Color Research on Thai Wall Painting in the Ayutthaya and ...

77

J. Soc. Photogr. Imag. Japan. (2013) Vol. 76 No. 1 : 77–87

Original Paper

Color Research on Thai Wall Painting in the Ayutthaya and Bangkok Dynasties

アユタヤおよびバンコク王朝期のタイ壁画の色彩研究

Kanakarn RUXPAITOON*, Naokazu AOKI

* and Hiroyuki KOBAYASHI*

ラクパイトゥーンカナカーン *・青木直和 *・小林裕幸 *

Abstract Most Thai wall paintings are related to the religion, manners and customs of the people, as well as the prosperity of the dynasty

of the time. The Thai dynasties consist of the Ayutthaya dynasty (1351–1767) and the Bangkok dynasty (1782–Present). The

culture and diplomatic relations were different in each dynasty. The number of usable pigments was different in each dynasty,

too. Therefore, the characteristics of wall paintings should reflect the period background of each dynasty. Almost all historic Thai

wall paintings have been produced at Buddhist temples, and have different characteristics of color usage than overseas wall

paintings made even with the same fresco technique as that used in Thailand. In this study, colors used in Thai wall paintings of

various dynasties were measured and plotted in the L*a*b* color space. Representative colors were obtained by using K-means

clustering in combination with two-step clustering, and their characteristics were discussed by comparing with those of

Egyptian, Pompeii, and the Renaissance fresco. In addition, impressions of the color arrangement of these paintings were

obtained by a color image scale.

要　旨タイの壁画の題材は宗教画，民衆の風俗，そしてそれらと並んでその時代の王朝の栄華を描いたものも多く，各王朝それ

ぞれの時代背景を反映した特徴を有している．タイの王朝はアユタヤ王朝（1351–1767年）とバンコク王朝（1782–現在）

から成る．文化や海外との外交関係は各王朝期で異なる．また，利用できる顔料の数も各王朝期で異なり，壁画の特徴は

各王朝期の時代を反映していると言える．ほとんどの壁画は仏教寺院で制作されており，色使いは同じフレスコ技法を用

いた西欧の壁画とはことなる特徴が観られる．本研究は，タイ各王朝期の壁画に使われている色を，スキャナを用いて画

集から取得し，L*a*b* 空間にプロットした．その分布から Two-step クラスタリング法と K 平均クラスタ法を用いて代表

色を求め，ポンペイやルネサンスのフレスコ画と比較して議論した．さらに，配色カラーイメージスケールを用い，各時

代の配色の印象を求めた．

Key words: Thai dynasty periods, Wall paintings, Representative colors, Impression of color arrangement

キーワード：タイ王朝期，壁画，代表色，配色の印象

1. Introduction

Images can be divided into two types: “traditional images” be-

fore the invention of photography, and “techno images” after the

invention of photography 1). Whereas the traditional images have

a history of a few tens of thousands of years, the techno images

have a history of only 200 years, at most. It is clear that knowing

the characteristics of paintings and other traditional images,

which have such a long history, is useful for the technology of

techno images such as photographs. There are many opportunities

to encounter Western paintings (in the Renaissance, Baroque,

Impressionist and other styles) and East Asian paintings from

Japan and China, and a great deal of research has been carried

out on such paintings. Thai paintings, which are classified under

Southeast Asia, are almost unknown, and there has been almost

no academic research on their image characteristics, such as

color usage. This research analyzes color usage in Thai paintings,

and elucidates their features by comparing them with Western

paintings. Printed material, such as books of paintings, are the

most familiar media through which we come into contact with

paintings, and it is no exaggeration to say that much of the infor-

mation we know about paintings has been acquired through such

media. In academic research on the color features and other

characteristics of paintings it is difficult in almost all cases to

obtain information from the original works, and in most cases

research has been conducted based on information obtained from

books of paintings and catalogs 2). In this research too, data was

obtained from books of paintings, and examined by using an anal-

ysis method proposed in previous research 2). Almost all Thai

wall paintings have been produced in Buddhist temples, and they

are art which visualizes the ideals of Buddhism. Materials with

local characteristics have been used to produce these wall paint-

ings, and they are a type of Buddhist art which expresses the

originality of Thai art. The subjects of most Thai wall paintings

Received 8th, December 2012, Accepted 7th, February 2013　平成 24年 12月 8日受付　平成 25年 2月 7日受理

*Graduate School of Advanced Integration Science, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoicho, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan

千葉大学大学院融合科学研究科　〒 263-8522　千葉市稲毛区弥生町 1-33

J. Soc. Photogr. Imag. Japan. Vol. 76 No. 1 (2013)78

are religious scenes, manners of the common people, and the

glory of the dynasties in each era. The Thai dynasties consist of

the Ayutthaya Dynasty (1351–1767) and the Bangkok Dynasty

(1782–Present) 3).

