEEVA, L.I. Opredeleniesoleustoichivosti sortov pchenizy i risa. Leningrad, Tesicynauchnoji konferenzii, 1973.

VINOGRADOV, B.V. Sovremennaja dinamica iechologichescoe prognosirovanie prirodnich uslowyiKalmykii. Problemy osvoenija pystyn, No. 1, 1993, pp.29–38.


Table 22.2 Chemical composition and nutritive value of experimental plants

Object and material Chemical composition and nutritive Carotin for analysis value (% of dry matter) (mg/kg

Ash Ca P Protein Fat Cellulose NES of dry matter)

A.paniculatus 11.2 1.1 0.2 13.7 1.8 22.2 51.4 68.0A.caudatus 13.2 1.3 0.1 14.2 2.5 17.5 53.5 72.5A.hypohongriacus 19.4 1.7 0.1 15.2 2.4 18.5 54.5 78.7Sugar Sorgo 32 7.0 0.5 0.1 10.4 2.3 27.8 52.8 93.8Maize hybrid Moldavian 320 9.4 0.4 0.2 9.7 2.3 30.7 47.8 92.8

Irrigated lands in arid regions are characterized byunfavourable agrochemical and agrophysical featuresin the main root-inhabited zone (0–0.4 m).They arelow in humus content (0.8-1.9 per cent) and easilyaccessible nutrients, have a high content (up to 0.5 percent) of toxic salts (NaCl, NaSO4, MgCl2), substantialsoil density (1.41–1.58 kg/m3) and bad aeration.

With a view to using crop meliorants more effec-tively in the Kalmyk branch of VNIIGiM on thesecondary saline lands in the desert zone of therepublic, agronomic ecological tests of the mostpromising species, Agropiron tenerum (Vasey) andMedicago sativa (L.) are being carried out.

For these tests, Agropiron tenerum was sown in earlyspring using the dense drill method (Figure 23.1).Thestandard quantity of seed sown was between 23 and 25kg per ha. The irrigation conditions maintained thewater content level at 75–80 per cent of ultimate fieldwater capacity.The application of nitrogen-phosphorusfertilizers (in dose N110–130P60–90) improved the nutritiveconditions of the saline soil.

Research findings revealed an inverse correlation ofthe plants’ standing density and salt content in the soil(the correlation coefficient is 0.96). Thus, a saltincrease of 0.1 per cent reduces the plants’ standingdensity by 7–12 per cent.The mass of harvest is close-ly connected to the linear growth of plants.Correlation analysis showed that the plants’ height,which varied from 18 to 65 cm, depended on thedegree of salinity.A rise in salinity from 0.673 to 1.760per cent caused plant numbers to decrease by 40 to 43per cent.The hay crop varied from 6.3 to 38.5 t/ha.

We observed the soil profile for the saline contentof brown semi-desert, and found that the content oftoxic salts in the soil varied from 0.590 per cent to1.206 per cent.The distribution of cations and anionsin soil profile takes place under the influence of irri-gation and saline couch-grass cultivation, whichhelped to reduce toxic salt content by between 46 and67 per cent.

Analysis of couch-tolerance in the same soil underthe same climatic conditions showed that plants ofAgropiron tenerum (Vasey) of the variety ‘Solonchakovy’could normally grow where the salinity level of the soilmetric stratum was between 0.605 and 1.306 per cent.A rise in salinity from 1.306 to 1.566 per cent has anegative effect on couch-grass productivity (reducingthe biological mass crop by 1.5).


Phytomelioration of saline lands in Kalmykia

Elvira B. Dedova, Kalmyk branch of the All-Russian Research Institute of HydraulicEngineering and Land Melioration, RAAS, Elista, Republic of Kalmykia

23

Due to its geography, Kalmykia is characterized by anumber of extreme ecological factors, including severearidity, poor soil fertility, abnormal isolation and drywinds. In this context, stable agricultural productionand development is only possible with the aid ofcomplex melioration techniques. Irrigation canpromote an effective rise in soil fertility by improvingwater, saline and flood conditions. However, whereschemes fail to use scientifically proven technologies,irrigation can often lead to a series of harmful effectssuch as a rise in subsoil water levels, secondary salinityand alkalinization, floods and the creation of vast bogs.

The main causes of these negative phenomena arethe rich reserves of salt in the aeration zone, the limitedflow in the upper part of the territory, the complexityof the soil cover, mistakes occurring outside thedrainage network, the low level of irrigating systems,and failure to adequately implement special meliorativemeasures (melioration of solonetz,washed conditions ofirrigation, chemical and biological meliorations).

To maintain a stable level of effective fertility in theirrigated lands and to create stable irrigated agriculturallandscapes, we must be able to predict the possibledynamics of meliorative conditions.

The main considerations in arid conditions arewater availability and salinity. One of the principalmeans of regulating, improving and reconstituting thenatural surroundings, as well as raising the biologicalpotential of degraded lands, is biological meliorationbased on adaptive strategies, which involves optimiz-ing the use we make of the various functions of plantswith different ecological specialization.

Crop cultivation technologies are now in place forthe phytomelioration of saline lands in Kalmykia.Theyhave high agronomical salt stability and a good melio-rating effect. These techniques are able to removeconsiderable amounts of unhealthy salts from the soilthrough the biological mass above ground,while simul-taneously enriching it with organic matter comprisingroots and tufts. In addition to the loosening effect ofroot systems, the plants improve the porosity of arableand sub-arable soils, and water permeability thereforeimproves. Furthermore, plant roots release organic acidsinto soil during growth.This increases the solubility ofcalcium carbonate, and absorbed sodium removes itselffrom the exchange complex.Plants above the soil createshade and diminish solar radiation, thereby averting saltaccumulation on the surface.

The most widely distributed phytomeliorant of thecomplex brown semi-desert and light-chestnut soils isMedicago sativa (L.). The possible water-soluble saltcontent in the soil metric stratum is equal to 0.560 percent (when agrocenose productivity is at 70 to 80 percent of the ultimate field water capacity).When the saltcontent rises from 0.560 to 0.723 per cent, we observethat the Medicago sativa (L.) crop is reduced by 2.2 to 2.5times. Our research shows that in a given culture of soilthere are 220 to 460 kg/ha of toxic salts (including:sodium 26–75, magnesium 50–80, chlorine 80–150,iron sulphate 65–160 kg).This was observed on salinelands under irrigation and with 11–15 t/ha of absolutedry crop matter.

After three years of alfalfa cultivation the humuscontent in the main root-inhabited zone (0.0 to 0.4 m)of brown semi-desert middle-loam soil rose by 0.32 percent, and in the first stratum by 0.14 per cent. Humusaccumulation led to the increase of soil aggregates,water-firmness and an improvement in soil permeability

in the root-inhabited zone. Medicago sativa (L.), with itspowerful root system, intercepts capillary water and thustends to lower the groundwater level by 20 to 50 cm inone year.

Non-traditional varieties of salt-stable plants are usedin the recultivation of saline lands.They combine highsalt-tolerance with good economic indicators. Agro-ecological research to select crops for development insaline irrigated lands was carried out in the Kalmykbranch of VNIIGiM under collection hatchery condi-tions. Nineteen non-traditional Kalmyk crops werechosen for the tests. They were: Mentha piperita (L.),Ocimum basilicum (L.),Nepeta cataria (L.),Nicandra physa-loides (L.), Lactuca sativa (L.), Rumex confertus (Willd.),Helianthus tuberosus (L.), Trigonella foentum-graecum (L.)and Amaranthus paniculatus (L.).

Tests were carried out on the light zone of chestnut,middle-loam solonetz soils with a chloride-sulphatetype of salinity and easily soluble salt content in stratabetween 0.0 and 0.7 m of 0.20 to 0.80 per cent.Testschemes studied variants selected according to factorsthat influenced seeding productivity (dates, seeding rate,seeding methods). Irrigation conditions for all cropswere based on maintaining a water content of 70 to 75per cent of ultimate field water capacity in the stratumfrom the surface to a depth of 0.7 m. Watering wascarried out by surface irrigation. On the basis of thesetests, the following highly productive plants with amulti-purpose orientation, from stable to extremeconditions, were selected.

• Rumex confertus Willd is a plant of the buckwheatorder. Its roots are used as raw material for tanning(19 to 21 per cent of tanning materials), and itsoverground mass can be used for green forage andsilage for pigs and poultry.This crop is able to growon highly saline soils (up to 0.80 per cent), thoughits growth is reduced by 10–15 per cent incomparison with seeding on non-saline lands.Thisphenomenon is observed on strongly saline soilsprovided with sufficient moisture.The plant turnedout to be adaptable to temperature regimes. Themost effective period of seeding during the firstyear of growth was found to be autumn.The plantbegins to grow in early spring, when the temp-erature is above 0 °C, and reaches hay-harvestripeness by the end of May (with a plant height of60 to 65 cm).The average green mass crop for twohay harvests was 38.5 t/ha in the research years.The root system is powerfully developed, withthickened rootstalks and thin lateral suckers in itsupper part.The roots of the crop can amount to25.6 t/ha on average.

• Nicandra physaloides (L.) Gaertn is a non-capriciousplant of the solanaceae family. It has a well-ramifiedroot system that penetrates to a depth up to 0.6 or0.7 m even with substantial soil density (1.45 to

132

Figure 23.1 Agropiron tenerum Vasey (variety ‘Solonchakovy’)

1.60 g/cm3). Green mass crop in 1998–2001amounted to 19.5 t/ha and the seeds to 0.40 t/ha.This crop may be recommended for forageproduction for cattle.The green mass is used forsilage production, while the seeds increase thevitality and vigour of animals, notably horses.

• Lactuca sativa (L.) or lettuce ‘Seasons parago’ is anon-capricious annual vegetable plant of thecompositae family. It forms a considerable greenmass during its short period of vegetation (45–50days). It may be cultivated by itself in Kalmykia,producing two crops during the vegetation period,or as an accompanying culture in crop rotation todiversify an assortment of vegetable crops, whichhas considerable benefits for human health. Westudied different planting schemes on averagelysaline soils (0.25 to 0.41 per cent) and came to theconclusion that the best crop is produced throughsquare-cluster planting (45 × 45 cm).The weight ofone plant was 360 to 420 g and the leaves of thewhole crop amounted to 21.6 to 25.2 t/ha. Theseeding method has a particular advantage overfour-lined tape seeding, and is beneficial in severelyarid years.The green mass crop did better in 1999;square-cluster planting was 24 per cent moreproductive than four-lined tape seeding, and in thearid year this rose to 37 per cent.

• Trigonella foenum-graecum (L.) is a culture of thelegume type that can serve various purposes. It is aheadily aromatic fodder that produces greenmanures (leys). Its valuable biological peculiarity isthat it has a short period of vegetation (56 to 70days).This means that not only can it produce anadditional quantity of feed but it can also be used asa green fertilizer to improve soil fertility. Further-more, the plant is characterized by rapid and steadyshoots,which grow irrespective of the seeding date.

Meteorological yearly conditions exert a significantinfluence on the productive process, which is why theseeding date is important for crops. Plants grew faster(38 to 42 cm) during the spring seeding period (due tothe optimal temperature regime in the period of shootgrowth, which is called branching); the minimumheight (16 to 17 cm) was observed during summerseeding in 1998.This year was memorable as having thehottest summer months since meteorological observa-tions began. During this time the crop mass increasedfrom 7.0 to 12.5 t/ha and crop seeds increased from 0.3to 0.9 t/ha.

Amaranthus paniculatus (L.) has a high food value:the absolute dry matter of plants contains from 10.1per cent to 18 per cent of raw protein. Seeding wascarried out in two periods during testing (April 5 andApril 20) using a 60 × 15 cm scheme.The first shootsappeared between the tenth and twelfth days andbetween the seventh and tenth days.

Amaranthus paniculatus (L). is very sensitive to waterregimes because the salt in the soil impedes waterentry into the dry seeds and thus reduces the degreeof humidity in their tissues. As a result, saline condi-tions seriously restrict the intensity of growth and dryseed germination. The germination of shoots isdelayed when the levels of moisture are insufficient;when this is the case, plants grow slowly and the delayin growth and accumulation of mass above the groundcannot later be compensated for, even if the waterregime improves in the later periods of growth.

The green mass of Amaranthus is determined by thesowing date (an early seeding date increases produc-tivity by 34 per cent compared with a late one) as wellas water-solute content in the root-inhabited stratumof soil (the determination factor is 0.89).

A shortage of water, even in conditions of compar-atively low salinity, leads to a rapid change in the periodfrom the shooting of seeds to the development ofgenerative organs and the formation of small crops.Thus, the plants, having only used moisture from natu-ral stocks, were blooming within 45 days, reaching aheight of 15 to 18 cm and 6 to 15 cm, forming cropswith a density of 0.08–0.11 and 0.13–0.15 kg/m². Atthat time, the salt content in the main root-inhabitedzone (0.0–0.4m) was 0.22–0.26 and 0.48–0.54 percent. Furthermore, amaranths are sensitive to soil fertil-ity: there may be a reduction in crops of up to 80 percent where there is a low humus content and pooraccess of nutritious macro elements.

Helianthus tuberosus (L). is a tuberous insulin-containing plant of the compositae family. It has highecological stability, being resistant to heat, illness,drought and winter conditions. It is grown as a food,fodder, technical and official crop. Field tests were car-ried out in the zone of light-chestnut solonetz soils ofchloride-sulphate salinity; the easily soluble salt con-tent in the root-inhabited zone varied from 0.20 to0.65 per cent (Figure 23.2). Subsoil chloride-sodiumwaters with total mineralization of 2.3 to 3.8 h aredeposited at a depth of 1.5 to 2.0 m.The tubers weretransplanted according to the 70 × 30 cm scheme, at adepth of 8.0 to 10.0 cm. The irrigation regime wasdifferentiated (maintenance of soil humidity beforewatering in growth periods with an appearance offour to five pairs of leaves in a soil stratum of 0.0 to0.4 m and in periods with five to ten pairs of leaves ina soil stratum of 0.0 to 0.7 m with a level of 70 to 75per cent of ultimate field water capacity in a growthperiod of twelve to twenty pairs of leaves – 60 to 65per cent of the ultimate field water capacity.Wateringwas carried out by surface irrigation.

Research results showed that the green mass cropand Helianthus tuberosus tuber crop were in inverseproportion to the degree of soil salinity; they variedfrom 31.1 to 88.8 t/ha for green mass and from 28.6to 65.1 t/ha for tubers. It was found that salinity has


almost no negative influence on the growth anddevelopment of Helianthus tuberosus in the first period(up to the appearance of two or three pairs of leaves).Salinity is marked by a fairly high content of nutritivematter and water in available form in the tubers. Plantsbegin to suffer when this is combined with a highconcentration of soil solution at the time when vege-tation growth and active consumption of matter takeplace. When the salt content increases from 0.20 to0.65 per cent, plants stop growing upwards (and theirheight is 28 to 36 per cent lower), and the lateralshoots, leaves and leaf plate areas are reduced by 15–22per cent.This leads to a reduction of leaf area of 35–42per cent and as a result it was found that in average testyears the green mass crop declined by 57 per cent.

Soil humidity before watering ‘α min’ is maintainedat a level of 70 to 75 per cent of ultimate field watercapacity.With the help of irrigation, there is a consid-erable reduction in the toxic action of highly concen-trated salts. With increased humidity, this decreasesfurther to 60 to 65 per cent of the ultimate field watercapacity at the period when the plant would havealready developed a powerful root system,and begins togain nutrition from subsoil waters (total mineralizationis 2.2 to 3.8 g/l), which favours the diminution of soilsolution concentration and a consistent supply of plantswith capillary-accessible moisture.

Helianthus tuberosus (L). influences the agronomical–chemical and agronomical–physical characteristics of thesoil.Root-inhabited zone desalination takes place owingto the unhealthy washing of ions (Cl 40 per cent – Na18 per cent) and some enrichment by calcium (by 6 percent). Irrigation during one growing period also exertsan influence on salinity. When Helianthus tuberosus iscultivated for one year, 5.2 to 9.0 t/ha of organic matterwith hay harvest and root mass remained in the soils.These contain nutritive elements:nitrogen (42 to 72 kg),P2O5 (11 to19 kg) and K2O (53 to 91 kg). Main andinter-row cultivation of Helianthus tuberosus assists soilloosening.As a result the density in the arable stratum isreduced from 1.42 to 1.29 g/cm3,and porosity increasedfrom 44 per cent to 48 per cent.The economic tech-nology (irrigation water’s economy makes up 30 percent) of Helianthus tuberosus’ cultivation on saline landswith a high subsoil water level (1.5 to 2.0 m) allows usto obtain up to 59.6 t/ha of green mass and 25.1 t/ha

with a total yield of fodder units of 19.5 t/ha. Such amethod provides a meliorative effect.

It is necessary to form a functional collector-drainage network that provides ecological meliorativebalance by reducing subsoil water level and drainagewater. It must prevent waterlogging processes, secondarysalinity and solonetz on rice systems of the republic. Inthe case of rice paddies in an unfavourable, unmelio-rated condition, the overall water processes have to bemeasured.This entails accurate mapping of the surfaceof the paddies (with a probable error ±3 to 5 cm fromaverage mark), the pegging out of the area (dependingon the soil’s water-penetration and the slope of theterrain) in micro-paddies measuring 0.05–0.25 ha,divided by barriers with a height of 30 to 40 cm, andfeeding in freshwater at a rate that will produce a depthof 5 to 10 cm in the paddies for 507 days (with the airtemperature below 16 °C for ten to fifteen days). Oncethe micro-paddies have absorbed those amounts, we fillthem again with fresh water up to the given norm.Usually they require 2,500 to 3,000 m3/ha.

The system for cultivating wasted soil includesautumn ploughing, sub-soiling, and ploughing withouta mould-board. Rice seeding and rice crop rotation areconducted at the earliest time possible.The best measurefor intercepting and reducing the subsoil water level isto use compartment drainage equipment in the channelzone.This will have a depth of 0.8 to 1.2 m along bigirrigation channels.

Problems with growing rice in solonetz can be tack-led with chemical melioration methods: on solonetzsoils (up to 20 per cent absorbed sodium) and solonetz(more than 20 per cent of absorbed sodium), they areapplied at rates of 8 to 10 and 10 to15 t/ha, respectively.

Tests on the main crop-forming factors were carriedout from 1999 on rice fields of SUE,VNIIGiM’s exper-imental production farm (‘Kharada’) Oktyabrsky region,Republic of Kalmykia.The tests also studied high-profitaccompanying multi-purpose crops. One of thesecultures is Sareptskaya mustard. We conducted tests onresidual matter after rice production moisture (280 to300 mm) and application of doses of mineral fertilizers.A heavy crop of oil seeds was obtained by using between1.56 and 1.80 t/ha of nitrogenous-phosphorus fertilizersin a dose N180P120 with spaces between rows of a widthof 30 cm.

