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COMMUNICATION

RESEARCH

Lecture I

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SCIENCE THEORY

AND

RESEARCH

The Concept of Science

Science is an objective, accurate,

systematic analysis of a determinate body of

empirical data in order to discover recurring

relationships among phenomena.

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Objective means unbiased, unprejudiced,

detached, impersonal. It is the characteristics

of viewing things as they are.

Accurate means that we strive

to be definite, precise

and exact.

Systematic carries with it the implication that

science is methodological, thorough andregular in its procedures.

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Analysis means that we are concerned with

the identification and study of the component

parts or elements which make up the things

which we study.

Determinate means that there are

relatively agreed upon defined

traits or boundaries which

specify which kind of thins or

boundaries we study.

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AIMS OF SCIENCE

DESCRIPTION what are the facts? What isthe case? What is out there?

EXPLANATION how things/events comeabout, what causes them, what are the lawsthat determine their occurrence.

PREDICTION making inferences from facts orlaws.

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ATH

EO

RY is a set of interrelated constructs,definitions and propositions that present a

systematic view of phenomena.

PURPOSE

Classify and organize events/things

O Explain or make intelligible facts

O

Predict th

e occurrence of events/outcomesO Make things understandable

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FUNCTIONS OF THEORY

1. It identifies the start of a research problemby presenting the gaps, weak points, and

inconsistencies of previous research

.

2. It puts together all the constructs/conceptsthat are related to your topic investigation.

3. It presents the relationships amongvariables that have been investigated.

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is a process of scientific thinking that leads

to the discovery or establishment of new

knowledge or truth.

is a careful, diligent and exhaustive

investigation of a specific subject matter,

having as its aims the advancement of mankinds knowledge.

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A. ANALYTIC describes WHAT WAS. It is a pastoriented research which seeks to illuminate a

question of current interest by an intensive studyof material that already exist.

B. DESCRIPTIVE describes and interprets WHATIS. It involves description, recording, analysis andinterpretation of conditions that now exist.

C. EXPERIMENTAL describes WHAT WILL BE.When certain variables are carefully controlled ormanipulated. It allows to explain why.

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A. Exploratory or Formulative focuses onthe discovery of ideas and insights.

B. Historical involves studying,understanding and explaining past events.

C. Descriptive involves description,recording, analysis and interpretation ofconditions that now exist.

D. Experimental investigates the effect ofthe independent variable (cause) on adependent variable (effect)

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PURPOSIVE NOMENCLATURE

Fundamental/PureFundamental/Pure deals on the

development of theories by discovering broadgeneralizations/principles.

AppliedApplied its purpose is improving a

product or a process.

ActionAction its purpose is to improve practices

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DESCRIPTIVE NOMENCLATURE

HistoricalHistorical describes what was.

DescriptiveDescriptive describes what is.

ExperimentalExperimental describes what will be.

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Theory

Conceptual

Proposition

Testable

Propositions

Collect

Data

Analyze

Data

Implications

ForPropositions

New

Theory

Starting point of

theory testing

Starting point of

theory construction

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COMMUNICATION

RESEARCH

Lecture 2

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CHARACTERISTICS OF

RESEARCH

1. Empirical based on direct experience or

observation by the researcher.

2. Logical based on valid procedures andprinciples.

3. Cyclical the process starts with a

problem and ends with a problem.

4. Analytical utilizes proven analyticalprocedures in gathering the data.

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ANALYTICAL RESEARCH

DESIGNS

OHistorical Research data

gath

ered focus on th

e pastO Descriptive Research the study

focuses on the present situation

O Experimental future

O Case Study past, present and

future

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5. Critical Research exhibits careful and

precise judgment . A higher level of

confidence must be established to identify

its significance or not.

6. Methodical Research conducted in an

orderly manner without bias using

systematic method and procedures.

7. Replicability using the same instrument,

method and procedure but to a differentsubjects and venues.

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QUALITIES OF A GOOD

RESEARCHER

O R earserch-oriented

O E fficient

O S cientificO E ffective

O A ctive

O R esourceful

O C reativeO H onest

O E conomical

O R - eligious

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

RESEARCHER

O INTELLECTUAL CURIOSITY undertakes

deep thinking and inquiry of the things,

problems, and situations around him.O PRUDENCE careful to conduct his

research study at the right time and at the

right place wisely, efficiently and

economically.

O HEALTHY CRITICISM always doubtful as to

the truthfulness of the results.

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O INTELLECTUAL HONESTY

honest to collect or gather data

or facts in order to arrive at

honest results.

O INTELLECTUAL CREATIVITY-

creates new researches; enjoys

inventing unique novel and

original researches, andconsiders research as his hobby.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH

O PURE RESEARCH basic research orfundamental research. It aims to discover

basic truth

s or principles, discover newfacts.

O APPLIED RESEARCH involves seeking newapplications of scientific knowledge to thesolution of a problem, such as the

development of a new system or procedure,device , or new method in order to solve theproblem.