The history of painting in Ayutthayan art is roughly divided

into three periods. The early period (from the mid 14th century

to the mid 15th century) shows a mixed influence of Lopburi

art*1 and Sri Lanka art*2. In the middle period (from the mid 15th

century to the early 17th century), the influence of Sukhotai art*3

grows stronger. This was also an era of war, and styles from

other countries flowed in. In the late period (from the mid 17th

century to the mid 18th century), Thai art was influenced by

Chinese art. As a result, it began to use a broader palette of

colors, and an elegant style of painting unique to Thailand was

perfected. Many different subjects were painted including imag-

es of the Buddha, and flowers and birds. As the method of pro-

duction, painters used a fresco technique in which a line drawing

is executed on a plastered wall, the surrounding area is embed-

ded with a vermillion color, and then color is applied in a planar

fashion 3). The lines are simple and drawn solidly, and the colors

are black (believed to be lamp black or bone), white (believed to

be lime or white earth) and red (believed to be cinnabar). Gold

foil is also used, particularly for important parts and ceilings.

Ayutthaya pigments are natural, and there are only a few types.

Due to climate problems and earthquakes, many wall paintings

have been destroyed, but there are still some extant paintings

produced in the early 15th century.

The Bangkok dynasty*4 is comprised of the reigns of nine

monarchs, Rama 1 to Rama 9 (in the following, their reigns will

be indicated as Rama 1, Rama 9 etc.), and the dynasty is divided

into three periods: the early period (Rama 1–3), middle period

(Rama 4–6), and the late period (Rama 7 to the present Rama 9).

Rama 1 in the early period (1782–1809) triumphed in a war with

Myanmar, and built many temples such as Wat Prakaew. Many

corridor wall paintings were produced at that time. The tech-

niques retained the features of Ayutthaya art, as is, and the

images are expressed with vivid colors and gold. The composi-

tion is distinguished by the “San Yuan” perspective technique of

oriental art in which space is expressed by drawing distant

views, intermediate views and near views with different view-

points in a single picture plane. Layers of ambiguous air, such as

clouds or mist, are painted at the connecting points of these

three views, and it is also said that these elements comprise the

blank time of human consciousness. That is, this “emptiness”

lies outside the intentions of the painter, and is a view of “uncon-

ditioned nature.” Another distinguishing feature is that story

scenes are drawn in the center of the picture plane, and artists

draw images of 18–19th century customs and manners, and

things like they like, above and below the central image. During

the reign of Rama 2 (1809–1824), there was lively cultural ex-

change with Portugal, and students were sent to India to learn

architecture and other technologies. In the reign of Rama 3

(1824–1851), Thai art was influenced by Chinese art. At that

time, almost all pigments were imported from China 3).

During the middle period, Thai art received a major influence

from Europe. In the reign of Rama 4 (1851–1868), there was a

shift in subject matter from Buddhist themes to fables. Styles

were also influenced by the start of cultural exchange with the

West, and a distinctive style was born which combines the real-

ism of Europe with the beautiful and elegant line drawings char-

acteristic of Thai wall paintings. The works of the painter Khrua

In Khong, who is representative of the reign of Rama 4, can be

regarded as similar to early Renaissance art in terms of

technique, use of color, and composition etc. The foreigners and

European style buildings which appear in the works of Khrua

In Khong were painted based on his image of foreign countries,

developed from watching the lives of foreigners living in Thai-

land. During the reign of Rama 5 (1868–1910), foreign exchange

students were sent to Europe with the aim to aiding the develop-

ment of Thailand. In the reign of Rama 6 (1910–1925), surnames

were given to all of the citizens of Thailand, and people began to

wear European style clothing 4). During the reign of Rama 7

(1925–1935) in the late period, a constitution was enacted, and

political, social and educational systems were put in place. Many

European style buildings were constructed. After the short reign

of Rama 8 (1935–1946), Rama 9 (1946–Present) ascended to the

throne, and worked to develop the country’s infrastructure, and

improve the living environment for the Thai people. The King is

well-versed in culture and art, and has made efforts to achieve

broader education and understanding in those fields. New styles

unique to Thailand have also been developed. By the order of

Rama 9, new wall paintings have been painted since 1993 depict-

ing dynastic chronicles and the history of Thailand. These wall

paintings are rendered so realistically that the people in the paint-

ings can be recognized, and vivid colors are used in all of these

works 5).