134

Figure 23.2 Helianthus tuberosus grown with different levels of salt content in soil (stratum 0-0.7 m):1 – 0.32 %; 2 – 0.44 %; 3 – 0.61 %

1 2 3

The role of Sareptskaya mustard was observed interms of its character and the degree of obstruction ofthe sowing area under observation. This showed thatweed shoots (Echinochloa crus-galli, Echinochloa phyllo-pogon, Bolboshoenus compactus, Poligonum aviculare) on testvariants with widths between rows of 30 cm weresuppressed; the area was practically free of weeds.Agro-nomical and chemical analysis of soil samples confirmsthat after Sareptskaya mustard cultivation the content ofan accessible form of phosphorus rises in the main root-inhabited zone (0.0 to 40 cm) by 10.3 to 15.1 per cent,and exchange potassium by 25 to 30 per cent. It is mostprobable that the mustard’s root system,penetrating deepinto the soil (1.5 to 2.0 m), acts like a pump that raisesand washes from the depth phosphorus, potassium andother micro and macro-elements from the lower arable

soil strata. By improving phosphoric and potassium soilregimes, in its role of biological meliorator, Sareptskayamustard’s roots and tufts improve the biological activityof soil, which makes the main elements of nutritionmore available to rice plants while ameliorating condi-tions for their absorption. It accumulates between 3.9and 4.5 t/ha of overground dry matter and 2.2 to 3.0t/ha of root biological mass in semi-desert conditions inKalmykia.Thus Sareptskaya mustard is a good predeces-sor for rice, raising its productivity by 20 to 22 per cent.

The meliorating effect of plants (phytomeliorants)should be examined from the perspective of zone croprotation using culture-phytomeliorants.These help toimprove the ecological condition and soil fertilitywhile maintaining water resources and minimizingwaste of irrigation water for food production.


One of the new generation of HMS that is adaptedto arid zone conditions is the fine-outline oasis type ofHMS (the ‘fine-outline irrigation’ system), which isdesigned with the aid of recent scientific and technicalresearch to ensure the creation of stable and highlyproductive agricultural ecosystems on the basis of exist-ing natural-territorial complexes and the preservation,modernization and improvement of natural cycles andmaterial and energy cycles.

The essential requirements of such HMS types are:the ability to perform complex water regulation andto improve the saline, food, air and thermal conditionsof soil and plants on the basis of adaptive-landscape,resource-efficient and ecologically safe technologies;multi-purpose capabilities and usage of different con-structions, methods of watering and types of meliora-tion (irrigation, chemical, biological and anti-erosionmeasures, agro-forest growth and so on) and theircombinations; a closed cycle of water rotation, thatmakes it possible to make secondary use of drainagewaters; economic efficiency (improving the return onmaterial, labour and finance by 15–20 per cent, andthe production per unit of water used by 30–40 percent or more ).

Generalizations of the oasis irrigation experienceand trends towards new-generation HMS development(Balbekov and Borodychev, 2003; Guber and Sazanov,2003; Shumakov et al., 1997; Shumakov, 1999; Guidingprinciples, 2000; Sazanov et al., 2002) allow us to suggestthe following classification of fine-outline, oasis-typeHMS according to four indices:

• Area. Micro-till: 4 ha;mini: 1–20 ha;midi: 20–100ha; macro: 100–200 ha; maxi: 200–500 ha.

• Fundamental power. Multi-functional: ensuring thework of different systems on the water rotationalprinciple.

• Type of water source. Classifying on the basis ofsurface flow, underground or seawater, irrigationcanal systems, pipelines, water pipe lines.

• Method of watering used. Surface, sprinkling irriga-tion, infra-ground, micro-irrigation.

In general fine-outline oasis types of HMS willcomprise: the source of irrigation, both surface (lakes,ponds, reservoirs, canals, local flow) and underground


Oasis-type hydro-meliorative systems under Kalmykconditions

Mikhail A. Sazanov, Kalmykian Branch of All-Russian Research Institute of HydraulicEngineering and Land Melioration, RAAS, Elista, Republic of Kalmykia

24

Broad experience of irrigated agricultural developmentin our country and abroad has shown that the most effi-cient irrigation systems for arid zones are of the hotbed(oasis) type.The exploitation of very large irrigationalsystems does not meet ecologically safe meliorative stan-dards and can lead to the destruction of fragile traditionalecosystems.This can be clearly seen in the case of theKalmyk Republic, in the southeast European part of theRussian Federation, more than 50 per cent of whoseterritory is made up of semi-desert and desert zones.

The hydrographic network on the territory of therepublic is poorly developed.The main volume of localoverland flow is formed on the slopes of Ergeninskay andStavropolskay highlands, and fluctuates between 90 and300 million m3 a year (averaging around 120–130million m3) depending on the level of atmosphericprecipitation. The flow is controlled and regulated bymany ponds and reservoirs, but there is no logic in theway it is used.The so-called ‘economic’ systems of regu-lar irrigation (‘small-scale’ irrigation) with an area ofbetween 20 to 240 hectares function on this basis.Currently,their total area does not exceed 3,500 hectares(Rudneva et al., 1999a, 1999b).

The main areas of irrigated lands in the republic(more than 120,000 ha) are situated on the five largehydro-meliorative systems (HMS) – Chernozemelskay,Sarpinskay, Kalmyk-Astrahanskay, Kaspiskay and Pravo-Egorlykskay – which feed the water sources from thebasins of the Volga, the Kuban, the Kuma and the Terekonto the contiguous territories.Built between the mid-1960s and the 1980s,these systems are technically imper-fect (very wide beds in the canal network causing waterloss through filtration; structural incompleteness; ineffi-cient techniques of watering and so on), and the level oftheir exploitation is also very low. These flaws havecombined to produce a mass of negative consequencesthrough so-called ‘irrigational desertification’(secondarysalinity and soil alkalinity, flooding and waterlogging), asa result of which more than 70 per cent of the area is nowin a poor condition (Rudneva et al., 1999a).

A similar situation can be seen in almost all the irri-gated agricultural regions in Russia. This has recentlymotivated a trend towards creating a new generation ofHMS with multiple functions and closed water cycles,based on sophisticated principles for melioration andlandscape adaptation (Shumakov et al., 1997).

(head and non-head underground water); the intake(mechanical inflow); transport routes (canal, flume,pipeline or others);the engineered area of irrigation withdifferent net constructions and watering techniques; theheader line drainage network; junctions of purificationand demineralization of drainage and irrigation water;the system for artificial replenishment of undergroundwater reserves (ARUW); the system for automaticmanagement of irrigation processes, feeding plants withmineral elements and combating pests and disease; thesystem for controlling environmental conditions; systemof forest- and field-protection stands; roads; energysupply systems,communications, industrial premises andlodgings.

On the Kalmyk territory various types of fine-outline multi-function and specialized oasis types ofHMS can be created, using: (a) local surface flow; (b)canals for water supply and irrigation systems; (c)head underground water (artesian); (d) lenses of non-head underground water using ARUW technology;(e) sea-water; (f) group and local pipelines.

The most suitable irrigation techniques are asfollows: when cultivating cereals, fodder, vegetables andmelons, sprinkling irrigation with the use of small, low-head machines and equipment is effective, watering atrates of 20–70 mm;under conditions of air drought andhot dry winds, regulation of the micro- and phyto-climate with fine-dispersion (aerosol) sprinkling (generallywith one watering of 0.08 mm every ninety minutes)should be used on the sown area.

It is efficient to use most of the fodder on systemsof limanous (lagoon) irrigation, as this makes it possi-ble to create more natural conditions when depres-sions in the local relief (liman) are periodically inun-dated in high-flood conditions.The basins are natural-ly low and are filled by water from the local flow(mainly during the period of spring flash floods) orfrom canals of the irrigation systems. In order tospread the water evenly and to ensure optimal flood-ing conditions, the liman area is divided into 100 hasections with the help of land dikes and bores. Thestandard depth of flooding is between 250 and 400mm, and the water takes 30–60 days to settle. Thisensures formation of a considerable biomass of naturalcereals (Agropyron repents – couch grass, Poa pratensis,etc.) of up to 8 t/ha of hay at a cost four or five timesless than conventional irrigation systems.The generalarea of basin depressions in the territory of the repub-lic comprises 150,000 ha, of which only 43,000 ha arebeing intensively used at the present time.

On soils of medium and heavy granular-metriccomposition, it is possible to use surface irrigation meth-ods (furrow and border irrigation, flow-based irrigation,check-plots of land and micro-checks).With a discrete-impulse water supply, the watering standards are60–170 mm. Surface irrigation is most efficient onsalinized soil where a sluice regime is required.

A recent development is the dropping method of irri-gation (micro-irrigation) (Figure 24.1), which provideslocal and constant moisture to the root-inhabited soillayer, regulating the water supply and nutrientsaccording to the actual needs of the plants at differentstages of their development. Compared with spray andoverhead methods of irrigation, this achieves consid-erable savings of irrigation water (up to 30–60 percent) and of mineral fertilizers. It incorporatesautomation of irrigation processes and is very reliable;it is also ecologically safe (contributing to soil/plantfertility) and economically efficient.

Consistently high yields of agricultural crops can beachieved by establishing the optimum irrigation regimefor each stage of plant development at the level of70–90 per cent of ultimate field water capacity (irrigat-ing in small quantities of 5–25 mm) in combinationwith adequate doses of fertilizer.Such regimes using thedropping method can produce 60–80 t/ha of tomatoes,80–120 t/ha of cabbage, 100–140 t/ha of cucumbers,and 10–15 t/ha grapes. The net profit from suchproduction is between 100,000 and 260,000roubles/ha, with a profitability level of 250 per cent.This will repay the costs of construction (around120,000–150,000 roubles/ha) over a period of one ortwo years (Balbekov and Borodychev, 2003).

In Figure 24.2 we see a schematic map of the region-alization of the Kalmyk territory according to theprevailing oasis types and the methods of irrigationused. It shows the borders of natural–agricultural zones(steppe, dry steppe, semi-desert and desert), and theborders of zones of influence served by large watersupplies and irrigation systems as well as zones of distri-bution of definite kinds of fine-outline oasis type HMS.The predominant kind of treatment can be seen to befine-outline HMS in combinations of different types(for example, B and A) .

• The A-type systems are mainly distributed on theslopes of the Ergeninskaya and Stavropolskayahighlands and in the zone adjacent to them.

138

Figure 24.1 The dropping irrigation system

• B-type systems are developed in the territory withlarge WIS, in the form both of new constructionsand remodelling of old irrigation systems and plots.

• C-type systems work well in the south of therepublic, where there is a large basin of artesianwaters.

• D-type systems are used in the eastern and south-eastern parts of the republic in the desert zone of thePrecaspian lowland, where there is no hydrograph-ical network, the surface water is only accessible inthe form of salty lakes, and underground water(fresh and saline) is concentrated in separate lenses


Figure 24.2 Regionalization of the Kalmyk territory to the kinds of multi-functional hydromeliorative systems of oasis type

Natural-agricultural zones:S: Steppe AS: Arid steppe SD: Semi-desert D: Desert

Large water-supply and irrigation system (WIS) and irrigation regions of oasis type:I - Chernozemelskay WIS; II - Carpinskya WIS; III - Kalmyk - Astrahanskya WIS;IV - Pravo - Egorlycskya WIS;V - Caspinskya WIS;VI - Region of local surface water recourses;VII - Desert region;VIII - Region of head underground waters; IX - Region of seawaterH - MS of oasis type for water - springs:A - local surface water recourses; B - canals of WIS; C - head underground waters;D - un-head underground waters; E - seawater; F - waterpipes

Irrigation methods:a - sprinkling irrigation (standard methods); b - aerosol irrigation; c - synchronous impulse irrigation;d - furrow irrigation; e - border irrigation; f - flooding basin irrigation; g - limanous (lagoon) irrigation ;h - intraground irrigation; i - micro irrigation

National frontier

Irrigation canals

Water basin (pond, reservoir)

Community

Irrigation systems of oasis-type frontier

Natural-agricultural zones frontier

formed under the natural depressions of the areaand in the hollows produced by wind action. Lensreserves are not substantial and the reserves are easilyexhausted when exploited,which is why they needto be filled up regularly.

• E-type systems are situated on the shore of thenorthwestern part of the Caspian Sea, where theseawater is freshened by the flow of the Volga andUral rivers (mineralization does not exceed 1.5 g/l).This area thus has almost unlimited water reservesthat can be used for irrigation and other needs.

• F-type systems can be used in the same areas as theE-type systems (Precaspian lowland), drawing fromthe existing northern group of water pipelines(intake from the Volga) or from newly constructedpipelines (preferably local) with an intake from theVolga, the canals of the Chernozemelskaya WIS orthe wells of head underground waters.

In order to define the areas with potential for fine-outline HMS on the Kalmyk territory, work has beenundertaken to define and classify the main parameters inthe suitability of water sources (lakes, reservoirs, ponds)for the water systems. These were divided into fourcategories: large,with a functional volume of more than1 million m³;medium,with a volume of 0.5–1.0 millionm³; small, with a volume of 0.2–0.5 million m³; andmicro-reservoirs, with a volume of less than 0.2 millionm³. In addition to the volumes of water, the interval of

water-mineralization is measured in each reservoir;since this depends on the amount of flood runoff andthe weather conditions (precipitation and air tempera-ture), the saline composition can change significantlydepending on the year and the season. On this basis ithas been established that the estimated areas of plotssuitable for fine-outline irrigation (FOI) on the terri-tory of Kalmykia make up between 47,000 and 54,000hectares, which is comparable to the area of availableregular irrigation lands (53,100 ha). It is suggested thatmost FOI plots should be situated on the available irri-gation systems because of the ecological reconstructionof the landscape associated with their use. Using theavailable local flow, it is possible to create about 12,000ha of fine-outline HMS, replenishing the undergroundwater through a system of water rotation.

In our research, we defined typical technologicaloperational regulations for fine-outline hydro-meliorative systems of the oasis type, according totime of holding and length. The basic scheme thatwe used was of a multi-purpose fine-outline HMSon the local overhead flow (Figures 24.3 and 24.4).

To clarify the functional operations process, the tech-nological order of the oasis type of systems is representedin the form of a network chart (Figure 24.5), the mainelements of which are the events and the work.The term‘event’ refers to the beginning or end of a definite stageof HMS functioning or technological operation. The‘work’involves the interaction of events,expressed in the

140

Figure 24.3 Scheme of oasis type multi-function hydromeliorative system based on local surface water recourses1. Frontier narrow bed. 2. Earth dam.3. Bottomed water outlet. 4. Pond.5. Frontier of limanous irrigation system. 6. Dykes of liman stages.7. Region of regulate irrigation system. 8. Pumping station.9. Head pipeline. 10. Overhead machine.

11. Section of surface irrigation (furrow, border and others). 12. Trickle irrigation system.13. Synthetic beating up underground water system 14. Pipeline of synthetic beating up underground water system.

(filtration platform and miscellaneous wells). 15. Tree and brushwood plantations.16. Industrial-dwelling rooms of farm.

3256 4 1

8 10

7

11

9

12

1514

1316

Water

source

(freshet

sewage

atmospheric

rainfall)

Accumulate water

basin

(pond, water

storage)

Fish breeding

system

Waterfowl and

water animal

breeding system

Artificial

replenishment of

underground water

system

Economic drinking

water supply of

farm system

Watering cattle and

fowls

Micro-irrigation

system

Trickle irrigation

system

Microspray irrigation

(under- and above-

crown) system

Trickle irrigation

(low head)

Technological

water consumption

of farm system

Utilization, evacuation

and application

drainage and sewage

water system

Regulate

irrigation

system

Sanitary release

water system

One-stage

Multistage

Limanous

irrigation

system

Watering regime, level of

soil fertility and quality

water control system

Sprinkling

irrigation system

Intraground

irrigation system

Surface

irrigation system

Standard method

Aerosol irrigation

Synchronous impulse irrigation

Simplify

Drainage

Mole graining irrigation

Far-place vertical drainage irrig’n

Stationary

Flooding basin irrigation

Border irrigation

Furrow irrigation

Figure 24.4 Structure of multi-function hydromeliorative system of oasis type from local surface water resources

Figure 24.5 Setting graphic work of multi-function hydro-meliorative system of oasis type from local surface water resources

43

44

46 45

Ei

Ei+1

Ei+2

Ei+3

47

34

3735

36

3332

3129

3028

Ki Ki+1 Ki+2

Ki+3

Ki+5

Ki+4 Ki+7Ki+6

109

13

14

15

16

17

1812

11

Ni Ni+1

Ni+7

34

Ni+21

Ni+19

Ni+18 Ni+17 Ni+16 Ni+15 Ni+14

Ni+13

Ni+12

Ni+10

Ni+11

Ni+22Ni+20

Ni+6

Ni+5

Ni+4

Ni+3

Ni+2 Ni+8

L5L4

L3

L1

L28

7

6

5

4

3

38 39 40 41Ti

26

27

Ui+3Ui+2

Ui+12219

21

U

Ui

Qi

Q

25

24

23

1 2

42

20

time spent in transition from one event to another as wellas their logical sequence.

In Figure 24.5 the events are represented by circleswhile the works are represented by arrows.The direc-tion of the arrows indicates the sequence of separateevents. The names of the events (the technologicaloperations of HMS work) are shown in Table 24.1.They are divided into corresponding elements (generalpreparation work, lens irrigation and so on).

The first stage of technological regulation is thegeneral preparatory work (Operations 1–2 in Table 24.1).This section relates to the carrying out of repair,reconstruction and precautionary work.

Limanous (lagoon) irrigation (Operations 3–L5) is one ofthe main constituent parts of the multi-purpose fine-outline oasis type HMS,as this method of overhead irri-gation is the nearest under arid zone conditions in Russiato natural conditions.

Regular irrigation (Operations 9–(N1+21)), in thefine-outline oasis-type HMS, can be performed by allmethods of irrigation: surface (along furrows, borders,checks and micro-checks); sprinkling irrigation (usual,small-dispersed and synchronous impulse irrigation);and intra-ground methods.

The micro-irrigation element (Operations 9, 28–(K1+7)) is the most progressive because it ensures thata stable, high yield of crops is obtained from the sig-nificant (50–90 per cent) water resources economy.

The element of artificial replenishment of undergroundwater reserves (Operations 9, 23–Q1) within the frame-work of HMS activities allows the lens of undergroundwater to form, ensuring a constant regime of waterresources following the principles of water rotation.

The control element in the watering regime of the soilmoisture and the degree of soil fertility and water qual-ity (Operations 43–(E1+3)) must be equipped withmodern automated systems based on computer tech-nology; an efficient supply of information and analysisof managerial decisions is needed.

The element of water usage for the technological needsof farms (Operations 38–T1) stipulates an intake fromaccumulating agricultural complexes: farms, fodderkitchens, washers and so on.