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OACTION RESEARCH is adecision-oriented research

involving the application of

the steps of the scientificmethod in response to an

immediate need to improve

existing practices

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CLASSIFICATION OF

RESEARCH

O LIBRARY RESEARCH done in the librarywhere answers to specific questions or

problems of th

e study are available.O FIELD RESEARCH conducted in a natural

setting. No changes are made in theenvironment.

O LABORATORY RESEARCH conducted in

artificial or controlled conditions by isolatingthe study in a rigorously specified andoperationalized area.

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PURPOSE OF LAB

RESEARCH

1. To test hypothesis derived from

theory

2. To control variance under research

conditions

3. To discover the relations between

th

e dependent and independentvariables.

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COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

Research in speech-

communication focuses on the

ways in which messages linkparticipants during interactions.

(Kibler & Barker, 1969, p. 63)

Is a specialty that studiesmessage-related behavior

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When Communication

Researchers survey

employee attitudes as part

of a counseling contract thework is considered applied

research.

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Methods of Studies used in

Communication Research

1. Qualitative Studies

Use descriptions of observations

expressed in pre-dominantly non-

numerical terms

Most qualitative research in our field

tends to describe or interpretcommunication exchanges.

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Types of Qualitative Studies

1. Historical-Critical Studies:

Research designed to describe

a period, person, or phenomenon for the purpose

of interpreting or evaluating

communication and itseffects

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i.e.

HISTORICAL STUDIES:

Studying whether Lincolns Gettysburg

Address really met with negative reaction at

the time it was delivered.

Studying the true impact on Americans fromOrson Welless 1938 War of the Worlds

broadcast

Studying dominant methods of treating

stuttering during the last two hundred years.

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CRITICISM:

Evaluating the use of argument by RonaldReagan in his presidential debates

Evaluating whether newspaper reports of

the news gave politically balanced reportsof the U.S. entry into the Iraq-Kuwait crisis.

Evaluating the ethical use of surgery in the

treatment of speech-handicapped patients

in the nineteenth century.

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2. Qualitative Observational Studies:

methods designed to use predominantly

attribute-type data to interpretcontemporaneous communication

interactions.

3. Case Studies and Interpretive Studies:intensive inquiries about single events,

people, or social units (interpretive studies

attempt to look for themes or stories that

are helpful to interpret or understand thecase,)

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i.e.

Case Studies:Investigating the practice of a

successful speech therapist to pick up

some pointers.Studying the communication inside a

newspaper that is in the process of

being sold.

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4. Participant Observation Studies:

Inquiries in which the researcher takes the role

of an active agent in the situation under study(sometimes may be used to gather quantitative

data)

i.e.

Case Studies on studying the process of newswriting for a television station by joining the

writing staff to report events from the inside.

Case Studies on investigating the development

of public strategy for a political campaign by joining a campaign as an active worker who

makes observations from within the organization

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5. Ethnomethodology

Originally developed by anthropologists tostudy societies of humans, an approach

(rather than a rigorous method) in which

researchers find an ethnic group, live

within it, and attempt to develop insightinto the culture; emphasis is on ordinary

behavior, which participants take for

granted, to find hidden meanings and

unwritten rules people use to make senseoff their word.

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i.e.

Case Study on investigating how

people react to television by livingwith an isolated group of peoplewithout television watching their

reactions in the days and weeks thatfollow introduction of televisions.

Case Study on inquiring into the

special language of street gangmembers by moving around with agang during an extended time period.

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6. Discourse/Conversational

Analysis:A method of examining utterances

people exchange, for the purpose of

discovering the rules and strategiespeople use to structure sequence, and

take turns in speaking, to learn how

people manage their interactions withothers.

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i.e.

Studying the structure of interpersonal

arguments among husbands and wives.

Examining the judge and attorney

communication by looking at the structure

of the abbreviated exchanges.

Inquiring into childrens speech

development by identifying language

competency levels among six-year-oldand eight-year-old school children

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7. Creative Studies:

use of the method of performance ordemonstration to explore an aesthetic

or creative experience.

i.e.

Examining the problems of

communication Renaissance poetry to

modern audiences by undertaking special

performances in oral

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Examining whether a public relations

campaign using multimedia news releases isperceived as a suitable way to transmit

information by designing such a campaign

directly.

Most qualitative research in our field tendsto describe or interpret communication

exchanges.

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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCHQUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

METHODSMETHODS

Are inquiries in which observations areAre inquiries in which observations areexpressed predominantly in numerical termsexpressed predominantly in numerical terms

Tends to be explanatory, especially whenTends to be explanatory, especially whenexperiments are involved, or it attempts to useexperiments are involved, or it attempts to useprecise statistical models go achieveprecise statistical models go achievecomprehensive understandings of humancomprehensive understandings of human

communication.communication. Usually attempts to answer questions aboutUsually attempts to answer questions about

how many people are involved in an activityhow many people are involved in an activity

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2 MAJOR BRANCHES OF2 MAJOR BRANCHES OF

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCHQUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1.1.SURVEY STUDIESSURVEY STUDIES2.2.EXPERIMENTALEXPERIMENTAL

STUDIESSTUDIES

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SURVEY STUDIESSURVEY STUDIES

TechniquesTechniques thatthat involveinvolve

carefullycarefully recordedrecordedobservationsobservations which which provideprovide

quantitativequantitative descriptionsdescriptions ofof

relationshipsrelationships amongamongvariablesvariables..