There is a strong link between Buddhism and the daily lives of

the Thai people. The wall paintings in temples are representa-

tive of Thai art, and can be regarded as cultural heritage. There-

fore, knowing the expressive techniques of these paintings is

extremely important for understanding Thai art. No previous

research has been done regarding color usage and expressive

techniques.

In this research, the authors investigate color usage in the

wall paintings of each dynasty, which make up the long history of

Thai painting described above, and elucidate the features of

these paintings by comparing between dynasties, and with

*1 Lopburi art 1): Lopburi art was established as the Khmer kingdom of

Cambodia expanded its territory to the west, and brought the area

from northeast to central Thailand under its control. In short, it is

Khmer art in Thailand. Its center is Lopburi, which was formerly

called “Lawou,” and thus it is called Lopburi art. Its golden age was in

the 12th and 13th centuries. (However, there are remains indicating an

influence from Khmer art starting around the 7th century.) To be pre-

cise, the Khmer-style “stalactite”-shaped towers called “Prasat,”

which rise above temples, correspond not to Buddhist stupas but to

shrines.*2 Sri Lanka art 1): An inverted bowl-shaped structure is created on a

pedestal, and on top of that are placed a square crown and finial, thus

providing the elements of a basic stupa. However, the bowl-shaped

part of the tower in Myanmar and Thailand is shaped like a bell rather

than a grave mound.*3 Sukhothai art 1): This was established under the Sukhothai Kingdom,

when the Tai peoples established a state in the south of northern

Thailand. The Sukhothai Kingdom expelled the Khmer forces, invited

Buddhist high priests from Sri Lanka, and embraced Theraveda

Buddhism. Therefore, this art unique to Thailand was created under

the influence of Sri Lanka art.*4 Bangkok dynasty: Another name for the Rattanakosin dynasty. The

capital city is Bangkok, so it is called the Bangkok dynasty. The royal

palace is located on Rattanakosin Island, surrounded by canals and

the Chao Phraya River, and thus another name is the Rattanakosin

dynasty.

K. RUXPAITOON et al. Color Research on Thai Wall Painting in the Ayutthaya and Bangkok Dynasties 79

Western painting. Wall painting data was acquired from books of

paintings, and representative colors were found from the distri-

bution of colors used in L*a*b space, by using a combination of

the two-step cluster method 6) and the K-means clustering

method 2). Impressions of the color combination in each era were

found by using a color image scale for color combinations 7).

The authors also examine the features of color usage by compar-

ing it with the European wall paintings from the Pompei and Re-

naissance Eras which are thought to have influenced Thai wall

paintings. Fig. 1 shows the Thai dynasties and reigns in compari-

son with other eras.

2. Experiment

2.1 Wall painting samples

Since there is a limit on the number of samples, their selection

is extremely important. Wall paintings of Wat Chongnonsee and

Wat Yai-Suwannaram (Fig. 2a) which are entirely intact were se-

lected as samples for the Ayutthaya Era. Wall paintings from the

temples most closely related to each monarch were selected as

samples for the Bangkok Era. The wall paintings of Wat Prakeaw

(Fig. 2b) were selected for Rama 1, the wall paintings of Wat

Borvornnivet (Fig. 2c) for Rama 3, the wall paintings of the paint-

er Khrua In Khong at Wat Borvonnivet (Fig. 2d) for Rama 4 (who

Fig. 1 Comparison of Thai dynasties with overseas periods

Fig. 2a Wall paintings at Wat Chongnonsee and Wat Yai-Suwannaram from the reign of King Prasarttong, Ayutthaya dynasty. Paintings of Buddhist scrip-

tures and stories 8)

Fig. 2b Wall paintings painted in the corridors of Wat Prakeaw during the reign of Rama 1. The subjects are Buddhist history 9)

Fig. 2c Wall paintings from Wat Borvonnivet during the reign of Rama 3. The paintings feature stories from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms 10)


inherited the construction of Wat Borvornnivet from Rama 3),

and the wall paintings of Wat Chaloem Phra Kiat Vorravihar (Fig.