The element of fishing systems and breeding of waterfowl and animals may be either the natural process ofichtyo-fauna development in the accumulating reser-voir (pond) – the appearance of fish, crayfish and wildfowl – or an intensive industrial-type system, whichinvolves artificial breeding of fish, water-fowl (ducks,geese) and animals (coypus, muskrats and others).

The element of sanitary flood flush water (Operations42) relates to preserving the water balance throughoutthe territory of the watershed.

The technological work order of specialized sys-tems of fine-outline irrigation (FOI) on the local flowwill be analogous to the corresponding section typepresented in the table.The scheme and technological

work of fine-outline oasis-type HMS with nutritionfrom canals of IIS does not differ from that seen above;only the type of intake and water supply is changed.

The structure and organization of fine-outlinesystems using underground water can have various func-tions: that is either of a complex character or specialized(for example,agricultural water supply (AWS),irrigationor other individual functions).The technological orderof such HMS functioning will not be significantly differ-ent from the typological order. Among these systems,theones that can operate as water sources are: artesian wells(or groups of wells) equipped with regulating armatures(slide-valves or valves) or accumulating reservoirs of dailyor more regulation, recharged by self-filling wells; lensesof non-head underground water, where quite differentschemes of intakes are used from mine-wells; and artifi-cially replenished underground water reserves (ARUW)equipped with water hoists of various types (loadingelectric pumps; airlifts, band,wind and sun installations).

For multi-function fine-outline HMS using sea-water, the following schemes can be used: a watersupply that flows along the canals by itself, due to thenatural global process of rising sea levels and windevents (moryana); flow along water pipes (either self-propelled or under pressure); and canal flows thatcombine self-flowing with a mechanical water lift.Theconstruction of irrigation systems can be quite varied:there may be no system of ARUW, in which case thesystem of AWS must make provision for purificationand water-quality improvement with the help of vari-ous installations.Water rotation of drainage wastewaterand sewage water (after purification) can be achieved byusing the water for secondary usage to irrigate plots orfor other technological needs of farms.

SSuummmmaarryyThe effective creation and application of a new genera-tion of hydro-meliorative systems must take into accountthe diversity of landscapes and natural climatic charac-teristics of desert and semi-desert zones, and therebyimprove their ecological safety. The interrelated andecologically grounded functioning of the varyingelements of multi-function, fine-outline, oasis-typeHMS ensures their efficient use in conditions of water-resources deficiency.These systems are designed to safe-guard the general water balance within the drainage areain arid territory with stable and highly productive agrolandscapes, the basic elements of which are micro-agroanthropogenic ecosystems: farmlands with all theirnecessary infrastructure.

The strategy of hydro-meliorative construction onthe territory of Kalmykia should be carried through inthe near future.This strategy allows the creation of moreperfect technological systems, which are progressivelyadapted to the natural landscapes and the cycles ofmatter and energy.


144

No of Nomenclature of eventsevents

3 4

2 Filling the accumulator - water reservoirof spring flood waters

L1 Discharging water flow to final (lower)stage

L2 Water layer regulation on final (lowest)stage

L3 Closing the main HS and turning offwater supply

L4 Discharge of water leavings from lowerstage on discharging

L5 Disassembling temporary dam

Ni+2 Water transfer from head pipeline to irrigating section

Ni+3 Watering by one of the methods (repeat – Ni+7 the events 13-17)

Ni+8 Ending the final seasonal irrigation

Ni+9 Drainage water transfer to utilization andevacuation system

Ni+10 Including the pumping station and withdrawal of water for winter irrigation

Nii+11 Clarified drainage water transfer for winterirrigation

Ni+12 Mineral fertilizers and herbicides fromirrigation water assistance

Ni+13 Water transfer from head pipeline to irrigation section

Ni+14 Winter irrigation (repeat events - Ni+18 13-17)

Ni+19 End of winter irrigation Ni+20 Drainage water transfer to utilization and

evacuation systemNi+21 Technical servicing of equipment and

structures, to prepare them for winter

22 Clarified drainage and sewage waterstransfer to regular irrigation section forfirst irrigation

Ui+1 Clarified drainage and sewage water transferto irrigation section for the final irrigation

Ui+2 End of work of the clarification system

Ui+3 Technical servicing of equipment andstructures, to prepare them for winter

Table 24.1 Technological operation of multi-functional hydromeliorative system of oasis type from local surface water resources

No of Nomenclature of eventsevents

1 2

Block of general preparatory work

1 Canal cleaning; repair earth banks, dykesand hydraulic structures (HS)

Limanous irrigation system

3 Organization of temporary dam from synthetic materials

4 Opening main HS, water supply on first(highest) stage

5 Water layer regulation

6 Discharge of superfluous water across theoutlet works

7 Opening main HS at dykes and issuingwater to second stage

8 Discharge of superfluous water on thirdstage

Regular irrigation system

9 Preparation of irrigating techniques andequipment for season

10 Including the pumping station and with-drawal of water from reservoir

11 Mineral fertilizers and herbicides from irri-gation water assistance

12 Water transfer from head pipeline to irri-gating section

13 Sprinkling irrigation

14 Furrow irrigation

15 Border irrigation

16 Flooding-basin irrigation

17 Intraground irrigation

18 End of first watering Ni Including the pumping station and with-

drawal of water from seasonal irrigation Ni+1 Mineral fertilizers and herbicides from

irrigation water assistance

Utilization, evacuation and application drainage and sewage water system

19 Drainage water test from regular irrigatingsection

20 Drainage water clarification, and regulationof its quality

21 Sewage waters utilization and clarification U Sewage waters test in accumulator-water

reservoir Ui Repeat the rounds of sewage water

clarification in water reservoir in past year


27 Withdrawal of underground water fromwatering place of cattle and birds

29 Withdrawal of underground water fornecessary micro-irrigation

Q Regular technical servicing of the equipment of ARUW (every change)

Qi Systematic and periodical technical servic-ing of the equipment of ARUW system

34 Trickle irrigation

35 Micro sprinkling irrigation (under-crownand above-crown)

36 Trickle irrigation (low head)

37 End of first irrigation

Ki Water transfer to final irrigation Ki+1 Mineral fertilizers and herbicides from

irrigation water assistanceKi+2 Repeat of events 33-37– Ki+6

Ki+7 End of work of the system

41 Sewage water test from utilization andclarification system

Ti Repeat of events 38-41 (throughout theyear)

Ei Control of water quality on regular andmicro-irrigation systems, drainage waters,level of soil fertility (the end of first irrigation– final season irrigation beginning)

Ei+1 Control of water quality after final seasonirrigation; drainage water, which is with-drawn for winter irrigation; irrigated andclarified drainage water; level of soil fertility

Ei+2 Level of soil fertility control, quality controlof drainage water, when season is over

Ei+3 Ending the work of the control system

System of artificial replenishment of underground water (ARUW system)

9 Preparation of system for season, systematictechnical servicing

23 Withdrawal of water from accumulatorreservoir

24 Water transfer to pipeline for filtrationlanding place

25 Water filtration process in the under-ground reservoir over filtration landingplace. Filling up the lens water stock

26 Withdrawal of underground water fromfiltration well of ARUW system for eco-nomical watering that is necessary for farm

Micro-irrigation system

9 Preparation of system for season, systematictechnical servicing

28 Setting up programming arrangement andincluding the apparatus of moisture, airtemperature, control of soil fertility level

29 Withdrawal of water from SRGW system10 Withdrawal of water from accumulator

reservoir30 Water clarification via special filter 31 Water transfer via pipeline to irrigation

section 32 Mineral fertilizers and herbicides from

irrigation water assistance33 Water transfer to irrigation system and first

irrigation to convey

38 Preparation of system equipment for season,withdrawal of water from reservoir on technological necessity of farm

39 Water use for technological needs of agricultural enterprise

40 Sewage water test from the farm

Sanitary release water system

42 Withdrawal of water from the reservoir through the bottom water system outlet of pond

Water regime, level of soil fertility and quality water system

43 Preparation of system equipment for season, systematic technical service

44 Control of water quality in accumulator-reservoir

45 Control of water quality in ARUW system

46 Control of water quality in micro-irrigationsystems, level of soil fertility, watering soil.Giving the signal, when the first irrigation begins.

47 The control of utilization and clarificationdrainage and sewage water


BALBEKOV, R.A.; BORODYCHEV,V.V. New systemof drop irrigation. Melioration and Water Economy, No. 4,2003, pp. 6–9.

GUBER, K.V.; SAZANOV, M.A.Tendencies of fine-outline hydro-meliorative systems of oasis type.Melioration Problems, No. 3–4, 2003, pp. 128–38.

RUDNEVA, L.V.; SAZANOV, M.A.; SCHMATKIN,V.F.et al.Concept of irrigational melioration development in theKalmyk Republic on the modern stage.Elista:KF VNIIGiM,1999a.

RUDNEVA, L.V.; SAZANOV, M.A. et al. Chemicalcomposition and qualitative indexes of the irrigation watersof Kalmykia. Elista: KF VNIIGiM, 1999b.

146

SAZANOV, M.A.; RUDNEVA, L.V.; SCHMATKIN,V.F. Characteristics of fine-outline hydro-meliorativesystems of the oasis type. In: Kostiakov (ed.), Ecologicalproblems of reclamation, pp. 259–60. Proceedings ofFedorovets international research conference.VNIIGiM, 2002.

SHUMAKOV, B.B.; BEZDNINA, S.Y.; KIREECH-EVA,L.V.;GUBER,K.V.A new generation of hydro-melio-rative systems.VNIIGiM, 1997.

SHUMAKOVA,B.B. (ed.) Melioration and water economy.Irrigation: reference book. Kolos, 1999.

Guiding principles for the projection, building and recon-struction of multi-purpose hydro-meliorative systems.VNIIGiM, 2000.

Table 25.1 Artemisia lerchiana age spectrum (in %)

Year Age conditionVirgin Generative Old

1999 5.1 89.8 5.12000 – 79.6 20.42001 – 68.3 31.7

vegetation up to a distance of 5 m from the plotborder can be destroyed, and some damage tothe vegetation occurs up to a distance of 10 m.

• Sand drifts reach heights of 18 to 20 cm.The vege-tation and soil cover is entirely broken up on thepastures adjoining land that is used temporarily inconnection with engineering projects such as newroads, car parks,quarry development and the layingof foundations.The destruction of the vegetationcover in the pasture area is increased by winderosion, and the affected area has trebled in twoyears. A pattern of native vegetation in whichperennials prevailed has been replaced by second-ary vegetation dominated by annual species: Cera-tocarpus arenarius,Salsola australis,Atriplex tatarica andAnisantha tectorumi.

• In the zone affected by oil-pipelines, pollution byoil spills has resulted in the destruction of vegeta-tion cover. The area of oil pollution increasedtwelvefold between 1999 and 2001.

In desert and semi-desert conditions where vegetationassociations consist of small numbers of species, succes-sional changes are connected with the age spectrum ofdominant species populations.The presence of specieswith varied ages,with a population dominated by gener-ative species, is considered a normal and stable phase ofphytocenoses.Analysis of age spectrum dynamics in thevegetation associations in the areas influenced by linearstructures shows that technogenic stress results in theaging of the dominant population, Artemisia lerchiana(Table 25.1).

The stability of vegetation associations decreases withregeneration,aging and the absence of cenopopulations.The absence of Artemisia lerchiana regeneration is due tosand drifts at the time of germination, an unfavourable


The effects of constructing linear structures on pastureecosystems

Raisa R. Djapova, Zoya M. Sankuyeva and Nadezhda B. Kenzeyeva, Kalmyk StateUniversity, Elista, Republic of Kalmykia

25

Any engineering structure must be constructed withconsideration for the environment so that its construc-tion and subsequent use do not cause harmful effects.Wehave monitored the construction and use of linear struc-tures (highways,gas-pipes,oil-pipes) in the area of brownsoil distribution of light granulometric composition inKalmykia.

The area under investigation is situated in the Afro-Asian desert region (Gribova et al., 1980). During thelast three decades, annual precipitation in the region hasfluctuated between 72 and 342 mm, with an annualaverage of 211 mm (Bakinova et al., 2002). The dryseason lasts for eight months.The main ecosystems ofthe region under research are pastures, traditionally usedfor rearing sheep, cattle, and horses.The modern eco-logical situation is influenced by both natural factorsand economic developments.

Plant associations prevail on brown semi-desert withvarious rates of saline soils of light granulometriccomposition in the structure of vegetation cover.Thedominant vegetation is Stipa capillata, St.sareptana,Agropyron fragile and Artemisia lerchiana (Bakinova et al.,2002). Halophytic vegetation such as Halocnemum strobi-laceum, Petrosimonia brachiata and Anabasis salsa is welldeveloped on solonchaks in the depressions of the relief.The Psammofile vegetation of the overgrown sandscomponent consists mostly of Artemisia tschenieviana,Calligonum aphyllum and Calamagrostis epigeios.

The development of a market economy in the repub-lic has led to the intensive construction of linear struc-tures such as gas-pipes,oil-pipes and metalled highways,and the area traditionally used as pasture is suffering fromoverload. Studies of the condition of vegetation coverand observations made in the construction zone of theinfluence of the linear structures constructed during1999–2001 provided the following data:

• A particular problem is caused by land that isused temporarily in connection with engineer-ing projects.The intention is generally to returnthese to agricultural use once constructioncomes to an end. In reality, however, they suffersevere ecological degradation that affects notonly the area actually used in connection withthe projects, but also much adjoining land. As aresult of wind erosion of this adjoining area,

water regime and soil pollution by oil products.Thus,technogenic stress caused by the construction of linearstructures affects pasture ecosystems in the zone ofbrown semi-desert soils of light granulometric com-position.As a result, the vegetation cover is unable fulfilits preservation function in protecting the soil, and isunable to provide fodder for animals.

In order to restore these functions it is necessary toemploy phytomelioration techniques on the degradedlands. For this purpose, technological schemes andexperience of biological recultivation of arid pasturesare available in the republic. To decrease the negativeimpacts on pasture ecosystems during the constructionof engineering structures, it is necessary to considerincreasing the biological recultivation area. Monitoringthe condition of pasture vegetation cover in the zone ofinfluence of linear structures should be mandatoryduring the entire construction and exploitation period.


BAKINOVA, T.I.; BORLIKOV, G.M.; DJAPOVA,R.R.;ET AL.Fodder resources of hay-mowing and pasturesof Kalmykia. Rostov-on-Don, 2002.

GRIBOVA, S.A.; ISACHENKO, T.I.; LAVRENKO,E.M.; ET AL. The vegetation of the European parts of theUSSR. Science,1980.

RABOTNOV, T.A. Some aspects of cenotic populationstudy. Bulletin of MOIP Biology Department,Vol. 74,No. 1, 1969, pp. 141–9.

148

biological characteristics but also offer a wide spectrumof possibilities for their economic utilization. Geneticresources of halophytes are of interest as decorativeplants and as a source of fodder, oil, medicine, energyand biological ameliorants (Shamsutdinov et al., 2001).

Our book Halophytes of Russia: their environmentalassessment and use (Shamsutdinov et al., 2001) analyseswork conducted by research institutions in CentralAsia,Kazakhstan and southern Russia on the cultivationof forage plants in arid zones.Three hundred species ofcultivated plants, representing twenty-nine botanicalfamilies, were selected for the trials. Most of thesebelong to the Poaceae family (75 species),Chenopodiaceae(40), Fabaceae (29), Crassulaceae (25), Asteraceae (17),Polygonaceae (13) and Apiaceae (10), with only fiftyspecies belonging to the other twenty-two families.

The following species of forage halophytes andxerophytes are most promising for cultivation andselection improvement: Haloxylon ammodendron (C.A.Mey.) Bunge; Haloxylon persicum Bunge ex Boiss. andBuhse; Salsola paletzkiana Litv., S.; richteri (Moq.) Kar.ex Litv.; S. orientalis S.G. Gmel.; S. gemascens Pall.;Halothamnus subaphyllus (C.A. Mey.) Botsch.; Eurotiaceratoides (L.) C.A. Mey; C. pungens (M. Pop.) Czer.;Kochia prostrata (L.) Shrad.; K. scoparia (L.) Shrad.;Camphorosma lessingii Litv.; Climacoptera lanata (Bieb.)Botsch.; Suaeda arcuata Bunge.; S. acuminata (C.A.Mey.) Moq.; Suaeda altissima (L.) Pall.; Artemisia lerchi-ana Web.; A. terrae-albae Krasch.; A. diffusa Krasch. exPoljak.; A. halophila Krasch.; Psathyrostachys juncea(Fisch.) Nevski; and Elytrigia elongata (Host) Nevski.

MMaatteerriiaallss aanndd mmeetthhooddssA genofund of forage halophytes has been produced,using collected germ plasma of the natural flora in aridregions of Russia and Central Asian countries (Kaza-khstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan). The halophytegenofund includes more than fifty species and 1,200specimens, including twenty-five species of foragehalophytes, which provided interesting initial materialfor selection.As a result of integrated ecological studies,the following species were selected on the basis of anassessment that their forage properties presented thebest perspectives for selection:Eurotia ceratoides (L.) C.A.


Halophytes of natural flora and their use for breeding andphytomelioration of degraded pasture ecosystems

Nariman Shamsutdinov,All-Russian Research Institute of Hydraulic Engineering and LandMelioration, RAAS

26

IInnttrroodduuccttiioonnThe landlocked location of southern regions of Russia,far removed from any ocean, is a precondition for theformation of dry-steppe, semi-desert and desertclimates characterized by low precipitation (Kovda,1946).Here an upward water movement always prevailsin the soil, leading to salt accumulation in the topsoillayer. Similar natural conditions are typical of the semi-desert zones in the Caspian, Urals, and west and eastSiberian provinces of the dry steppe zone in Russia.Among these conditions are an overall water deficit andclimate aridity, and soil salinity is thus one of the moreserious constraints. In such extreme environmental aridconditions the prospects for cultivating agriculturalsubsistence crops are limited, or even non-existent. It isnecessary to develop varieties of forage crops thatfeature stable year-to-year productivity, particularly inunfavourable years, as well as high-quality forage that isnon-shedding of the most nutritive parts (leaves, seeds,assimilation sprouts), tolerant to a grazing regime, andresistant to droughts and saline soils.

The requirements of high environmental stabilityand economic value are met by halophytes: a group ofnatural plants with environmental, physiological andbiochemical characteristics that facilitate their successfulgrowth and production in conditions of high soil salin-ity and/or irrigation with saline waters. In this context,populations of halophytes from natural flora are thebasic source of initial material for selecting and develop-ing environmentally differentiated kinds of forage cropsfor use in adaptive systems of phyto-reclamation ofdegraded pastures.