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TYPES OF QUANTITATIVETYPES OF QUANTITATIVE

SURVEY STUDIESSURVEY STUDIES

a)a)DESCRIPTIVEDESCRIPTIVE OROR OBSERVATIONALOBSERVATIONALSURVEYSSURVEYS

DirectDirect observationsobservations ofof behaviorbehaviorbyby useuse ofof somesome measurementmeasurement

(the(the researcherresearcher doesdoes notnot

manipulatemanipulate oror changechange anyany

variables)variables)

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ii..ee..

DiscoveringDiscovering what what sortssorts ofof thingsthingssmallsmall groupgroup communicatorscommunicators saysay thatthat

predictpredict theirtheir becomingbecoming groupgroup

leadersleaders..

IdentifyingIdentifying thethe relationshiprelationshipbetweenbetween thethe numbernumber oror newspapersnewspapers

aa personperson readsreads onon regularregular basisbasis andandthethe amountamount ofof fearfear ofof societysociety ratedrated

onon aa measuremeasure ofof statestate anxietyanxiety

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b)b)CONTENTCONTENT ANALYSISANALYSISA A systematic,systematic, quantitativequantitativestudystudy of of verballyverbally

communicatedcommunicated materialmaterial(article,(article, speeches,speeches, films)films) byby

determiningdetermining thethe frequencyfrequency ofof

specificspecific ideas,ideas, concepts,concepts, oror

termsterms

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ii..ee..

StudyingStudying thethe amountamount ofof violence violence ononchildrenschildrens televisiontelevision programsprograms

InquiringInquiring intointo thethe amountamount ofof newspapernewspaperspacespace dedicateddedicated toto storiesstories aboutabout thethewomenswomens movementmovement

AnalyzingAnalyzing ofof thethe typestypes ofof speechspeech defectsdefectsshownshown byby childrenchildren inin samplessamples ofofspontaneousspontaneous speechspeech..

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c)c)OPINIONOPINION SURVEYSSURVEYSAssessmentsAssessments ofof reportsreports fromfrom individualsindividuals

aboutabout topicstopics ofof interestinterest..

ii..ee..

Analyzing Analyzing opinionopinion surveyssurveys regardingregarding whichwhichcandidatecandidate peoplepeople thinkthink wonwon aa politicalpolitical debatedebate

ExaminingExamining whether whether thethe publicpublic believesbelieves thatthatspeechspeech correctioncorrection therapytherapy shouldshould receivereceive

increasedincreased fundingfunding inin thethe publicpublic schoolsschools.. Assessing Assessing surveyssurveys ofof thethe favoritefavorite televisiontelevision

programsprograms peoplepeople watchwatch..

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A A methodmethod ofof studyingstudying thethe effecteffect ofofvariables variables inin situationssituations where where allall otherother

influencesinfluences areare heldheld constantconstant.. VariablesVariables

areare manipulatedmanipulated oror introducedintroduced byby

experimentsexperiments toto seesee whatwhat effecteffect theythey maymayhavehave

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIESEXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

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ii..ee..

StudyingStudying thethe impactimpact ofof thethe useuse ofofevidenceevidence completedcompleted byby exposingexposingoneone groupgroup toto aa speechspeech withwith evidenceevidence

andand anotheranother groupgroup toto aa speechspeechwithoutwithout evidenceevidence

StudyingStudying thethe effecteffect ofof colorcolor ininadvertisingadvertising byby exposingexposing oneone groupgroup

toto anan adad with with colorcolor printingprinting andand

anotheranother groupgroup toto anan adad withoutwithout colorcolor

printingprinting

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1.1.ResearchResearch isis systematicsystematic OrganizedOrganized thoughthough unexpectedunexpected resultsresults

oftenoften emerge,emerge, serendipityserendipity happenshappens

ResearchersResearchers standstand thethe bestbest chancechance ofofgraspinggrasping thethe importanceimportance ofof unexpectedunexpectedfindingsfindings

2.2.ResearchResearch isis datadata drivendriven WillingWilling toto changechange theirtheir mindsminds inin lightlight ofof

newnew datadata..

5 key qualities of research5 key qualities of research

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3.

3.ResearchResearch isis aa soundsound argumentargument ClaimsClaims advancedadvanced onon thethe basisbasis ofof reasoningreasoning

fromfrom evidenceevidence

4.4.ResearchResearch isis capablecapable ofofreplicationreplication WeWe cancan telltell whetherwhether researchresearch findingsfindings areare

generallygenerally truetrue oror accidentalaccidental

5.5.ResearchResearch isis partialpartial ThereThere isis alwaysalways moremore thatthat couldcould bebe addedadded

aboutabout aa topictopic..