2e) for Rama 9. During the reigns of Rama 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8, no

new wall paintings were painted. They were only restored, and

thus will not be discussed here.

For Pompei, the authors selected four paintings with the typi-

cal features of wall paintings from Pompei, and also added a wall

painting from a lodge for secret rites which is well-known but

exceptional as a Pompei wall painting due to its red tone (Fig. 2f).

There are innumerable fresco wall paintings from the Renais-

sance Era, and selection is extremely difficult. Consequently, we

focused on the wall paintings of Masaccio, a representative paint-

er of the time (Fig. 2g).

These samples were all captured as data from books of paint-

ings (all printed at 175 dpi) by using a scanner (Epson 10000 G).

This was done at a resolution of 96 dpi 2) which should enable

adequate acquisition of color information without being affected

by the halftone dots of the printing.

2.2 Analysis of color usage

Color information acquired from books of paintings was aver-

aged at an appropriate size, and then representative colors were

found from the distributions in color space by using a combina-

tion of the two-step cluster method and the K-means clustering

method. The specific method is as follows.

Fig. 2d Works painted by Khrua In Khong at Wat Borvornnivet during the reign of Rama 4. The subject matter has changed from Buddhist themes to

material based on fables 4)

Fig. 2e New wall paintings depicting dynastic chronicles and the history of Thailand, produced since 1993 at Wat Chaloem Phra Kiat Vorravihar during

the reign of Rama 9 5)

Fig. 2f Wall paintings from Pompei 11)

Fig. 2g Wall paintings by Masaccio from Italy during the Renaissance Era 12). From the left: the Holy Trinity from the church of Santa Maria Novella, St.

Peter Healing the Sick with His Shadow, St. Peter Preaching, The Distribution of Alms and Death of Ananias and Expulsion from the Garden of Eden

from the Brancacci Chapel in Florence


(1) Acquire wall painting color information: See 2.1.

(2) Average data: Obtain color information as sRGB values by

using image measurement software. A 5×5 pixel window was

selected as the size for averaging the color information of each

pixel. It is probably valid to perform this step with a 2×2 pixel

(0.5×0.5 mm) window, which is the size of the visual MTF peak

at the distance of distinct vision, but even with paintings thought

to have the most detail among those analyzed here, there were

no differences in color distribution or representative colors due

to the difference between these two sizes. Therefore, a 5×5

pixel window was used because it requires less computation.

(3) Convert from monitor RGB values to L*a*b values: The

8-bit RGB data (0–255) input for a standard display is indicated

by R8bit, G8bit, and B8bit. First, these values are divided by 255 to

obtain normalized values in the range 0–1, R'sRGB, G'sRGB, and

B'sRGB 13).

(1)

Gamma correction is converted in reverse to find linear RGB for

each of the following cases 13).

If R'sRGB, G'sRGB, and B'sRGB ≤ 0.04045, then

RsRGB = R'sRGB/12.92

GsRGB = G'sRGB/12.92 (2)

BsRGB = B'sRGB/12.92

If R'sRGB, G'sRGB, and B'sRGB >0.04045, then

(3)

Next is conversion to (X, Y, Z). In actual sRGB, the maximum

value of Y is calculated by introducing 80 as the coefficient L0

because the display brightness level is assumed to be 80 cm/m2.

(4)

The L*, a* and b* values are calculated from the obtained tristim-

ulus values using the following equations.

(5)

Here, Xn, Yn, and Zn are the tristimulus values (reference

white) of a perfect reflecting diffuser under standard light. The

obtained values are plotted in L*a*b* space, and a distribution of

colors used is obtained for each wall painting.

(4) Acquire representative values: Color usage in an image

can be made easier to understand by replacing the many colors

which comprise an image with colors from a smaller set which

resemble them, and then handling the resulting image with

fewer colors. The term “representative color” refers to each

color in that restricted set 2). Representative colors are found by

analyzing the distribution in L*a*b* space using the method

explained in the following section 2.3.