The world’s genofund of halophytes includes some2,000–2,500 species (Aronson, 1989), with 700 speciesin Central Asia (Akjigitova,1982) and 512 species in theRussian Federation (Shamsutdinov et al., 2001). Halo-phytes and xerophytes can be used for the developmentof such environmental niches as saline and solonetzsoils, coastal saline sands and dry takyr-like soils, wheretraditional plants cannot normally grow (Shamsutdinov,1970, 1988, 1996; Shamsutdinov et al., 2001).

An analysis of world experience of halophytegrowth, and our experience in arid regions of CentralAsia and Russia, show that halophytes and xerophytesnot only display a wide range of environmental and

Mey, Camphorosma lessingii Litv., Suaeda altissima (L.)Pall. and Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

The selection process included three sets of studies:first,an analysis of the various initial material; second,theselection and study of candidate halophytes;third,forma-tion and appraisal of selection material (Anon, 1985).Studies of ecotypes were carried out in collection andselection nurseries by appraising and selecting highlyproductive, salt-tolerant species. Types of forage semi-shrubs were selected by applying the individual-massselection with appraisal of the behaviour of selectedplants (populations) in saline and arid conditions.Comparative testing of the types was carried out usingthe methodology of the state approach to testing (Anon,1985).

RReessuullttss aanndd ddiissccuussssiioonn

Selection of forage halophytesSelection of Eurotia ceratoides (L.) C.A.Mey

To assess and select the most promising species, a col-lection nursery of Eurotia ceratoides was set up in 1995on a trial field that is part of the Caspian ResearchInstitute on Arid Farming. Twenty-four species ofEurotia ceratoides were collected both in the AstrakhanRegion and Kalmykia and used in the comparativeassessment.

Eurotia ceratoides starts growing in early April, and itsblossoming phase lasts from mid-July through the thirdmonth of August; a fruit formation stage begins in lateAugust and lasts until early October; ripening occurs inOctober and early November, and fruits are shed untilthe third week of November; the vegetation periodends in late November or early December.Thus, thevegetation period lasts for between 215 and 225 days.

Eurotia ceratoides is a monoecious plant; flowers are ofdifferent sex, with a binary perianth and four stamensforming at the ends of branches, with short spike-shaped compact flower clusters without bracts. Femaleflowers have no perianth, and are hidden in two adnateover-the-middle bracts located in axils of leaves underthe male clusters.The pistil has two filament stigmas,andis characterized by cross-pollination.

From all the species that met a productivity crite-rion, specimens were gathered on the margins of theBaskunchak Lake, at the Bogdinsky (Experimental)Station in the Privolzhsky area, in the AstrakhanRegion and in the Promyslovka settlement of theLimansky District of the Astrakhan Region.The yieldof their dry forage mass in the second year was1.47–2.01 t/ha, in the third year it was 2.57–2.38 t/haand in the fourth year it was 2.51–2.73 t/ha.

A comparative analysis and assessment of prospectivevarieties of Eurotia ceratoides species, grown in a nurseryfor strain testing comparison with a standard controlsample, indicated that a specimen from the Nari-manovsky District of the Astrakhan Region showed thegreatest forage productivity over the four years;we calledthis specimen ‘Favorit’. It gave yields of 0.52, 0.98, 1.66and 2.9 t/ha in each year, which significantly exceededthe standard figures (Ugtinsky local) by 0.24, 0.42, 0.46and 0.40 t/ha, respectively (Table 26.1).

Analysis of the structure of forage mass yield (Table26.2) showed that the ‘Favorit’ specimen has the great-est number of generative shoots, and is equal to thestandard control sample in terms of the proportion ofthe most edible part of the forage (leaves and seeds)that it contains.

The ‘Favorit’ variety of Eurotia ceratoides is referredto as a hay-cutting type because of its characteristicgreat height, with many upward generative shoots, agood leaf formation (54.5 per cent) and good seedproductivity.

150

Samples

Uttinskiymestnyi

FromAstrakhanNarimandistrict(Favorit)

FromKalmykiaSarpinskiydistrict(Standard)

Yield(t/ha)

0.28

0.52

0.32

Diff’cefrom standard

–

0.24

0.04

LSD

–

0.47

–

Yield(t/ha)

0.56

0.98

0.75


–

0.42

0.29

LSD

–

1.78

–

Yield(t/ha)

1.20

1.66

1.43


-

0.46

0.23

LSD

–

0.57

–

Yield(t/ha)

2.50

2.90

2.40


–

0.40

0.10

LSD

–

0.57

–

Year 1 (1996) Year 2 (1997) Year 3 (1998) Year 4 (1999)

Table 26.1 Yield of dry forage mass of Eurotia ceratoides in a comparative test in 1995

Year 1 (1998) Year 2 (1999) Year 3 (2000)

In the second test cycle the ‘Favorit’ also showedsignificantly greater yield than the standard localUtginsky.The difference from the standard was 0.26,0.27 and 0.35 t/ha in dry forage mass, and 0.025, 0.13and 0.025 t/ha in seeds.

Selection of Camphorosma lessingii Litv.

In 1995, we identified two specimens in a collectionnursery: one from the Ikryansky District of theAstrakhan Region and one from the Tselinnyi Regionof Kalmykia.These specimens gave higher yields of dryforage mass (2.54 to 2.86 t/ha) than other specimens.

Analysis of the structure of the forage mass yield ofthe most promising specimens of Camphorosma lessingiiin the 1995 collection shows that these specimens havethe highest portion of leaves and seeds (53 per cent).

The nursery for preliminary strain testing ofCamphorosma lessingii has three plots measuring 10 ×2.8 m, with wide rows and a row spacing of 70 cm;

the seed sowing rate is 3 kg/ha, and seed is embeddedto a depth of 0.5–1.0 cm. Of all the specimens tested,the Camphorosma lessingii specimens from thePrivolzhsky District (Nachalo settlement) of theAstrakhan Region gave the best results of forage massyield. They greatly exceeded the specimens from theIkryansky District in terms of dry mass (0.30, 0.28,0.41 and 0.5 t/ha) and of seed yield (0.013, 0.022,0.018, 0.015 and 0.020 t/ha).

In 1997 a comparison strain test with a four-foldduplication was started for winter (November). Theresults for yields of dry forage mass and seeds arepresented in Table 26.3.

The study of the collected material of Camphorosmalessingii made it possible to select the initial materialfrom which,by means of multiple selections,a new vari-ety of Camphorosma lessingii was obtained, labelled ‘Alsu’.Its features include high yields (1.73 t/ha of dry foragemass, on average), long life and stability with respect tograzing and cutting.


Samples

From Astrakhan Nariman district(Favorit)

From KalmykiaSarpinskiy district(Standard)

Uttinskiy mestnyi

Generative

36

33

31

Vegetative

11

14

11

Sample

100/200

100/200

100

Leaves

55.5/98.8

49.4/103.5

51.7

Stems &seeds

44.5/101.2

50.6/96.5

48.3

Sample

100/51.3

100/52.0

100

Leaves

54.5/25.1

49.0/27.0

52.0

Stems &seeds

45.5/26.2

51.0/25.0

48.0

Number Green mass Dry mass

Table 26.2 Structure of forage mass of Eurotia ceratoides specimens in a test comparison in 1995

Samples

Ikryanskiy districtAstrakhan province

Privolzskiy districtAstrakhan province

Ikryanskiy districtAstrakhan province

Privolzskiy districtAstrakhan province

Yield(t/ha)

0.59

0.86

0.053

0.075

Diff’cefromstandard

0.27

–

0.022

–

LSD

0.12

–

0.002

–

Yield(t/ha)

1.13

1.23

0.075

0.081


0.10

–

0.06

–

LSD

1.6

–

0.00

–

Yield(t/ha)

1.78

2.18

0.087

0.108


0.40

–

0.021

–

LSD

1.2

–

0.05

–

Fodder mass (t/ha)

Seeds (t/ha)

Table 26.3 Yields of dry mass and seeds of Camphorosma lessingii test comparison with 1997 base

Year 1 (2001) Year 2 (202) Year 3 (2003)

Selection of Suaeda altissima (L.) Pall.

In November 2000 the Caspian Research Institute onArid Farming established a collection nursery ofSuaeda altissima where nineteen specimens of thisplant (collected from various ecological-geographicalregions of Russia and Central Asia) were sown.

The first shoots of tall Suaeda altissima appear in lateMarch or April. In late April, it starts to branch (sprout)intensely. Budding begins in late May or early June andlasts for thirty days.A blossoming phase begins in earlyor mid-July and lasts until late September. Fruits ofSuaeda altissima are formed from mid-September untilmid-October.The first ripe fruits appear in the middleof October,and mass ripening of fruits is observed in lateOctober. Cultivated under irrigation, Suaeda altissimagrows quite quickly, and by the end of the first year canreach a height of 100 to 110 cm.

Of all the specimens tested in the collection nursery,the tallest was K-227 from the Privolzhsky District ofthe Astrakhan Region.

The Suaeda altissima natural population collected inthe Chernoyarsky District of the Astrakhan Region(Solenoye Zaimische settlement) was sown as a controlsample.

Cultivated in the semi-desert conditions of Russia,Suaeda altissima is a fast-growing plant that reaches aheight of 120 to 130 cm by the end of the vegetationperiod.

In 2001 specimens of Suaeda altissima were grown ina nursery; they were selected from the best populationsof prospective species sown in a collection nursery in2000 (Table 26.4).

Considering the dry conditions prevalent in 1996–8,these specimens gave quite satisfactory yields of foragemass and seeds. The highest yields were from K-69,K-216, K-225, K-227 and K-223, which produced10.3–14.4 t/ha of dry forage mass.These specimens weredifferentiated by greater height,a long vegetation period(205 to 210 days) and high seeding productivity

(0.45–0.77 t/ha).After repeated sorting-out, specimensK-69,K-216,K-225 and K-227 were moved to the nextstage of the selection process – to nurseries of strain testcomparison.The results of the comparison are presentedin Table 26.5.

Table 26.5 shows that over all five years in both testcycles, a specimen from the Privolzhsky District of theAstrakhan Region labelled ‘Zemfira’ showed the great-est forage productivity. It produced up to 12.5 t/ha ofdry forage mass, surpassing the standard control sampleby 3.5 to 3.9 t/ha.This variety of Suaeda altissima growsto a great height with many lateral shoots, good leafformation (51.5 per cent) and higher seed productivity.Due to its high drought and salt resistance, the ‘Zemfira’variety gave high yields of seeds (Table 26.6) even in thedry years of 1998 and 1999. In fact, in all three years oftests ‘Zemfira’ produced the greatest yields of seeds,exceeding by far the standard control sample (a naturalpopulation) by 0.18, 0.26 and 0.29 t/ha.

UUssee ooff hhaalloopphhyytteess ffoorr pphhyyttoo--rreeccllaammaattiioonn ooff ddeeggrraaddeedd ppaassttuurree eeccoossyysstteemmss Effective methods for phyto-reclamation of degradedpastures were developed on the basis of selectedprospective species as well as developed varieties offorage halophytes.

Phyto-reclamation by sowing a mix of zon-ally specific dominant varieties and life forms of halophytes

During phyto-reclamation of degraded lands it ispossible to construct various types of pastures thathave optimal productivity, structural-functionalorganization, and stability. This is achieved by a

152

Samples

K-58K-61K-69K-215K-216 StK-219K-221K-222K-223K-227K-225

Height(cm)

1711012111111511098100114129119

Dry yieldmass(t/ha)

10.09.111.57.910.38.58.910.19.814.310.3

Seeds yield(t/ha)

0.350.380.450.370.480.380.360.300.310.770.54

Height(cm)

109111119113113111101104114132116

Dry yieldmass(t/ha)

8.98.610.38.69.89.79.18.79.813.210.5

Seeds yield(t/ha)

0.350.340.480.350.500.380.360.290.310.750.56

Height(cm)

107112124111115112109107116131115

Dry yieldmass(t/ha)

8.78.59.88.610.08.79.19.010.114.19.7

Seeds yield(t/ha)

0.330.290.450.370.480.310.350.290.330.780.58

Table 26.4 Yield of dry forage mass of Suaeda altissima specimens in a selection nursery sown in 2001–3

combination of various zonally specific dominantvarieties and life forms of forage halophytes that aresuitable for various types of adaptive strategy. Thestructures of such pasture ecosystems comprise poly-dominant communities consisting of violent andpatient shrubs, semi-shrubs, xerophytic perennialgrasses and explerent annual grasses (from a seedbank).

• Creation of long-life pasture ecosystems for spring–summeruse. Such pasture ecosystems are created in regionswhere the natural grazing lands are characterized bylow productivity during the summertime. Usedhere are:– shrubs: Calligonum arborescens and C. aphyllum– semishrubs: Kochia prostrata, Camphorosma

lessingii and Eurotia ceratoides– xerophytic perennial grasses: Agropyron sibiricum

and A.desertorum,Elymus sibiricus,Festuca valesiacaand Stipa lessingiana.

The ratio of these basic life forms is 20:60:20.Theaverage yield of spring–summer pastures is 1–1.5t/ha of dry forage mass (in unfavourable years itdrops to less than 0.6–0.8 t/ha), whereas the yieldsof natural pastures (control) are 0.15–0.30 t/ha.

· Creation of autumn–winter pasture ecosystems. Fortheir formation the following are used:– xerohalophyte and halophyte semishrubs:

Kochia prostrata, Camphorosma lessingii,Artemisiahalophila,Artemisia lerchiana, Eurotia ceratoides

– xerophytic perennial grasses: Agropyron sibiricumand A.desertorum,Elymus sibiricus,Festuca valesiaca,Stipa lessingiana

– annual grasses.The ratio of these components is 25:70:5.Autumn–winter pastures are characterized by aconsistently high productivity. In regions withtotal annual precipitation of 170 to 250 mm, theyield of dry forage mass is 1–1.2 t/ha, and inregions with total precipitation of 250 to 350 mma year it is 1.5–2 t/ha.

• Creation of long-term,year-round pasture ecosystems. It isfeasible to create such pastures in semi-deserts anddry steppes.They are composed of halophyte andxerophyte forage shrubs (20 per cent), semishrubs(65 per cent) and grasses (15 per cent) and are grazedby sheep in different seasons. Such pastures may beused throughout the year;they yield 1.2–2.6 t/ha ofdry forage mass. Basic technological operationsapplied here are as follows. On zonally-specific,brown semi-shrub, chestnut, and dark-chestnutsoils, in early spring, soil strips 12 to 50 m wide and16 to 18 cm deep are usually dug across the direc-tion of dominating winds. Then in May–June, totake care of weed overgrowth and compaction ofthe ground surface, the ground is dug over to adepth of 6 to 8 cm. In autumn (November) andwinter (December to February) a mixture of forageplant seeds of various kinds is sown, composed ofsemi-shrubs and annual and perennial grasses.


Year 1 (1998) Year 2 (1999) Year 3 (2000)Samples

Standard (nativepopulation)

Zemphira

from Turkmenistan

from Kalmykia

Yield(t/ha)

8.9

12.4

9.3

9.9


–

3.5

0.4

1.0

LSD

–

0.42

–

–

Yield(t/ha)

7.0

11.3

7.5

7.2


–

4.3

0.5

0.2

LSD

–

0.97

–

–

Yield(t/ha)

7.6

12.6

8.1

7.5


–

5.0

0.5

–0.1

LSD

–

0.11

–

–

Table 26.5 Yield of dry forage mass of Suaeda altissima ‘Zemfira’ in test comparison of 2001–3

Year 1 (1998) Year 2 (1999) Year 3 (2000)Samples

Standard (nativepopulation)

Zemphira

from Turkmenistan

from Kalmykia

Yield(t/ha)

0.51

0.69

0.48

0.51


–

0.18

–0.03

0

LSD

–

0.19

–

–

Yield(t/ha)

0.52

0.78

0.54

0.56


–

0.26

0.02

0.04

LSD

–

0.17

–

–

Yield(t/ha)

0.48

0.77

0.51

0.54


–

0.29

0.03

0.06

LSD

–

0.23

–

–

Table 26.6 Seed yield of Suaeda altissima ‘Zemfira’ in the first cycle of test comparison

Methods of phyto-reclamation of secondarysaline irrigated soils using halophytes

Halophytes can be successfully used in the phyto-reclamation of saline lands,restoring their productivity bycreating highly productive forage biocenoses,putting thelands to agricultural use, improving the conditions forreclamation and increasing soil fertility.

For this purpose the following halophytes can beused:Suaeda arcuata and S. altissima,Atriplex,Climacopteracrassa, Chenopodium album, Bassia hyssopifolia, Kochiascoparia, Glycyrrhiza glabra and G. uralensis, Artemisiahalophila and others.The selected species of halophytesform 10 to 12 tons of dry forage mass, 1 to 1.5 tons ofseeds (fruits) and can produce up to 1.5 tons of proteinunder irrigation with saline waters.

Studies have shown the time required for soil desalin-ization by means of a reclaimed crop rotation thatincludes various ecological groups of halophytes. For amoderate level of salinity level this takes four to fiveyears;for heavy salinization six or seven years is necessary.The desalinizing effect of halophytes can be seen in thesestatistics:

• Within a 1-m layer of heavily saline, mediumloamy soils of semi-deserts, the salt content is equalto 48 t/ha.

• With an overland phytomass of 18–20 t/ha, halo-phytes remove 8 to10 tons of salts a year from eachhectare.

• The shading provided by the soil halophytesprevents evaporation and related movement of saltsto the topsoil horizons.

• The effect of green mulch is equal to 2.5 t/ha of salts.As a result, in an area where halophytes grow, saltremoval from the soil reaches 10 to 12.5 tons a year.

Soil desalination with halophytes is the only way toremove from the soil the salts that are so harmful toagricultural plants.The use of improved drainage andthe leaching regime of irrigation will merely redistrib-ute salts in the soil profile, not remove them from thebiological cycle.

The most promising biological ameliorant for theefficient development of saline irrigated lands isGlycyrrhiza glabra, which is also a valuable medicine andforage crop. In the Lower Povolzhie on saline irrigatedlands with high occurrence of ground waters, liquoricegives 6–8 t/ha of hay and 8–10 t/ha of liquorice root,which is a valuable raw material for the pharmaceuticaland food industries.

CCoonncclluussiioonnThe natural flora of Russia and Central Asian countriescomprises a great number of environmentally specificplant varieties, mainly halophytes, that are of great

importance as forage plants for agricultural develop-ment. Using halophyte seeds collected during expedi-tions, a genofund has been established that contains fiftyspecies and more than 1,200 specimens of these plants.This genofund has made possible the development ofthree varieties of forage halophytes: Eurotia ceratoides‘Alsu’, Camphorosma lessingii ‘Favorit’ and Suaedaaltissima ‘Zemfira’, which are being used in the phyto-reclamation of degraded pastures in arid regions ofRussia and the Central Asian countries (Uzbekistan).

The use of halophytes for agricultural developmentin the arid zones of Russia and Central Asia has enor-mous value and is extremely promising, as more thanhalf of the arid pastures are degraded and requirephyto-reclamation.

AAcckknnoowwlleeddggeemmeennttThis work was supported by the RFBR (Russian Foun-dation for Basic Research - #03-05-64927)


AKZHIGITOVA,N.I.Halophyte vegetation in Central Asiaand its indication properties.Tashkent, 1982. (In Russian.)

ANON. Methodology of the state approach to testing agri-cultural crops. Moscow, 1985. (In Russian.)

ARONSON, J. H. A database of salt tolerant plants of theworld.Tuscon,Ariz.,Office of Arid Studies,University ofArizona, 1989.

KOVDA,V.A. Origin and regime of saline soils,Volume 1.Moscow/Leningrad,1946. (In Russian.)

SHAMSUTDINOV,Z.S.Theory and practice of desertpasture phyto-melioration.In:The problems of desert devel-opment, pp. 27–37. 1970. (In Russian.)

SHAMSUTDINOV Z.S. Ecology-phytocenotic basisof desert pastures phytomelioration. Agricultural SciencesBulletin, No. 12, 1988, pp. 30–37. (In Russian.)

SHAMSUTDINOV, Z.S. Biological restoration of degradedagricultural lands. Moscow, 1996.

SHAMSUTDINOV, Z.S.; PISKOVATSKY, Y.M.;KOZLOV, N.N. et al. Ecotypical selection of forage plants.Moscow, 1999. (In Russian.)

SHAMSUTDINOV,Z.S.;SAVCHENKO,I.V.;SHAM-SUTDINOV,N.Z.Halophytes of Russia: their environmentalassessment and use. Moscow, 2001. (In Russian.)

154

breeding and calving grounds of the unique saiga (Saigatatarica).This small antelope with a rather squarish bodyon thin legs can run over the plain at speeds of up to 80km an hour. It has a odd looking hump on its long, softnose, which filters out dust as it runs across the drysteppe.The antelope has large black eyes that protrudeslightly from its head.The males have short spiky horns,yellowish in colour, with black rings near the base.

Hunted for their meat and horns, which are usedin stomach remedies in oriental medicine, saiga havedeclined dramatically in number during the latter partof the twentieth century. Some experts say that themain reason for the decline is the inordinate numberof wolves (Canis lupus) in the region, which prey onyoung and sick animals. Habitat loss due to the culti-vation of steppe lands has also taken its toll.As a result,the saiga is now listed in CITES Appendix II, andhunting in Kalmykia has been halted. Surveys of saigahave been conducted, and conservation measures andpublic awareness activities in the Republic ofKalmykia have received support from organizationssuch as the Darwin Initiative ‘Using saiga antelopeconservation to improve rural livelihoods’, thePeople’s Trust for Endangered Species, LargeHerbivore Foundation, Denver Zoological Societyand Chicago Zoological Society.

The European hare (Lepus europaeus) and earedhedgehog (Erinaceus auritus) are smaller mammalsfound in the protected steppe of Chernyje ZemliNature Reserve. The long-legged corsac fox (Vulpescorsac) trots across the level plain in search of rodents,sometimes catching the equally long-legged jerboas.Three species of jerboas are found here: the great,small five-toed and Northern three-toed jerboa(Allactaga major,A. Elater, Dipus sagitta).

The territorial range of the endangered marbledpolecat (Vormela peregusna) has been shrinking over thepast 200 years due to grazing and cultivation ofprairies.The Caspian Sea and Caucasus region, wherethe Chernyje Zemli Biosphere Reserve is located, isone of only two areas where the marbled polecat isstill found in Russia; the other is in the Altai foothillsin Western Siberia. The rather large polecat, with along bushy tail and light-coloured mask on its face, hasan effective way of defending itself from foxes andwolves. It stands up on its hind legs, throws its furry


Chernyje Zemli Biosphere Reserve and its role in the conservation of biodiversity in dryland ecosystems

Victor Badmaev and Boris Ubushaev, Chernyje Zemli Biosphere Reserve,Kalmykia, Republic of Kalmykia

27

Chernyje Zemli Biosphere Reserve, established byUNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere programme in1993, is situated in the Pre-Caspian lowland with itsmain territory bordering the Ramsar site of LakeManych-Gudilo. The reserve occupies two separateareas in the Republic of Kalmykia.The larger portion(91,000 ha) lies in the administrative regions of Komso-molskoye and Yashkule, protecting the semi-desertplains of the near-Caspian lowlands. A buffer zone of56,000 ha surrounds this portion of the reserve, lying atan elevation of 24 m below sea level, as this region wasonce at the bottom of the Caspian Sea.Chernyje Zemli,meaning ‘black lands’ in Russian, gets its name from thefact that strong winter winds blow away most of thesnow cover, and the lands look black and barren.Whilewinters are cold and harsh, with temperatures droppingas low as –30 °C, snow cover is moderate to sparse.Summers, on the other hand, are hot and dry.Tempera-tures soar above 40 °C throughout the summer, and hotwinds drive over the endless plain. Rain is scarce, andeven the rangers have to transport their drinking waterinto the reserve.

The second, smaller section (30,900 ha) of theChernyje Zemli Reserve is located in the very north-west corner of the Kalmykia Republic on LakeManych-Gudilo, locally known as the ProletarskoyeReservoir. Water from the reservoir flows into theDon River, which then leads to the Azov Sea.The lakeis long and narrow, covering an area of 344 km2, withan average depth of only half a metre. Its southeasternshore is protected in the Chernyje Zemli BiosphereReserve by a buffer zone of 34,000 ha.This section ismarkedly different from the dry plain in the protectedterritory in the centre of Kalmykia.Water is abundanteverywhere, but the lake is so saline from runoff andthe lack of freshwater inlets that hardly any fish cansurvive.The numerous small islands near the shore aresafe places for bird colonies, although the birds have tofly to freshwater bodies to feed. Rolling hills line thelakeshore, sloping off gradually into the shallow, siltywaters of the reservoir.

The fauna of the Chernyje Zemli BiosphereReserve comprise twenty-two species of fish, threespecies of amphibians, thirteen species of reptiles, 219species of birds and thirty-one species of mammals.Thereserve was created primarily to conserve important

tail up in the air, displays its vicious set of fangs andgrowls like a dog. This display and the foul odouremanating from the polecat’s glands are often enoughto deter any would-be predators.A filling meal for themarbled polecat consists of hamsters (Cricetulus spp.),voles (Microtus spp.) or pygmy ground squirrels – alsocalled sousliks (Spermophilus pygmaeus). The sandy-coloured ground squirrels dig elaborate dens in thesteppe, where colonies of several families live together.Ground squirrels feed on seeds and grasses whilekeeping watch for predators.When it senses danger, aground squirrel stands up on its hind legs and givesout a long whistle, sending all the others undergroundwithin seconds.

Ground squirrels are also the favoured prey of manyhunting birds in the Kalmykian steppe.Twelve species ofraptors are found in the reserve, including rare steppeeagles (Aquila nipalensis) and imperial eagles (A. heliaca).Long-legged buzzards (Buteo rufinus) build their nests onmounds of earth left from old settlements and burialgrounds, often bringing pieces of saiga fur into the nestfor bedding.White-tailed sea eagles (Haliaëetus albicilla)soar above the steppe, hundreds of miles from the sea.Four kinds of harriers (Circus spp.) frequent the reserve,flying low over the plain in search of prey. Egyptianvultures (Neophron percnopterus), cinereous vultures(Aegypius monachus), and Eurasian griffons (Gyps fulvus)flock to the saiga birthing grounds to feed on helplesssaiga calves, minutes after they are born. Endangeredworldwide, the demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) isoddly one of the most visible birds in the steppe.Smallerthan the common crane, this rare bird is one of the mostbeautiful of the crane species. Its body is dove-grey incolour, with long black feathers on its chest, wings, andtail. Brilliant white wisps of feathers stream off the backof its slender black head like a ponytail. Beady red eyesare set a little above the base of its bright yellow beak.The birds, which mate for life, stay near their nest inspring, a bare indentation in the earth with two large,greenish eggs with reddish-brown spots.

The other section of the Chernyje Zemli Reserve,along the edge of the saline Manych-GudiloReservoir in northeastern Kalmykia, is a haven fornesting shorebirds. The rare Eurasian spoonbill(Platalea leucorodia), with a rounded shovel-like tip atthe end of its long, reddish bill, feeds on insects andmolluscs in silty soils near the shore. Rare Easternwhite pelicans (Pelecanus crispus), listed in the RussianRed Book, nest in colonies of up to 400 pairs.Dalmatian pelicans (P. Onocrotalus) are much lessnumerous; only five pairs nested in the reserve in1997. Great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) also nestin large colonies on islands of Lake Manych-Gudilo.Great and little egrets (Egretta alba, E. garzetta) buildtheir nests up with dead reeds on islands, flying tobodies of freshwater to feed on small fish, frogs andinsects. Herring gulls (Larus argentatus) make their

nests alongside the egrets, often preying on their help-less chicks. Whooper swans (Cygnus cygnus), muteswans (Cygnus olor), ruddy shelducks (Tadorna ferrug-inea) and others are among the 202 species of birdsfound in Chernyje Zemli Reserve. Amphibians andreptiles in the reserve include the toad-headed andspotted toad agama (Phrynocephalus mystaceus, P.Guttatus), rapid fringed-toed lizard and steppe runner(Ememias velox, E. arguta), sand boa (Eryx jaculus),Montpellier snake (Malpolon monphlessianus) andRenard’s viper (Vipera ursini).

According to the inventory,the flora in the BiosphereReserve consists of 245 species of vascular plants.Theendlessly flat and unbroken plain – or steppe – stretchesto the horizon in every direction.Not a single tree breaksup the wide-open space. In spring, the brownish steppeis transformed into a carpet of greenish-grey grasses.Thered,white and yellow flowers of rare tulips (Tulipa bieber-steiniana,T.biflora,T.schrenkii) bring a sprinkling of colourto the unvaried plain.White tufts of feathergrass (Stipacapillata, S. lessingiana, S. zalesskii) sway in the summerbreeze. Bulbous bluegrass (Poa bulbosa) grows beneaththe dangling pennants of downy chess (Bromus tectorum)and rare Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus). The sweetsmell of wormwood (Artemisia tschernieviana,A.austriaca,A. pauciflora, A. salina, A. lerchiana) wafts over the openplain in spring and summer. Ground squirrels eagerlytear open the green tops of oriental eremopyrum(Eremopyrum orientale) to get at the tender seeds inside.These species,along with sword-flag (Iris pumila),mullein(Verbascum austriacum),and groundsel (Senecio noemus) aresome of the 179 types of plants found in the reserve.

Before the biosphere reserve was created, the drysteppe lands were under constant grazing pressurefrom sheep, cows and horses. Some 4 million sheeponce grazed on the open plain. As a result of over-grazing, many lands were stripped bare of vegetationand began to turn into deserts. Blowing sand piled upin long mounds, which moved over time. Althoughprotection and re-cultivation of the steppe has allowedvegetation to regenerate gradually on some lands,25,000 ha, or nearly a third of this section of thereserve, is still covered with bare soils and sand dunes.

The conservation of necessary habitat for the saigaantelope is perhaps the most important function of theChernyje Zemli Reserve. However, saiga roam overlarge areas, and can cover several hundred kilometres aday. Once the herds leave the reserve, poachers pursuethe herds on motorcycles and by car, sometimes shoot-ing dozens of animals in one night.A national body – theDepartment for Conservation, Monitoring, andManagement of Game Resources of the Republic ofKalmykia – is responsible for protecting the speciesoutside of the reserve,but its rangers cannot always be inthe right place at the right time. During breeding andcalving seasons, the saigas generally return to the reserve,where they are granted protection from poachers.

156

However, wolves are also protected there; these numer-ous predators inflict considerable harm on saiga popula-tions, especially by preying on the young immediatelyfollowing their birth.

About 1,400 people live within the buffer and tran-sition zones of the biosphere reserve and their incomecomes mainly from cattle breeding and irrigated culti-vation of different crops, vegetables and melons.

Constant long-term monitoring of the steppe eco-systems carried out by the biosphere reserve nowprovides information on the remarkable rehabilitationof the previously degraded vegetation cover within thereserve.The biosphere reserve staff undertake measuresto help local people in alternative income generationand in speeding up the rehabilitation of used pastures,and in general attempt to alleviate poverty.


to other destinations, but in years of late ice formationthey winter on the reservoir. In the spring, up to 1.5million ducks and 400,000 geese can be seen, includingnot less than 8,000 of the red-breasted goose Rufibrentaruficollis. In the autumn there are up to 3 million ducksand 500,000 geese, including from 8,000 to 20,000 ofthe red-breasted goose. Every year on Lake Manych-Gudilo there are approximately 50 to 200 differentkinds of large marked white-headed duck,Oxyura leuco-cephala,with a total of up to 1,000 individuals (Krivenkoet al., 1998; Linkov, 1984). Furthermore, practically theentire world’s population of red-breasted geese and amajority of all white-headed ducks migrate over thevalley of the Manych River.

In the water basin of Manych-Chograj, uniquemarked avifauna can be found that nest in varioushabitats in both terrestrial and water ecosystems, orstop to rest and feed during migrations. Other steppebirds worth mentioning are the tawny eagle Aquilarapax, the Demoiselle crane Anthropoides virgo, thegreat bustard Otis tarda, the little bustard Tetrax tetrax,and among those birds preferring lakes, bogs, waterbasins and the rivers are the spoonbill Platalea leucoro-dia, herons (Egretta garzetta, Ardea cinerea, A. purpurea),gulls (Larus melanocephalus, L. minutus, L. ridibundus),the mute swan Cygnus olor, the Dalmatian pelicanPelecanus crispus and the white pelican P. onocrotalus, thegrey lag goose Anser anser, and ducks (Anas strepera,A.acuta, A. clypeata). Many species rest for a specifiedperiod of time, often in the salty lake of a confluenceof rivers. Bird diversity increases during spring andautumn migrations when the whooper swan Cygnuscygnus, bean goose Anser fabalis, red-breasted goose,European wigeon Anas penelope, white-winged scoterMelanitta fusca and many other species of birds rest atthe Manych-Chograj water system.

It is evident that the avifauna of these lakes is one ofthe most numerous and varied in the south of the Euro-pean part of Russia. In the vicinity of Lake Manych-Gudilo and the entire Proletarsk water basin,208 speciesof birds can be found,of which 122 species are breeding.The lake is a site for the mass nesting of many colonialwaterfowl birds. Around Lake Manych-Gudilo itself,many rare and endangered birds, which are in the RedBook of the Russian Federation and the IUCN, can befound (for example, the Dalmatian and white pelicans,


Problems of conservation and monitoring of biodiversity indry steppe areas around Lake Manych-Gudilo

Natalya V. Lebedeva and Ramiz M. Savitsky, Southern Scientific Centre, Russian AcademySciences, Rostov on Don, Russian Federation

28

The south of Russia, and in particular the areas ofRostov and Stavropol, and the Republics of Dagestanand Kalmykia, are characterized by a semi-arid and aridclimate, shortage of water resources and ecologicallyunstable soil conditions, vegetative cover and fauna.TheManych-Chograj water system stretches for almost1,000 km across these regions. It includes artificial reser-voirs that were built as part of the USSR’s hydraulicengineering programmes.The development of a systemof artificial water basins and regional fresh water reserveshas resulted in drastic changes in biological diversity.Thelast decades have seen a catastrophic decline in fish andbird diversities as a result of the deteriorating conditionsof the artificial reservoirs and infrastructure,and a lack offreshwater ones, resulting in an increase in salinity insome reservoirs. The environmental problems arisingtowards the end of the twentieth century drew publicand scientific attention.

One unique example of a saline lake system is therelict Lake Manych-Gudilo, a favoured nesting place forrare bird species.Lake Manych-Gudilo is a very interest-ing area that provides a reserve for rare species of plantsand animals. It is located in the territory of the Rostovarea, in the Kalmyk Republic and Stavropol territory.Since September 1994, the relict lake, together with theProletarsk water basin that connects it to a network ofreservoirs, has been included in the Ramsar list ofWetlands of International Importance under a decision takenby the Government of the Russian Federation,and theselakes are protected by the state.

Within the vicinity of Lake Manych-Gudilo thereare plenty of rare and disappearing plants,many of themprotected species.The lake’s avifauna is one of the rich-est in the south European part of Russia in terms ofspecies diversity and aggregate number of individuals(only the Volga delta is comparable in terms of birddiversity). It is the largest migratory route for birds inEurasia, connecting Western Siberia and Kazakhstanwith the Black Sea basin, the Near and Middle East, andNorthern and East Africa. It is also one of the largestareas of longstop migrating Anceriformes and waterfowlwithin the limits of Russia. During migration, numer-ous and diverse individuals of many kinds – Anceri-formes, Charadriiformes, Ciconiiformes, ibises andPelicaniformes birds – pause here to rest and feed. In theautumn of most years, a majority of Anceriformes fly on

the spoonbill, the glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus, the greatblack-headed gull Larus ichtyaetus, the Demoiselle crane,the little bustard and the tawny eagle.According to V.G.Krivenko et al. (1998), on islands of Lake Manych-Gudilo there nest more than 100 pairs of Dalmatianpelican and about 300 pairs of white pelican, from 400to 900 pairs of spoonbill, and about 1,000 pairs of greatblack-headed gull.Native steppe species breed in steppesnear the lakes: the Imperial eagle Aquila heliaca, thegolden eagle Aquila chrysaetos, the white-tailed eagleHaliaeetus albicilla, the Egyptian vulture Neophron perc-nopterus, the black vulture Aegypius monachus, the greatbustard and the little bustard, whose numbers havedecreased owing to anthropogenous influences on theenvironment.

From our data, numerous sandy island colonies ofrare and endangered species of birds can be identified:the spoonbill, the Dalmatian pelican and the whitepelican (see Figure 28.1).

Numerous fish-eating birds accompany nestingrare species: Larus cachinnans, the cormorant Phalacro-corax carbo, the grey heron Ardea cinerea (Figure 28.2),the little egret Egretta garzetta, the great egret E.albaand other species.The grey lag goose, the mallard Anasplatyrhinchos, the mute swan and others assemble onthe islands. In May 2004, for instance, we found 464

Larus cachinnans nests, 159 white pelican nests, 29Dalmatian pelican nests, 445 cormorant nests, 29 greyheron nests, 2 mallard nests, 1 grey lag goose, 1 muteswan nest and 31 spoonbill nests (Figure 28.3).Pelicans fly from their nesting place to feed on theDunda River (a distance of 10 km from the colony)and the Egorlyk River (which is further from it).

Rare species identified in the Red Book of a differ-ent rank nest here: the gull-billed tern Gelochelodonnilotica, the least tern Sterna albifrons, the black ternChlidonias niger, the Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia,the black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus, the piedavocet Recurvirostra avocetta, the great black-headedgull and the slender-billed gull Larus genei. Numeroussheld duck Tadorna tadorna, roody sheld duck T. ferrug-inea, spoonbill and glossy ibis can be seen in adjoiningwetlands and on small salty lakes. The black-wingedpratincole Glareola nordmanni, the little bustard Tetraxtetrax, the booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus nest inadjoining steppes; the Demoiselle crane, the rose-coloured starling Sturnus roseus and other species arecommon here.