The distributions of chroma (Cab*) and hue angle (hab) are

found using the following equations from representative color

data plotted in L*a*b* space.

Cab* = (a*2 + b

*2)1/2 (6)

(7)

2.3 Acquisition of representative colors

Based on the color distribution in L*a*b* color space of wall

paintings from each era, the authors used the IBM SPSS

Statistics software package for statistical analysis (IBM Co.) 14)

to determine the number of clusters K through two-step cluster-

ing based on distance (color difference) in L*a*b* space. Using

this K, representative colors were automatically determined via

the K-means method (Fig. 3).

2.4 Determination of the impression given by color usage

To enable better understanding of color usage in the wall

paintings of each dynasty, swatches were prepared in which color

patches of the representative colors found for the wall paintings

in each dynasty were arranged in a row, and these were compared

against a color image scale for color combinations 7). The closest

color emotion word was then determined to be the impression

given by the color usage of those wall paintings. This scale,

shown in Fig. 4, has two psychological axes—the warm-cool axis

(WC-axis) and the soft-hard (SH-axis)—and these serve, respec-

tively, as the horizontal and vertical axes. Various color combina-

tions made up of 5 colors are arrayed in this plane, based on the

emotion imparted by each combination, and a word expressing

=

=

=

8

8

8

' / 255

' / 255

' / 255

sRGB bit

sRGB bit

sRGB bit

R R

G G

B B

= +

= +

= +

2.4

2.4

2.4

[( ' 0.055) / 1.055]

[( ' 0.055) / 1.055]

[( ' 0.055) / 1.055]

sRGB sRGB

sRGB sRGB

sRGB sRGB

R R

G G

B B

⎡ ⎤ ⎧ ⎫ ⎡ ⎤⎪ ⎪⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥

= × ×⎨ ⎬⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦ ⎩ ⎭ ⎣ ⎦

0

0.4124,0.3576,0.1805

0.2126,0.7152,0.0722

0.0193,0.1192,0.9505

sRGB

sRGB

sRGB

X R

Y L G

Z B

⎡ ⎤= −⎢ ⎥

⎣ ⎦

⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎢ ⎥= −⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦

⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎢ ⎥= −⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦

1 / 3

*

1 / 3 1 / 3

*

1 / 3 1 / 3

*

116 16

500

200

YL

Yn

X Ya

Xn Yn

Y Zb

Yn Zn

−

⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

*1

ab *h =tan

b

a

Fig. 3 Procedure for finding representative colors of all wall paintings of an era


the imparted color emotion is attached to each color combination.

Color combinations with a high degree of warmth, located on the

left edge, impart a “colorful” feeling, and thus the emotions

located at the upper left are labeled with the words “pretty” and

“casual” which indicate a soft and colorful emotion. The emotions

at the lower left are labeled with the words “wild,” “dynamic,”

and “gorgeous” which indicate a hard and colorful emotion.

Colors with a high degree of coolness impart a “refreshing” feel-

ing. Therefore, the emotions located at the upper right are

labeled with the words “clear,” “cool,” and “casual” which indi-

cate a soft, refreshing emotion. The emotion at the lower right is

labeled “modern,” which indicates a hard, refreshing emotion.

Color combinations located in the center of the diagram are as-

sumed to impart a “calm” impression. Therefore, the emotions

located at the upper center are labeled with the words “romantic”

and “elegant” which indicate a soft, calm emotion, and emotions

located at the lower center are labeled with the words “classic &

dandy,” “classic” and “dandy,” which indicate a hard, calm emotion.

The center of the diagram is labeled with the word “elegant,”

which indicates a calm emotion which is neither soft nor hard.

This color combination image scale has been used in various

fields, such as research on color combinations in Hokusai’s

Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji 15), a psychological study of color

in ukiyo-e prints 16), research on media conversion from music to

color combinations 17), and design of uniforms for athletes 18).

2.5 Correction of color information obtained via scanner

The color information for color patches was captured together

with paintings using a scanner, and the color information ob-

tained with the scanner was corrected based on the relationship

between the scanner data and actual color. It was found that

color differences almost entirely coincided with ΔL*, and almost

all of the color differences were due to differences in the L*

value. Correction equations for a*, b* and L* are, respectively:

y = 1.1322x – 0.5382, y = 0.0000462768x3 + 0.0007061338x2 +

0.9212531468x – 2.0251189986, and y = 0.0000092067x3 –

0.0025610444x2 + 1.0440168446x + 16.0023177020. y is the

corrected value, and x is the value obtained with the scanner.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Analysis of color usage

Fig.s 5a–g show the obtained L*a*b* values for representative

colors of wall paintings in each era, and the percentages of all

colors which the representative colors represent. Swatches

were created by lining up patches of representative colors creat-

ed with Adobe Photoshop in order of most frequent occurrence.