The islands are not easily accessible, but are regu-larly visited by hunters who disturb the birds duringreproduction. This affects breeding and influencesbird population numbers. Although two reserves –

160

Figure 28.1 Dalmatian and white pelicans in a multispecific colony of birds on an island in Lake Manych-Gudilo

Rostovsky Reserve and Chernyje Zemli BiosphereReserve – have responsibility for the Manych-Gudiloislands, they do not have the resources to tackle thisproblem and the protection they offer is clearlyinsufficient. Some of the adjoining territories andwater bodies need to provide the protected statusnecessary for the preservation of key areas in order tomaintain the birds’ biological diversity.

The adverse consequences of modern anthropo-genous influences on ecosystem lakes such asManych-Gudilo and adjoining steppes have not beenproperly investigated. It is therefore necessary to carryout research to analyse and evaluate the processes thatare occurring in order to develop measures for theoptimal management, conservation and protection ofthe area’s biological diversity.


KRIVENKO,V.G.; LINKOV, A.B.; KAZAKOV, B.A.Lake Manych-Gudilo:wetlands of Russia.Vol.1:Internationalwetland areas. Moscow,Wetlands International Publica-tion (No. 47), 1998.

LINKOV, A.B. The ecology of the white-headed duck inEastern Manych: actual condition of resources waterfowlbirds. Moscow,Tez.Vsesouz. sovesh, 1984.

The authors of this article can be contacted atSouthern Scientific Center, Russian AcademySciences, Rostov on Don, Russian Federation, e-mail:lebedeva.mmbi.krinc.ru


Figure 28.2 Hatching of grey heron nestlingsin a multispecific colony on an island

in Lake Manych-Gudilo

White pelican

Anseriformes

Herring gull

Dalmatian pelican

Great cormorant

Common heron

2.5% 0.3%2.5%

2.7%

13.7%

38.3%

40.0%

Figure 28.3 Structure of a multispecific colony on one of islands in Lake Manych-Gudilo in 2004

borders supported the antelope population by cuttingoff international trade routes. Saiga hunting wasbanned from 1919 until the 1950s, allowing numbersto recover to nearly 2 million, and bringing the ante-lope from a position of near extinction to the mostnumerous ungulate in the Soviet Union.This amazingrecovery was in part due to the animal’s high fecundi-ty: saiga females begin breeding in the first year of lifeand give birth to their first calf in the second year.Older females are capable of producing two and eventhree calves per year.

Three populations of S. t. tatarica are known inCentral Asia: the Ural, the Ust’-Urt and theBetpakdala populations, in addition to one Europeanpopulation in the Pre-Caspian region. It is possiblethat some herds from Ust’-Urt in Kazakhstan alsomigrate to adjacent territories of Uzbekistan andTurkmenistan. Saiga herds of the European populationmay migrate from Kalmykia to Daghestan and otheradjacent territories in Russia. In the particularly harshwinter of 1998–9, a herd of 80,000 migrated intoDaghestan in search of food.A few weeks later, only afew small groups returned. Witnesses in Daghestanreported that the snow was red with blood from theslaughter of saiga by poachers.

Between 1980 and 1994, total saiga numbers fluctu-ated between 670,000 and 1,251,000 individuals. In thesame period,single population estimates were as follows:European population,142,000 to 430,000;Ural popula-tion,40,000 to 298,000;Ust’-Urt population,140,000 to265,000;and Betpakdala population,250,000 to 510,000individuals.All four S. t. tatarica populations experiencedsevere population declines after 1998.The annual rate ofpopulation decline during 1998–9 was roughly 35 percent, reaching a dramatic 56 per cent drop during1999–2000.The 2004 census revealed the numbers as15,000 European,15,000 Ust’Urt,8,800 Ural and 6,900Betpakdala saiga (A. Bekenov,personal communication).

Saiga aggregations vary in size throughout the year.Larger herds are recorded during the reproductiveseason, but can also be observed in other periods of theyear. During the winter, large herds are better able tobreak through the superficial layer of snow and reachthe forage they need. During the summer, large herdsmay offer individuals temporary relief from massiveattacks by blood-sucking insects. Most importantly,


The saiga antelope in the drylands of Russia and how toensure its sustainable future

Yury Arylov,The Centre for Wild Animals of the Republic of Kalmykia, Kalmykia, Russia;Anna Lushchekina and Valery Neronov, Russian MAB Committee, Moscow

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During the Quaternary, when most of the NorthernHemisphere was covered by tundra-steppe, immenseherds of saiga antelope, together with woollymammoths, used the available plant resources of a farmore extensive territory than the saiga’s present range.Fossil bones, not so different from the modern species,have been found in deposits scattered from the BritishIsles all the way to Alaska, and from the northwest terri-tories of Canada to the New Siberian Islands to thenorth and the Pre-Caucasus region to the south.Twosubspecies of the saiga are currently recognized: Saigatatarica mongolica, which inhabits the small steppe area inMongolia, and Saiga tatarica tatarica, which occupies thevast plains of Central Asia and the Pre-Caspian region.Their massive seasonal migrations have been described,particularly those of Saiga tatarica tatarica.

The nominative subspecies of saiga antelope is aunique form of nomadic ungulate that once regularlymigrated over hundreds of kilometres of grasslandhabitat. In the course of its evolution this subspeciesbecame very well adapted to the harsh and unpre-dictable conditions of an extreme environment.Despite its rather sheep-like body, the saiga antelope isone of the fastest terrestrial vertebrates, capable ofreaching speeds of up to 80 km per hour.The saiga’smost notable external feature is the presence of acurved, trunk-like nose, which apparently evolved forair filtering and thermoregulation during hot, dustysummers and ice-cold winters. Individual saigas have ashort life span, and the adults have high reproductiverates, with adaptations that allow for rapid demo-graphic recovery following particularly severe climat-ic episodes. The males are crowned with a pair ofwaxy, light yellow horns, which they use as effectiveweapons. Unfortunately, however, these horns are avalued commodity in the Chinese traditional medi-cine market; records of exports that passed through thecustoms office of Kjakhta (Transbaikalia) indicate that3.95 million horns were exported to China during the1800s alone.

By the 1920s, over-harvesting had almost com-pletely eliminated the saiga from most of their range.Intensive hunting and the development of steppelands in the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen-turies reduced global saiga populations to only a fewhundred. For seventy years, the Soviet Union’s closed

large herds offer better protection and early warningagainst predators, particularly the wolves that arecommon in many regions of the Eurasian steppes.

Since the early 1980s, saiga populations have sufferedfrom illegal poaching and trade, and from habitat degra-dation and other forms of environmental disturbance.The demographic effects of periodic summer droughts,occasional severe winters, the spread of some diseasesand pressure of predators have been magnified by large-scale hunting with dramatic results for the majority ofherds. Hunting, and particularly poaching, areconnected with a demand for saiga horns for theChinese traditional medicine market. Such tradethrough ‘open’ frontiers was a source of hard currencyfor a number of people involved in this illegal business.More recently in Russia, against the background of adrastic decline in livestock farming, saigas have beentargeted for meat consumption, and this has added tothe overall pressure on wild populations.

Now, at the beginning of the twenty-first century,the saiga’s range within the northwest Pre-Caspianregion has shrunk considerably. Not so long ago manythousands of herds of this unique animal moved freelyacross grassland habitats in the territory of theRepublic of Kalmykia and the Astrakhan oblast, andthey could sometimes be found in the Rostov andVolgograd oblasts. In the cold and persistent snowywinters of the mid-1980s, they were seen within 10 or15 km of Astrakhan city. Today it is very rare to seesaiga even in the remotest parts of the steppe, and thusthere is a general lack of information about theirmigrations.The reasons for the decline are numerous,but the development of agriculture, particularly theconstruction of irrigation channels, had a majorimpact on saiga numbers and nomadic behaviour.

On the eve of the Great October Revolution, sheepcomprised about two-thirds of the entire livestockpopulation in the northwest Pre-Caspian region,followed by cattle (c. 20 per cent) and horses (c. 13 percent). During the 1920s, the proportion of sheep grewto 74 per cent, while those of cattle and horses droppedto 16 per cent and 7.5 per cent respectively.The collec-tivization drive of the 1930s furthered this tendency alittle, by pushing sheep numbers up, and horses down, afew per cent more. But it was during the 1960s thatKalmykia was subjected to the most dramatic changes inthe structure of its livestock population since the adventof Soviet power: in just one decade, the proportion ofsheep reached 85 per cent or more, while the horsessank below 1 per cent.

The unprecedented explosion of sheep in the area(a rise in the 1960s to 2 million head, over twice thepopulation in the 1950s) soon led to forage deficits,which provoked haphazard attempts to ‘improve’ nat-ural pastures by turning them into fields to cultivatemore fodder. During the 1960s, Kalmykia saw over150,000 hectares of its pastureland ploughed up in

pursuit of this goal; by the early 1970s, every bit of thisland had been destroyed by wind erosion, to the pointof having no vegetation whatsoever. Of course, thisresulted in the fragmentation of the saiga range, com-petition for forage with livestock and the isolation ofsome sub-populations.

For example, Sarpa Depression with its many lakeswas a preferred site for the saiga, especially in thespring when lush ephemeral plants would grow, andwas where female saiga preferred to give birth. In theearly 1960s the construction of the Sarpa IrrigationFacilities largely cut them off from the area. In1981–2, the Sarpinskaya and Chernozemelskaya irri-gation systems were brought into operation.The totallength of the systems is about 500 km and the area ofirrigated lands amounts to about 62,000 hectares.As aresult the saiga range decreased to 20,000–23,000 km²and the number of animals counted at that time wasabout 160,000–200,000 (in 1977–8 there had been600,000–700,000).

The boom in economic reconstruction in theregion was growing at a frenetic pace. In the late1970s, the Sarpa Depression saw the launch of a newirrigation project, the Kalmyk–Astrakhan Facilities,intended to transform the area into a rice-growingregion. While this huge development was rapidlydevouring what was left of the saiga’s favourite springpastures, the remaining steppe tracts in the westernparts of Kalmykia and adjacent provinces were turnedinto a uniform mass of ploughed fields, interruptedonly by newly-built canals and roads. As a result, theusual summer retreats of the saiga in areas such as theErgeni Heights and the Kuma-Manych Interfluvewere practically eliminated.

Construction of the Volga–Chograi Canal, 80 km ofwhich was 20 m deep, began in the second half of the1980s, and also brought changes in patterns of migra-tion routes and in saiga numbers. The impact of thishuge canal, if it had been completed, would havefurther decreased the range and numbers of saiga.Fortunately, the construction of the canal was stoppedand only the very steep slopes of the 80-km canalportion remind us of this pointless project.

The development of irrigated agriculture in theseregions,coupled with the building of artificial waterwaysand reservoirs to ‘improve’ the quality of natural pasturesin the drier central and southern parts of Kalmykia,affected the saiga population in a number of ways.Apartfrom depriving them of important habitats, irrigationfacilities created additional sources of drinking water andthe saiga became less likely to migrate; since theyremained in the same vicinity in large numbers, thenearby pastures were increasingly overgrazed. Further-more,an expanding network of water distribution chan-nels (which eventually reached a total of over 1,300 km)vastly impaired their seasonal migrations. Built withoutheed to the animal’s existence, irrigation trenches are

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known to have caused heavy casualties among the saiga,mostly among the newborns accompanying their moth-ers en route from the birth sites. In May 1977 for exam-ple, over 14,000 saiga,most of them calves only three toten days old,were found dead along a 5-km stretch of anirrigation trench in central Kalmykia, having failed tomake it through the water that was being pumped intoits bed as they tried to cross it.

As the irrigation network grew more and moredense, so too did the network of transportation routes.In 1960, the total length of paved roads in Kalmykia hadbeen a mere 100 km; by 1986, it was 1,604 km. Likecanals, the roads increasingly hampered the animal’smigrations and became a major cause of their decline.The Volga River had not previously been a barrier tomigrating herds, which had crossed this very large riverwhen it was frozen.Following the construction of manydams, however, and changes in the water regime, thelower stream of the river no longer freezes even duringsevere winters.

Our observations and interviews with local peopleand the staff of various conservation organizationsrevealed the radical changes in the migrations of thesaiga population in the territory of the northwest Pre-Caspian region (the left and right banks of the Volgariver). During 2002, two herds (600 and 1,000 ani-mals) were observed migrating from Kazakhstan tothe Astrakhan oblast. These two herds spent two tothree days in Russian territory and later returned toKazakhstan. Several small groups (five to ten animals)of saigas at the south part of the Astrakhan oblast werealso observed.

In the northwest Pre-Caspian region, saiga con-centrate at more or less safe zones: Chernyje ZemliBiosphere Reserve (Kalmykia) and the ‘Stepnoi’Reserve (Astrakhan oblast). Minor movements, whichcan hardly be termed real migrations, have a circularcharacter. Poaching and wild fires could very oftentrigger such nomadic roaming from place to place. InAugust 2002, for the first time in ten years, severalherds (totalling more than 5,000 animals) migratedover long distances (about 150 km) from the southeastto the north. These herds returned in October 2002but unfortunately, due to poaching, they lost a consid-erable number of adult males.According to data fromthe Department of Hunting Management, no morethat 0.4 per cent of adult males survived in theEuropean population of saiga that autumn.

In 1995 heightened international awareness of theplight of the saiga led to its listing in Appendix II ofthe CITES Treaty, and it was also listed in Appendix IIof the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) dur-ing the Seventh Conference of the Parties in 2002, inaccordance with a proposal submitted by Uzbekistan.In 2002, the Species Survival Commission of theIUCN listed the saiga as a critically endangeredspecies in its Red List of Threatened Animals.

Conservation measures are very necessary at this timeand must include special protected areas for lambing andrutting dispersed throughout the entire range where thesaiga migrate. Special attention should also be given toprotecting the most suitable places along migrationroutes.Protecting the saiga habitat has been an importantstep in conserving Kalmykia’s saiga population. In 1990,more than 90,000 ha in eastern Kalmykia were includedin the Chernyje Zemli Biosphere Reserve.Three othersanctuaries with lower levels of protection were alsoestablished, restricting land use and access by motorizedvehicles.These areas provide the saiga with refuge duringthe calving period in May, when more than 70 per centof the European population gathers in the protectedareas to give birth, and here they are relatively safe frompoachers.Yet Kalmykia’s existing protected areas cannotensure that the saiga are safe, and they need to beimproved.The problem is not only that they cover toosmall a portion of the animal’s range but that they are alsofixed in space, while the animals are not. Ideally, thirtytimes more land should be protected to safeguard thesaiga’s main migration routes. Highways and railroads,canals, fences, pipelines and poachers create obstacles tosaiga movements, and it is absolutely necessary to estab-lish ecological corridors between protected areas. Insome cases it will be necessary to restore the previouscapacity of pastures within the saiga range. Given thatpoaching for domestic consumption is now a majorthreat, anti-poaching measures should be strengthened,together with those aimed at curbing the internationaltrade in saiga horns. Captive breeding must also beconsidered seriously among the many conservationactions that need to be taken to ensure the long-termsurvival of the saiga antelope.

To save the species, special protection should now beorganized, including areas for lambing and rutting andmigration routes between winter and summer grounds.Some surveys to justify the optimal scheme of saigaconservation in the Pre-Caspian region have beenconducted and relevant recommendations have beenpassed to decision makers.Yashkul district administra-tion special saiga breeding centre was established withsupport from the government of the Republic ofKalmykia. The centre now has a reasonable stock ofsaigas and there are preparations to release adult malesinto the wild.

At one time, pastures within the Chernyje Zemliecoregion in the Republic of Kalmykia were used bylarge herds of livestock and of saiga.As a result of inap-propriate management in the latter half of the twentiethcentury, these pastures have been degraded and manyfoci of desertification appeared in this area. It is believedthat the degradation of pastures has been caused by alarge number of Merino sheep which have morpholog-ical and behavioural features unsuitable for grazing onpoor dryland sand pastures all year around. Many trad-itional breeds of livestock reared in the territory of the


Republic of Kalmykia before the Second World Wardisappeared during the mass deportation of Kalmyks toSiberia in 1943.As mentioned above, after ‘Perestroika’,when the number of livestock in pastures declined dras-tically, the local people turned their attention to wildlifeand the resultant poaching reduced the number of saigasto a critical level.

Currently there are also attempts, supported by theGovernment of the Republic of Kalmykia, to restoretraditional animal husbandry and some of the mutton–wool fat-tail sheep originally raised by the Kalmyks havebeen imported from Mongolia and China for thispurpose. As previously mentioned, sheep and saigasshared the same pastures within the Chernyje Zemliecoregion,and according to the available literature therewas no competition between them. In order to preservethe saiga’s gene pool, the government of the Republic ofKalmykia has given the Centre for Wild Animals ofKalmykia (one of the active partners for implementingthe Darwin Initiative project) 800 hectares of land inYashkul district (near Ermeli settlement) with goodnatural pastures for the construction of enclosures tostart a programme of breeding saiga in captivity. TheErmeli breeding centre now has a good number of saigasof different ages, several enclosures have been fenced, alaboratory has been build and a permanent water andenergy supply (including power from renewableresources) has been installed.A lot more land belongingto this centre is available for grazing and haymaking.Nearby there are some villages promoting traditionalhusbandry and sustainable exploitation of the saiga.Ideally, a model farm could be established that wouldproduce (using traditional technologies) milk products,wool, meat and also handicrafts as an additional incomefor rural people within the saiga range.

Numerous ecotourists and groups of students/schoolchildren visiting the centre would be good cus-tomers for such products. In cooperation with thecentre, and using its enclosures, it will be possible toconduct experiments on the rational use of pasturecapacity by livestock and saigas to prevent in futurethe desertification that occurred previously.To create

the model farm it will be necessary to purchase somepure-bred fat-tail sheep and Kalmyk cattle breeds, aswell as equipment for producing cheese, brynza andother milk products, and handicraft equipment formaking souvenirs from local materials.The success ofthe farm should encourage rural people in neigh-bouring areas and provide know-how to apply in theirown lives in order to improve their living standards.Such combined experience of saiga breeding and tra-ditional sheep and cattle husbandry with intensive useof fenced pastures should help both to promote saigaconservation and to provide people with additionalincome.

The following goals should be set:

• Promote optimal range management with use ofwild animals and traditional breeds of domesticanimals that are well adapted to local conditions.

• Evaluate the capacity of different pastures underdifferent loads of saiga and livestock.The data canbe used for other areas in similar condition toprevent the risk of desertification.

• Conserve the cultural heritage of the Kalmykpeoples and promote ecological education throughuse of traditional handicrafts for producing souvenirs,skills which are practically non-existent today.

• Help to solve the problems of unemployment andimprove living standards in rural areas of the Cher-nyje Zemli ecoregion as the main habitat of saiga.

AAcckknnoowwlleeddggeemmeennttssWe would like to express our gratitude for the gener-ous help we received in conducting surveys on thesaiga, its conservation measures and public awarenessactivities in the territory of the Republic of Kalmykiafrom organizations such as RBRF (03-04-48457),DBSRAS, the Darwin Initiative ‘Using saiga antelopeconservation to improve rural livelihoods’, INTAS (03-51-3579), PTES, LHF, Denver Zoological Society,Chicago Zoological Society, and IGF.

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Root perennials and annuals prevail in the vegetationduring the first years.Gradually the proportion of peren-nials increases,and then come semi-shrubs and shrubs.Todetermine the trend of succession we compared thereceived data with findings from geobotanic studies ofthe adjoining long-fallow plots in the area. WhereasArtemisia lerchiana dominates the vegetation associationsin virgin lands,Artemisia santonica prevails in the old long-fallow lands.

The research showed that the species composition ofvegetation associations on the long-fallow lands afterrice growing stabilizes by the fifth year of non-cultiva-tion.The tendency over time is towards an increase in theproportion of perennial, grassy, long-vegetating species,brushes and under-shrubs.The crop capacity of above-land mass tends to fluctuate in a way that is linked to thechange in the phytocenoses’ composition of dominants;it varies between 8 and 16 c/ha of air-dry mass insummer and autumn.

A comparison of long-fallow land vegetation with ageobotanic map of adjacent areas demonstrates thatrestoration of long-fallow lands is occurring, but theyare not reverting to the original vegetation.The appear-ance of species adapted to greater salinization is notedin these areas.The study of succession dynamics in theseareas will demonstrate the course of their formationand make recommendations about how to includethem once more in the agricultural process of variousqualities. They may be restored as arable lands, past-ures or hay-producing meadows through a preliminaryoptimization of their conditions.


LAVRENKO, E.M.; KORCHARGIN, A.A. FieldGeobotany,Vol. 3, Science, 1964.

SHANAYEV, B.O.; SHERET, A.T.; FEDOROV, D.P.et al. (Ed. B.D. TEMYASHEV) Regional report on theconditions and use of Kalmyk Republic lands for 2002.Elista, 2003.


Restorational succession on deposits

Raisa R. Djapova and Olga G. Bembeeva, Kalmyk State University, Elista,Republic of Kalmykia

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The management of arid areas as restorable resourcesrequires appropriate exploitation and protection.Theproblem that arose at the beginning of the twentiethcentury in the Kalmyk republic involved the increasein long-fallow lands (areas that are uncultivated forlong periods). The low yield on arable areas of thebogar lands, and a decrease in fertility caused by sec-ondary salinization of irrigated lands resulted in theincrease of long-fallow lands.

According to the State Land Committee of theKalmyk Republic, long-fallow lands occupied 10,981hectares in January 2003 (Shanayev et al., 2003).Theseareas are both a potentially valuable resource andhotbeds of wind and water erosion. It is therefore nec-essary to study the dynamics of vegetational successionon the degraded lands. Our research studies the courseof restoration succession on lands abandoned after ricegrowing.

The observations were carried out on long-fallowplots of various ages (from one to eleven years). Thevegetation study was carried out in accordance withmethods laid down by Lavrenko and Korchagin (1964).Rice (Oryza sativa L.) has been grown in the northernpart of Kalmykia for about forty years. In the early yearsits yield reached 50–60 c/ha, but later decreased to30–40 c/ha due to secondary salinity and a deteriorationin the quality of the irrigation system.Consequently,partof the rice-growing area was abandoned.

Studies of the floral composition of long-fallowlands showed that in the first years of non-cultivationthe vegetation was composed of: Atriplex tatarica,Poligonum pseudoarenarium, Phragmites australis andBolboschoenus maritimus. By the fifth year these specieshad been replaced by annual halophytes: Bassia sedoides,Petrosimonia oppositifolia and Salsola australis. These inturn were followed by Tamarix ramossisima and Artemisiasantonica.This pattern of species dynamics is perhaps aresult of the increasing salinization of the upper soilhorizon along with the rise in mineralized groundwaters.

Thus the composition of living plant forms in long-fallow lands changes over time,producing phytocenoses.

This in turn affects the condition of territory’s biologicaland landscape diversity.

The intensity of modern anthropogenic pressurein Kalmykia has caused widespread damage to soiland plant cover in the landscapes. These processeslead to the destruction of the ecological functions ofthe soils and cause biodiversity impoverishment anda reduction of the natural ecosystems’ resistance. Ithas been observed that the resistance of dry steppelandscapes to such influences is greatest on loamysoils and lowest on sandy complexes with low indicesof humidity.This instability is linked with their lightgranule-metrical composition and liability toprocesses of higher horizon degradation. It is impor-tant to emphasize that the greatest degree of naturalequilibrium disturbance in pasture ecosystems occurson soils of light granule-metrical composition.

Under these conditions, it is crucial that we iden-tify critical points in the development of the wholedynamic natural complex of the region, monitor thecondition of separate links in the ecological–dynamicchain, and make accurate estimates of permissibleloads.Thus, in order to counter these problems, we arereliant on the elaboration of complex measures thatcan mitigate the destructive effects of anthropogenicpressure.

To maintain equilibrium in the region, it will benecessary to regulate economic activities in addition torestoring affected geosystems and protecting territoriesof different classes.The creation of representative land-scape reserves or protected areas will help solve theproblem of conserving the territory’s natural diversityunder conditions of desertification.The availability ofkey soil structures in the system of biosphere reserveswill support ecosystem resilience, for the attributes ofsoil are well known to be central to ecological connec-tions and the maintenance of the substructure of thebiosphere. Soil stability and conservation are among themajor theoretical and practical problems in combatingdesertification.

The studies of the ecological functions of soils elab-orated by M.V.Lomonosov of Moscow State Universityshow the exceptional role of soils in the processes offunctioning, maintenance and conservation of variousecosystems.These processes are promoted by particularsoil conservation activities as part of a trend towardsnature-conservation. The question of conserving soildiversity is entwined with the problems of conserving


Tolerance of soils in conditions of desertification

Lydmila N.Tashninova, Kalmyk Institute of Social, Economic and Legal Research,Elista, Republic of Kalmykia

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The geographical position of Kalmykia, in the southeastof European Russia between 44°50' and 48°10' E, and41°40' and 47°35' N, defines the nature of its features: asharp, continental, semi-arid and arid climate, which isthe principal cause of the sub-boreal dry steppe andsemi-desert. Its territory covers 76,000 km2, 70 per centof which comprises natural pastures,14 per cent is sloughlands, and 0.7 per cent is hay pasture.This ratio demon-strates the need to preserve the remaining natural soilsand ecosystems.

Most of Kalmykia’s territory is used as naturalfodder lands and for stock-breeding.The basic typesof pasture landscapes include: pre-kaspian youngalluvial–sea liman plain with Artemisia pauciflora,Artemisia lerchiana and Festuca valensiaca; Stipa lesin-giana semi-deserts on brown semi-desert soils,solonetzs and solonchaks; Chernozemelsk ancientdelta sandy plain with Artemisia lerchiana; Agropyronsibiricum and Cochia prostrata deserts on under-devel-oped brown sandy and sandy loam soils; Ergeninskerosive–elevative plain with Artemisia lerchiana; Stipalesingiana, Festuca valensiaca and Artemisia Lerchianasteppes and semi-deserts on brown solonetzs incombination with light chestnut and solonchaks.

During the past forty or fifty years, pressure on theenvironment has increased sharply due to the irrationaluse of nature: the destruction of natural ecosystems, thedecrease in biodiversity and the progression of desertifi-cation. The southeastern part of European Russia iswitnessing desertification processes that are envelopinglarge areas in the region.As a result of desertification inKalmykia, several forms of natural ecosystems imbalancehave become manifest, including the impoverishmentof species and population diversity, and a decrease in theresilient potential and effective functioning of thosespecies.The disruption of the natural balance in pasturelandscapes, intensified by anthropogenic factors, hascaused an alteration of structure–function relations thatwere formed in the process of their evolution. Soilexploitation has reached such a level that degradationcan be now be characterized as an ecological menace;the question of soils and their conservation has becomeone of the main theoretical and practical problems thatwe must study, understand and confront.

Desertification has taken over wide areas of pasture-land in Kalmykia, leading to a clearly evident transfor-mation of the morphological soil structure and analteration of the character of the soil–space organization.

biological and landscape diversity. For biodiversityconservation to be achieved, a network of soil protec-tion measures inside the system of biosphere reserves isessential. There we must develop methods of usingresources that will provide for the natural evolution ofecosystems.

Kalmykia’s nature parks cover a total area of1,336,000 ha (20 per cent of the territory of the repub-lic), including Chernyje Zemli (the ‘Black Lands’) Bio-sphere Reserve, two National Parks and thirteenreserves,most of which are multi-functional and do notact as complex representative landscape reserves. Therecently published Red Book of Soils and Ecosystems ofKalmykia recommends the inclusion of soil areas in thegeneral system of priority for protected territories.(Thirty-nine ecological inventories of important soilstructures have been compiled.) Maximizing differentforms of soil cover protection under conditions ofanthropogenic desertification will provide an area ofnatural biodiversity conservation.

The key objective in the conservation of soils andnatural ecosystems is to protect and rehabilitate natu-ral, high-productive and key soils. This goal includesthe protection of typical virgin soils as well as thepreservation of protected territories with uniqueecosystems. It involves special measures of surveillance

for utilization and protection.Where necessary it mustentail preventing economic exploitation of rare, keysoils, as well as systematically codifying the status ofsoil reserves.

If we are to preserve biodiversity, it is necessary torestore natural conditions and rehabilitate the biota.This can be achieved by setting up protected areas andcarrying through the project laid out in the Red Bookof Soils and Ecosystems of Kalmykia. The principalemphasis in the system of measures for protecting andrestoring soil is given to soil monitoring.The projectcannot be managed without first obtaining indexes ofthe key soils while maintaining their eco-genetic con-nections with all the components of the landscape.This is the idea behind the soil-ecological certificateareas for key, rare and unique features of Kalmyk soilsand ecosystems, a scheme that will form a potentialnetwork not only for soil monitoring but for moni-toring territories.The essence of the question lies in acomplex approach to the whole ecosystem, in whichsoil plays the principal role of the biosphere.

Thus the inevitable, critical situation in the deserti-fication process in the region demands new scientificdeliberations directed at the conservation of geneticdiversity, surveillance of the dynamic equilibrium, andstable development of natural ecosystems.

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a) Workshop participants considered that traditionalknowledge (TK) was a function of time andspace: TK is a dynamic system that evolves overtime; the preservation of TK should be practisedin situ where it has originated.

b) Workshop participants recognized the importanceof TK for the sustainable development of drylandecosystems and for combating desertification, so asto enhance livelihoods and to contribute to povertyreduction.They felt that there was a need for thepreservation, promotion and perpetuity of suchknowledge,considering that TK makes use of envi-ronmentally-friendly and low-cost technologies.

c) Workshop participants also recognized the plethoraof knowledge owned by custodians of TK, whichprovides a valuable source of information forsustainable dryland management.

d) Workshop participants further recognized theimportance of modern technology (MT) in manag-ing dryland ecosystems sustainably in the light of theprogress that modern science has made for the bene-fit of dryland management. Many examples wereprovided at the workshop of the ways in which TKcan benefit from MT, such as: the use of remotesensing with satellite imagery; the use of GPS andGIS to enhance dryland management and planning,in particular for dryland crops,pastoral land use andwildlife habitat management;or floodwater spread-ing for the artificial recharge of groundwater.

e) Workshop participants recognized the need for anintegration of TK and MT, which ideally wouldlead to ‘appropriate and adaptive technology‘(AAT), and which should be accessible to andaffordable by low-income populations of drylands.

f) The World Network of Biosphere Reserves underthe UNESCO–MAB Programme was consideredan appropriate tool to carry out research on TKand MT through the biosphere reserve integratedconcept of environmental conservation, sustainabledevelopment and the use of applied science tostudy human–environment interactions.

g) Biosphere reserves in dryland areas shouldbecome the privileged dryland monitoring andtesting sites for integrated research on TK andMT, as information exchanges among scientists

171Workshop report

WWoorrkksshhoopp rreeppoorrtt

Conclusions and recommendations

1. Scientists, conservation experts and governmentofficials from ten countries (Azerbaijan, Egypt,India, Islamic Republic of Iran, Jordan, Mongolia,Morocco, Russian Federation, Sudan and Turk-menistan) as well as representatives of the FAO andUNESCO met in Elista, Republic of Kalmykia(Russian Federation), from 23 to 27 June 2004 foran international workshop on ‘Traditional Knowl-edge and Modern Technology for the SustainableManagement of Dryland Ecosystems’.The work-shop was organized by the Russian NationalCommittee for the UNESCO Man and the Bios-phere (MAB) Programme and the Republic ofKalmykia under the auspices of and with supportfrom the UNESCO–MAB Programme.

2. The workshop addressed issues concerning thesustainable management of dryland ecosystemsusing traditional knowledge and/or modern tech-nology.Article 18 (on traditional knowledge) of theUnited Nations Convention to Combat Desertifi-cation (UNCCD) and Decision 16/COP 6 onTraditional Knowledge,adopted at the 6th Confer-ence of the Parties (COP 6) of the UNCCD,provided the background for the deliberations ofthe workshop.This decision:

Invites the Parties through their national focalpoints to involve relevant governmental andnon-governmental organizations, researchinstitutions and local and indigenous commu-nities in formulating views on how traditionalknowledge can contribute to fulfilling theobjectives of the Convention, and especiallyon the elements proposed for establishing anetwork on traditional knowledge to combatdesertification.

3. During the workshop, case studies on traditionalknowledge and modern technology for the sus-tainable management of dryland ecosystems werepresented by the country representatives ofnational MAB Committees. A one-day field tripto the transition zone of the Chernyje ZemliBiosphere Reserve in Yashkul District furtherenriched the workshop programme.

4. In essence, workshop participants came to thefollowing conclusions and recommendations:

working in this field can be facilitated through theWorld Network of Biosphere Reserves.The estab-lishment of a thematic network of dryland bio-sphere reserves that combine the use of TK and MTin their management should be considered.

h) The workshop participants invited UNESCO toadvocate the use of TK,MT and in particular AAT.UNESCO should also encourage studies ofindigenous knowledge (IK), as carried out byseveral scientific disciplines including the socialsciences and geography.

i) Relevant colleges (in particular in the fields ofagriculture, forestry and animal production)should include TK and MT in their curricula forsustainable land use of dryland ecosystems.

j) Research on TK and its integration with MT forthe sustainable land use of drylands should begiven due priority in national research systems.

k) When considering research and promotion of TKand MT, it is important to take into account thedifferent roles of men and women with regard toknowledge and technology, and their differentrelations with the environment.

l) In the light of internationally agreed-upon multi-lateral conventions, in particular the UNCCD andthe CBD, workshop participants recommendedthat TK should be studied through scientific meansthat would encompass the following steps andprinciples:

i TK should be documented through nationalinventories of existing TK.

ii TK should be scientifically validated, if possible,under controlled conditions and using fieldexperiments.

iii In this way, modern science would be greatlyenriched through the wealth of available butlargely undocumented TK.

iv It is understood that scientists would only docu-ment and validate TK with the explicit consentand approval of the custodians of TK.

v Scientists working on TK will seek priorinformed consent from its custodians in researchwork focusing on TK.

vi As is the customary practice in any serious scien-tific research, it must be recognized that TK isreceived from the custodians and that they are itssource, so that any benefits deriving from the useof TK will be given to such custodians.

vii In order to ensure that benefits from TK willbenefit its custodians, scientists must also involvethe government-appointed national focal pointsof MAB National Committees, UNCCD, CBDand plant variety protection legislation.

viii With regard to research work on TK, partici-patory approaches are needed, involving localcommunities, NGOs, CBOs, indigenous people’sorganizations, custodians of TK, scientists andgovernment officials.

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• Video film – ‘Cultural and naturalfeatures of the Republic of Kalmykia’

Poster presentations:T. Basangova (Ecological traditions of theKalmyks);D.Sharmandzhiev (The cult ofmountains and ecological ideas in theepos ‘Dzhangar’);S.Batyreva (An ecolog-ical aspect of the Buddhist iconography);L. Namrueva (Nature-preserving aspectsof ethnic culture); E. Omakaeva (Folkknowledge in the life-support system ofthe Kalmyk ethnos); K. Natyrova (Tradi-tional knowledge in the KalmykRepublic as a basis for the developmentof ethnoeconomics); K. Nastinova (Therole of Kalmyk traditional nutrition inpreservation of health)

10:40–11:00 Coffee/tea break

11:00–13:00 Session 1:General problems and managementof agricultural systems. Chairperson: DrValery M. Neronov, Russian MABCommittee

• Dr Thomas Schaaf – Traditional knowl-edge and modern technology for thesustainable management of drylandecosystems: UNESCO’s objectives forthe workshop

• Dr David Boerma – Local knowledgesystems and the management of drylandagro-ecosystems

• Dr Mohammed A. Kishk – Poverty ofthe environment and the environmentof poverty: constraints on adoptingmodern technology and promotingtraditional knowledge in combatingland degradation and poverty

• Dr Sayyed A. Kowsar – Re-inventingthe wheel: floodwater managementfor rehabilitation of degraded lands

• Dr Bekdjan A. Tashmuhamedov –Modern biotechnology and problems ofsecondary salinization of irrigated lands

Poster presentations:N.Kurepina (Optimization of agrarian useof nature); G. Nastinova (Ecological

173Workshop agenda

WWoorrkksshhoopp aaggeennddaa

The workshop will include thematic (oral and poster)presentations on traditional knowledge and moderntechnology, focusing on three different economic andenvironmental problems of drylands: those of agricul-tural systems, pastoral systems, and wildlife managementsystems. Specific examples of traditional knowledge/modern technology from biosphere reserves and simi-larly managed protected areas will be highlighted.Thepresentations and workshop discussions will be inEnglish only.