Fig. 5a shows the results for five wall paintings at Wat Chon

Nonslee and Wat Yai Swannarum from the reign of King

Prasathong of the late Ayutthaya dynasty (mid 17th century).

All of the plotted points are spread out in a concentric fashion,

and it is evident that the technique of adjusting saturation by

mixing chromatic and achromatic pigments has not been used.

The hue angles are distributed in the region smaller than 90°.

Five representative colors were obtained. Colors with L* of 50 or

higher account for more than 70% of all colors, and overall the

colors are bright. Distinguishing features of the color usage are

that almost all of the colors are brownish-yellow, and some

yellow-red has been added to that. Brightness is high in the re-

gion near the b* axis, and as a* increases, brightness decreases.

Low-brightness red is added to bright yellows with different

saturations, and as the redness is increased, yellowness main-

tains a fixed value and brightness decreases.

The percentage of colors whose representative color has both

a* and b* not exceeding 10 was low at 10%, and the percentage of

colors whose representative color has L* less than 40 is about

10%. Thus color usage in the Ayutthaya dynasty can be regarded

as bright and vivid.

Fig. 5b shows the results for five wall paintings at Prakeaw

temple, painted in the reign of Rama 1during the Bangkok dynasty.

Eight representative colors were obtained. Black came into use,

and the percentage of colors whose representative color has L*

of less than 40 reaches 21%. Furthermore, the percentage of

colors whose representative color has both a* and b* less than 10

exceeds 70%. The brownish-yellow colors which are the basic

colors of the Ayutthaya Era comprise about 20% of all colors,

excluding those with saturation smaller than 10. On the achro-

matic axis, plotted points are distributed over a wide range of

L* values, and it is evident that mixtures of black and white pig-

ments are used. a* and b* values are distributed so that they cut

across at almost a 45° angle in the positive direction, and it is

evident that brightness and saturation have been adjusted by

mixing red and yellow, and mixing in white. In the region where

b* is negative, a small number of plotted points are distributed

along the L* axis, and thus it evident that blue pigment and white

pigment have been mixed in and used. The Figures were made to

stand out from the background by controlling brightness and

saturation.

Fig. 5c shows the results for five wall paintings of the Romance

of the Three Kingdoms at Wat Boworn Nivet, from the reign of

Rama 3 in the Bangkok dynasty. Nine representative colors were

obtained. The colors used are almost the same as in the reign of

Rama 1. There were a high percentage of colors with L* less than

40, and a high percentage with neither a* nor b* exceeding 10,

just as in the reign of Rama 1.

Fig. 5d shows the results for five wall paintings painted at

Wat Boworn Nivet by the painter Khrua In Khong in the reign of

Rama 4 during the Bangkok dynasty. Khrua In Khong was great-

ly influenced by the West. He also adopted techniques such as

Fig. 4 Color combination image scale


Fig. 5a Distribution of colors used, and representative colors, in wall paintings at Wat Chon Nonslee during the Ayutthaya Dynasty

Fig. 5b Distribution of colors used, and representative colors, in wall paintings at Wat Prakeaw during the reign of Rama I

Fig. 5c Distribution of colors used, and representative colors, in wall paintings at Wat Boworn Nivet during the reign of Rama III


Fig. 5d Distribution of colors used, and representative colors, in wall paintings at Wat Boworn Nivet by Khrua In Khong during the reign of Rama IV

Fig. 5e Distribution of colors used, and representative colors, in wall paintings during the reign of Rama IX

Fig. 5f Distribution of colors used, and representative colors, in wall paintings at Pompei


perspective and chiaroscuro. There are eight representative

colors. The plotted points are distributed on the b* axis, and red

colors are not used. Plotted points are distributed widely in the

cool color region where a* and b* are negative. The percentage of

colors with L* less than 40, and the percentage with neither a*

nor b* exceeding 10, were both higher than in the reign of Rama

1. Overall saturation was low, and the paintings give a dark and

cool impression. This is believed to be because Khrua In Khong

imagined Europe to be a cold place, and used many cool colors.