2233 JJuunnee 22000044 ((WWeeddnneessddaayy))19:30 Arrival of international workshop par-

ticipants in Elista (capital of theRepublic of Kalmykia)

20:00 Accommodation of participants in theCity-Chess

21:00 Dinner

2244 JJuunnee 22000044 ((TThhuurrssddaayy))8:00–8:40 Breakfast

9:00–9:30 Registration of workshop participantsin the Hall of the Chess Palace

9:30–10:40 Opening session. Chairperson: Mr ValeryA. Akuginov, Deputy Prime Minister,Government of the Republic ofKalmykia

Welcome addresses:• President of the Republic of

Kalmykia, Mr Kirsan N. Ilumzhinov• Chair of the Southern Research

Centre of RAS, academician MrGennadiy G. Matishov

• People’s poet of Kalmykia, Mr DavidN. Kugultinov

• Representative of the UNESCO-Moscow Office, Mr Uli Graebener

Key note address:• Mrs Nina G. Ochirova – Traditional

knowledge as a factor of the ecologicalconsciousness: formation and conserva-tion of the environment.The Republicof Kalmykia experience

restoration and increase of productivity ofdegraded arable lands); R. Djapova,O. Okonova (Restorational succession onfallow lands); L.Tashninova (Tolerance ofsoils in conditions of desertification);E. Dedova (Phytomelioration of salinelands in Kalmykia); S. Ulanova (Inlandwater reservoirs of Kalmykia);M. Sazanov(Oasis-type hydro-meliorative systemsunder Kalmyk conditions); M. Sazanov,S. Adiayev (Effects of trickle irrigation).

13:00–14:30 Lunch

14:30–16:30 Session 1: Continued. Chairperson: DrThomas Schaaf,UNESCO-MAB Secre-tariat

• Mrs Veena Upadhyaya – Traditionalknowledge and modern technology forsustainable development of drylandecosystems: the Indian experience

• Dr Mukhtar A. Mustafa – Traditionalknowledge and technology transfer forsustainable agriculture development inthe Sudan

• Dr Mageram P. Babayev – Managementof degraded soils processes in Azerbaijanby traditional methods

• Mrs Boshra Salem – Omayed BiosphereReserve and its hinterland: results of theUNESCO-UNU-ICARDA project

16:30–16:45 Collective photo of the workshopparticipants

16:45-18:00 Visit to Elista city administration

18:00–20:00 Walking and bus tour of Elista and itssuburbs

20:30 Dinner

2255 JJuunnee 22000044 ((FFrriiddaayy))8:00–8:40 Breakfast

9:00–10:30 Trip to the Yashkul administrativedistrict of the Republic of Kalmykia

10:30–12:00 Meeting with the district’s administra-tion and looking at exhibits on the useof modern technologies for sustainablemanagement of dryland ecosystems

12:00–12:45 Visit to Yashkul gymnasia and itsEcological museum

12:45-14:00 Trip to the ‘Kirovskyi’ agriculture coop-erative, which specializes in traditionallivestock breeding

14:00–15:00 Lunch

15:00–16:30 Participation in the Kalmyk traditionalceremony ‘Worship of water and land’

16:30–18:30 Visit to the Yashkul Saiga AntelopeBreeding Centre

18:30–20:00 Return trip to Elista

20:30 Dinner

2266 JJuunnee 22000044 ((SSaattuurrddaayy))

8:00–8:40 Breakfast

9:00–10:40 Session 2: Traditional knowledge andmodern technology in pastoral systems.Chairperson: Mrs Irina Springuel,UNESCO Ecotechnie Chair, SouthValley University, Egypt

• Dr German Kust – Space imagery pro-cessing for land use and rehabilitationof ecosystems in desertifed conditions

• Dr Chary Muradov – Traditional andmodern technologies for sustainabledevelopment of Turkmenistan

• Dr Baktybek Taubaev – Pastoral stock-raising as an instrument for traditionalland use in arid territories

• Mrs Baast Oyungerel – Integration oftraditional knowledge and moderntechnologies for the sustainability ofdry land ecosystems in Mongolia

Poster presentations:N. Tzagan-Mandzhiev (Our experiencein combating desertification in ‘Chernyezemli’); B. Gol’dvarg (Major principles ofcreating fodder reserves under condi-tions of market relations); R. Djapova,Z. Sankuyeva, N. Kenzeyeva (The effectsof constructing linear structures on pas-ture ecosystems); B. Taubayev (Rationaluse and protection of sand pastures ofWest Kazakhstan)

10:40–11:00 Coffee/tea break

11:00–13:00 Session 3: Traditional knowledge andmodern technology for wildlife managementsystems. Chairperson: Mr Uli Graebener,Moscow UNESCO office

• Mrs Irina Springuel – Indigenousknowledge of plant uses in arid lands:Wadi Allaqi case study

• Dr Ahmad El-oqlah – Traditionalknowledge and practical techniques forcombating desertification in Jordan

• Mrs Davaa Narantuya – Natural resource

174

management in the Great Gobi StrictlyProtected Area in Mongolia

• Dr Abdelhafid Hamchi – Conservationof forests in the Mediterranean zone ofAlgeria

• Dr Andrey Bogun – The biodiversity ofagroforest landscapes of Kalmykia

Poster presentations:N. Shamsutdinov (Halophytes of naturalflora and their use for breeding andphytomelioration of degraded pasturesystems); V. Badmaev, B. Ubushaev(Chernyje Zemli Biosphere Reserve andits role in the conservation of biodiversityin dryland ecosystems); N. Lebedeva,R. Savitsky (Problems of conservationand monitoring of biodiversity in drysteppe areas around Lake Manych-Gudilo); Yu. Arylov, A. Lushchekina (Thesaiga antelope in the drylands of Russiaand how to ensure its sustainable future);O. Romanov (The comparative analysis ofhorn properties and their composition)

13:00–14:30 Lunch

14:30–17:00: General discussion and adoption ofrecommendations on traditional knowl-edge and modern technology in drylandmanagement

17:00–18:00 Press conference of the workshopparticipants for local mass media

18:30–19:30 Folklore concert in the State ConcertHall of Elista

20:30 Dinner

2277 JJuunnee 22000033 ((SSuunnddaayy))

8:30–9:30 Breakfast

10:00–13:00 Visit to the Kalmyk Institute ofHumanities Research and its libraryand museum (coffee/tea will be served)

13:00 Departure of international workshopparticipants to Elista airport

175Workshop agenda

List of participants

Dr Sanal Adiayev Kalmyk branch of the All-Russian Research Institute of

Hydraulic Engineering and Land Melioration,RAAS1 Gorodovikov Sq.Elista, 358011 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 2 0714e-mail: [email protected]

Mr Valery Akuginov Chair of the Organizing CommitteeVice Prime MinisterGovernment of the Republic of KalmykiaWhite HouseElista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 6 1181

Prof.Yury Arylov Member of the Organizing CommitteeDirector, Center for Wild Animals of the Republic of

Kalmykia36 Chkalov St., Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone/fax: + 7 847 22 5 2919e-mail: [email protected]

Prof. Mageram Babayev Director, Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry

of NAS of AzerbaijanAz 1073, 5 M.Arif str.Baku,AzerbaijanPhone/fax: + 99412383240 e-mail: [email protected]

Ms Tatiana Bakinova Member of the Organizing CommitteeMinister of Economy, RK20 Pushkin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 5 2846, 5 2314Fax: + 7 847 22 5 7629e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Tamara Basangova Kalmyk Institute of Humanities Research, SSC RAS8 Ilishkin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 6 3239e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Svetlana Batyreva Kalmyk Institute of Humanities Research,

SSC RAS8 Ilishkin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 6 3239e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Olga Okonova BembeevaKalmyk State University18/27 Gorkiy St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 5 2390e-mail: [email protected]

Mr David Boerma FAO Land and Water Development Division Vialle

Delle Terme di Caracalla00100 Rome, ItalyPhone: + 39 06 570 54698 Fax: + 39 06 570 56275e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Andrey Bogun Kalmyk Institute of Social, Economic and Legal

Research111 Khomutnikov St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 6 0575Fax: + 7 847 22 6 3177e-mail: [email protected]

Mr Radiy Burulov Member of the Organizing CommitteeMayor of Elista city249 Lenin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone/fax: + 7 847 22 5 2314

Dr Elvira Dedova Kalmyk branch of the All-Russian Research Institute of


Mr Oleg Demkin Member of the Organizing CommitteeMinister of Agriculture and Social Development of

Rural Settlements, RK15 N. Ochirov St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 6 3194e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Raisa Djapova Kalmyk State University18/27 Gorkiy St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 5 2390e-mail: [email protected]

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Prof.Ahmad El-Oqlah UNESCO Chair for Desert Studies and

Desertification ControlYarmouk University Irbid, JordanPhone: + 962 2 7211111 Ext. 2921Fax: + 962 2 7211117e-mail [email protected]

Dr Driss FassiDepartment of ForestryHasan II Institute of Agronomy and VeterinaryP. O. 6202 Rabat, MoroccoPhone/Fax: + 212 37 561988e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Boris Gol’dvarg Kalmyk Research Institute of Agriculture5 Gorodovikov Sq.Elista, 358011 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 2 1980

Dr Nadezhda Kenzeeva Kalmyk Research Institute ‘Giprozem’36 Chkalov St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone/fax: + 7 847 22 5 6515

Mr Telman Khaglyshev Member of the Organizing CommitteeHead of Administration of Yashkul municipal districtYashkul settlement,Yashkulsky District359150, Republic of Kalmykia, RussiaPhone: + 7 847 46 9 1288

Prof. Mohammed KishkFaculty of Agriculture Minia UniversityMinia, EgyptPhone/Fax: + 002-086-362182 e-mail: [email protected]

Ms Inna KounitsynaKalmyk Research Institute ‘Giprozem’36 Chkalov St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone/fax: + 7 847 22 5 6515

Prof. Sayyed Kowsar Fars Research Center for Agriculture and Natural

ResourcesPO Box 71365-458 Shiraz, I.R. IranPhone: +98 711-2296091Fax: +98 711-7205107e-mail: [email protected]

Mr David N. KugultinovPeople’s poet of the Republic of Kalmykia27 Suseev’s Street 358000 Elista, Republic of Kalmykia +7 847 22 5 25 87

Ms Nataliya KurepinaKalmyk Research Institute

of Agriculture5 Gorodovikov Sq.Elista, 358011 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 2 1980

Prof. German KustInstitute of Soil Science of Moscow State

University and RASVorob’evy GoryMoscow, 119899 RussiaPhone: + 7 095 939 3774Fax: + 7 095 9393523 e-mail: [email protected]

Prof. Natalya LebedevaSouthern Research Center, Russian Academy of

Sciences41, Chekhov ProspectRostov-on-Don344006 RussiaPhone: +7 863 265 10 76.E-mail: [email protected]

Dr Anna Lushchekina Russian MAB Committee13 Fersman St.Moscow, 117312 RussiaPhone: + 7 095 124 6000Fax: + 7 095 129 1354e-mail: [email protected]

Mr Arkadiy MandzhievMember of the Organizing CommitteeMinister of Culture, RK 249 Lenin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone/fax: + 7 847 22 6 0676

Dr Chary MuradovInstitute of Deserts, Ministry of Nature Protection

of Turkmenistan15 Bitarap Turkmenistan St.Ashkhabad, 744000 TurkmenistanPhone: + (99312) 35 73 52Fax: + (99312) 39 05 86e-mail: [email protected]

Prof. Mukhtar A. Mustafa UNESCO Chair of Desertification StudiesUniversity of KhartoumShambat CampusShambat, SudanPhone: + 249 85 329232Fax: + 249 85 780295E-mail: [email protected]

Dr Lyudmila NamruevaSecretary of the Organizing CommitteeHead, Center for Ethnosociological Research,

Kalmyk Institute of Humanities Research,SSC RAS

8 Ilishkin St., Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 6 0637e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Davaa Narantuya Great Gobi Conservation Project Gov’t bld. # 3, Ministry of Nature and

EnvironmentRoom 501B Ulan Bator, MongoliaPhone: + 976-99187780E-mail: [email protected]

Prof. Galina Nastinova Kalmyk State University18/27 Gorkiy St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 5 2390e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Kermen NastinovaMoscow Humanitarian University 18/27 Gorkiy St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 5 2390e-mail: [email protected]

Prof.Arkadiy NatyrovMember of the Organizing CommitteeProvost, Kalmyk State University11 Pushkin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 5 7790e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Dr Kermen NatyrovaKalmyk State University18/27 Gorkiy St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 5 2390e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Valery NeronovMember of the Organizing CommitteeRussian MAB Committee13 Fersman St.Moscow, 117312 RussiaPhone: + 7 095 124 6000Fax: + 7 095 129 1354e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Nina Ochirova Deputy Chair of the Organizing CommitteeDirector, Kalmyk Institute of Humanities

Research, SSC RAS8 Ilishkin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 6 3239e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Ellara Omakaeva Deputy Director, Kalmyk Institute of Humanities

Research, SSC RAS8 Ilishkin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 6 3239e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Baast Oyungerel Institute of Geography, Mongolian Academy of

SciencesUlan Bator, 210620 MongoliaPhone: + 916-11-353470, 976-11-350471Fax: + 976-11-350472e-mail: [email protected]

Mr Aleksei PakhalenkoMember of the Organizing CommitteeChair, Committee for Press and Mass Media, RK12 Komsomolskaya St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 2 9753

Mr Vladimir Ponomarev Member of the Organizing CommitteeMinister of the Interior4 Pushkin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone/fax: + 7 847 22 5 1141

Dr Oleg RomanovKalmyk State University18/27 Gorkiy St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 4 0971e-mail: [email protected]

Mr Badma SalaevMember of the Organizing CommitteeMinister of Education, RK20 Pushkin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone/fax: + 7 847 22 6 1736

Prof. Boshra SalemDepartment of Environmental Science,Faculty of Science, University of Alexandria Box 21511, Moharem BeyAlexandria, EgyptPhone: + 20 3 597 2352Fax: + 20 3 483 6618 e-mail: boshra.salem@Drcom

Dr Zoya SankuevaKalmyk Research Institute, ‘Giprozem’36 Chkalov St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone/fax: + 7 847 22 5 6515

Dr Ramiz SavitskySouthern Research Center

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Russian Academy of Sciences41, Chekhov ProspectRostov-on-Don344006 Russia

Dr Mikhail SazanovDirectorKalmyk branch of theAll-Russian Research Institute of


Dr Thomas SchaafUNESCO, Division of Ecological SciencesMan and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme1, Rue Miollis75532 Paris, Cedex 15, FrancePhone: + 33 1 456 84065Fax: + 33 1 456 85804e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Nariman ShamsutdinovAll-Russian Research Institute of Hydraulic

Engineering and Land Melioration, RAAS44 Bolshaya Academicheskaya St.Moscow, 127550 Russia Phone: + 7 095 153 1783e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Dordzhi SharmandzhievKalmyk Institute of Humanities Research,

SSC RAS8 Ilishkin St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 6 3239e-mail: [email protected]

Prof. Irina SpringuelUNESCO Ecotechnie Chair South Valley UniversityAswan 81528, EgyptPhone: + 20 97 481550Fax: + 20 97 304442e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Lyudmila TashninovaKalmyk Institute of Social, Economic and Legal


Dr Nikolai Tzagan-MandzhievKalmyk Research Institute of Agriculture5 Gorodovikov Sq.Elista, 358011 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 2 1980

Dr Boris UbushaevMember of the Organizing CommitteeDeputy Director, State Biosphere Reserve

‘Chernye Zemli’p. KomsomolskyChernozemelsky District359240, Republic of Kalmykia, RussiaPhone/fax: + 7 847 43 91254e-mail: [email protected]

Dr Svetlana UlanovaKalmyk Institute of Social, Economic and Legal


Mr Eugeniy UnkurovMember of the Organizing CommitteeChair, Kalmyk State Broadcasting Company4 Gorkiy St.Elista, 358000 RussiaPhone: + 7 847 22 5 3031

Dr Veena UpadkhyayaMinistry of Environment and ForestsGovernment of IndiaParyavaran Bhawan, CGO Complex,Lodhi Road, New Delhi, 110 003, IndiaPhone: + 91 24 36 3247Fax: + 91 24 36 4790e-mail: [email protected]

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Acronyms

AAT appropriate and adaptive technologyAFRI Arid Forest Research Institute ARC Agricultural Research Corporation

(Sudan)ARG artificial recharge of groundwaterARUW artificial replenishment of underground

water reservesCAZRI Centre for Arid Zone Research InstituteCBD Convention on Biological DiversityCBO community based organization CITES Convention on International Trade in

Endangered SpeciesCMS Convention on Migratory SpeciesCST Committee on Science and Technology

(of UNCCD)DDP Desert Development Programme (India)DPAP Drought Prone Areas Programme (India)EABRN East Asian Biosphere Reserves NetworkFAO Food and Agriculture OrganizationFOI fine-outline irrigationFWS floodwater spreadingFWS floodwater spreading schemes (Iran)GEF Global Environment Facility GGSPA Great Gobi Strictly Protected AreaGIAHS globally important ingenious agricultural

heritage systemsGIC association of irrigation (Gafsa oases)GIS geographic information systemGPS global positioning systemGTM Generative Topographic Mapping GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische

Zusammenarbeit (a GermanGovernment Development Agency)

HMS hydro-meliorative systemsICARDA International Center for Agricultural

Research in the Dry AreasIGF International Foundation for the

Conservation of Wildlife IGFRI Indian Grassland and Forage Research

InstituteIK indigenous knowledgeIMF International Monetary FundINTAS International Association formed by the

European Community (preserves andpromotes the valuable scientific poten-tial of NIS partner countries throughEast–West Scientific cooperation)

IPPM integrated pest and plant managementISDC Interstate Sustainable Development

Commission (Aral Sea basin)IUCN World Conservation UnionLHF Large Herbivore FoundationMAB Man and the Biosphere Programme MT modern technology

NAPCD National Action Programme onCombating Desertification(Turkmenistan)

NES nitrogen-free extractive substancesNIDFF National Institute of Deserts, Flora and

Fauna (Turkmenistan)NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration PRA participatory rapid/rural/relaxed appraisalPTES People's Trust for Endangered SpeciesRAS Russian Academy of SciencesRBRF Russian Basic Research FoundationRECCA Regional Environment Centre of

Central AsiaROSTE Regional Bureau for Science in EuropeRS remote sensing SIC ISDC Scientific Information Centre of the

ISDCSLUAM sustainable land use and managementSMRF semi-mechanized rain-fed agricultureSPA strictly protected areaSUMAMAD Sustainable management of marginal

landsTDR time-domain reflectometryTEK traditional ecological knowledgeTEM transmission electron microscopyTF traditional farmingTFKAT traditional farming knowledge and

technologyTI traditional irrigated agricultureTIK traditional indigenous knowledgeTRF traditional rain-fed agricultureUNCCD United Nations Convention to

Combat DesertificationUNDP United Nations Development

ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural OrganizationUNSO Office to Combat Desertification and

Drought (UN specialized agency)UNU United Nations UniversityUSAID US Agency for International

DevelopmentVIR N.I.Vavilov All-Russian Research

Institute of Plant Industry (collectionof plant genetic resources)

VNIIGiM All-Russian Scientific ResearchInstitute of Hydraulic Engineeringand Land Reclamation

WABR Wadi Allaqi Biosphere ReserveWCED World Commission on Environment

and DevelopmentXRD x-ray diffraction

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