Fig. 5e shows the results for five wall paintings painted in the

reign of Rama 9 during the Bangkok dynasty. There are 11 repre-

sentative colors. All of the colors are distributed widely in the

L* axis direction, and distributed so that a* and b* cut across at

about 45° in the positive direction. This shows that brightness

and saturation have been adjusted by mixing red and yellow, and

mixing in white. The percentage of colors with L* less than 40

was 23%, so the paintings are dark overall. The percentage of

colors with neither a* nor b* exceeding 10 is 48%, and thus the

paintings are more vivid than previous work in the Bangkok dy-

nasty. Yellowish-red colors with high saturation are frequently

used on a dense black ground, and this is the era when elegant,

pure Thai painting was perfected.

Fig. 5f shows the results for five wall paintings from Pompei.

There are eight representative colors. The percentage of colors

whose representative color has L* less than 40 is 9%, and there

are no colors for which neither a* nor b* exceed 10. Thus the

color usage is bright and vivid overall. Red and green pigments

are prominent. Plotted points are distributed at high density

along the b* axis, over a wide range of saturation and brightness,

and this suggests that yellow pigments have not been mixed with

other pigments. There is also a distribution where a*, shifted

somewhat from the b* distribution, extends in parallel to the

negative range. It is evident that yellow-green is used while

varying saturation. There is a distribution of red at a location

where the hue angle is close to 45°. This is the background color

of the lodge for secret rites.

The Italian Renaissance Era corresponds to the early part of

the Ayutthaya dynasty. Fig. 5g shows the results for five wall

paintings by Masaccio which represent this era. The number of

representative colors increased further, and eight colors were

extracted. The percentage of colors whose representative color

has L* of less than 40 is 31%, and the percentage of colors

whose representative color has neither a* nor b* exceeding 10 is

30%. Thus the paintings are darker than those at Pompei, and

the use of colors with low saturation is conspicuously evident.

The distribution along the b* axis stops at the region with low

saturation, and a large distribution is seen for yellow-red colors.

These distributions extend in two bands. One is a large distri-

bution with a hue angle of roughly 45°, and there is a mass of

plotted points in a region with even greater saturation along the

same hue angle. The other is a narrow distribution with a small

hue angle, and this too extends while decreasing in density to the

region with high saturation. The colors of clothing account for a

high percentage of these colors, and colors with the same hue

but different saturation are used to express their shading. A

band-shaped distribution is also evident in the region where a* is

negative, and this too corresponds to the colors of clothing. A

distinctive idiom with a high degree of variety was used, in which

brightness of all colors was increased as saturation increased.

Fig. 6 provides an overview of the relationship between

chroma (C*) and hue angle (hab) of the representative colors of

each era. This shows that almost all of the representative colors

of wall paintings treated here, from the Thai dynasties, Pompei

and the Renaissance, are distributed on hue angles of 0–90°.

Also, the distribution extends over a wide range of saturations.

Almost all of the colors with a hue angle greater than 90° have a

chroma of less than 10. Plotted points with high saturation are

Fig. 5g Distribution of colors used, and representative colors, in wall paintings of Masaccio from the Renaissance Era

Fig. 6 Relationship of hue angle and chroma of representative colors of

each era


exclusively from the Ayutthaya dynasty in the case of Thai wall

paintings, and some of the plotted points exceed Pompei and

the Renaissance. Plotted points for the Bangkok dynasty finally

appear, as points for Rama 1 and Rama 9, in the region where

chroma is in the 30s.

The Ayutthaya Era stops in the region where the hue angle is

red and yellow. The Bangkok Era, on the other hand, is distributed

over a wide range of hue angles from yellow-green and blue-

green to red-violet. Also, chroma is significantly lower than in

the Ayutthaya Era. In the reign of Rama 4, chroma of blue

exceeds 10, and maximum chroma in the yellow-red region

exceeds 15. Therefore, it is evident that this blue has the distin-

guishing feature of being extremely prominent.

3.2 Impressions imparted by color combinations

(classification using color image scale for color

combinations) 7)

The left side of Fig. 7 shows the swatches of representative

colors for each era. On the far left of the diagram, the color image

scale for color combinations is shown for comparison. Emotion

words for representative color patches were found by comparing

with image scale. At this time, colors with high percentages

were stressed. Ayutthaya is a series of warm reds, browns, and

yellows, and thus is classified as natural. Rama 1 and Rama 3 are

similar, with blacks and browns accounting for large percentages,

but a strong red is added, so they are classified as wild. Rama 4

is a series of black and cool colors, and is classified as chic. Rama

9 is a color combination close to Rama 1 and Rama 3, but the

yellow and orange are intense, and thus it is classified as dynamic.

Pompei is a color combination close to Ayutthaya, but since

green is added, it is classified as casual. Renaissance is a color

combination similar to Rama 1 and Rama 3, but there is no red,

so it was determined to be classic.

Table 1 shows the pigments used in each era of Thai and West-

ern art 19). Few pigments were used in the Ayutthaya Era, and

mixtures of pigments were not used. Therefore the distribution

of color usage was narrow. In the Bangkok Era, gradation of dark

Fig. 7 Determination of the emotion associated with representative colors of each era by using a color combination image scale

Table 1 Pigments used in wall paintings of Thai dynasties and European eras

Color system Pigments name Ayuthaya period Bangkok period Pompei Renaissance

White Silver white 2PbCO3/Pb(OH)2 × ○ △ △

Chalk CaCO3 ○ ○ ○ ○

China clay Al2SiO5(OH)4 × ○ × ×

Red Vermilion HgS × ○ ○ ○

Cinnabar HgS ○ △ △ △

Red lead Pb304 Minium × ○ ○ ○

Reargar As2S2 × × ○ ○

Yellow Yellow ocher Fe2O3/nH2O ○ ○ ○ ○

Sienna Fe2O3/nH2O ○ ○ ○ ○

Blue Azurite 2CuCO3/Cu(OH)2 × ○ ○ ○

Green Malachite CuCO3/Cu(OH)2 × ○ ○ ○

Verdigris Cu(C2H3O2)2/2Cu(OH)2 × △ ○ ○

Black Manganese dioxide MnO2 × × ○ ○

Lamp black, Ivory black, charcoal black,

Vine black C○ ○ ○ ○

○: used; △: unclear; ×: not used


tones appeared due to the mixture of achromatic and chromatic

pigments. On the other hand, there was a broadening of color

usage because pigments began to be imported from China. The

rich color usage of the Bangkok era became “Benjarong”—the

color combination method using black, white, red, yellow, blue

and green which became the basic color usage of Thailand. Basi-

cally, the pigments used to produce Thai wall paintings are the

same as those used in the West, but Thai art is characterized by

its method of applying paint, color usage techniques and other

factors.

4. Conclusion

This study analyzed color usage in Thai paintings—a previously

uninvestigated subject. Important temple paintings representing

each dynasty were selected as the subjects of the research. The

characteristics of Thai paintings were elucidated by comparing

them with European paintings from Pompei and the Renaissance.

In the Ayutthaya Era, red and yellow pigments were used

without mixing, and this imparts a warm, natural impression. In

the Bangkok Era, during the reigns of Rama 1 and Rama 3, pow-

erful black backgrounds were adopted, and color combinations

incorporating red impart a new, gorgeous emotion. In the reign of

Rama 4, cultural exchange with Europe began, and color materi-

als began to be imported. Color usage became richer, and the

expression itself began to exhibit a European influence. The art-

ist Khrua In Khong, a representative of that era, used black and

blue as his base colors, and left wall paintings which impart a chic

impression characterized by extremely low chroma. In the reign

of Rama 9, Thailand’s distinctive Benjarong painting style was

established. This style imparts a dynamic impression with greater

power by adding a strong orange color to the color combinations

used in the reigns of Rama 1and Rama 3.

In comparison with Western painting, wall paintings from the

Ayutthaya Era impart an extremely warm impression due to

their use of highly saturated yellow and red. The impression is

similar to that of the wall paintings of Pompei. The wall paintings

of Khrua In Khong during the reign of Rama 4, which are said to

have been greatly influenced by Western painting, have low satu-

ration compared to Renaissance wall paintings. Black and blue

account for a large percentage of the color combination, and the

paintings impart a cool emotion. The color combinations for

Rama 1, Rama 3 and even more so Rama IX, are warm and hard,

and similar in impression to Renaissance wall paintings.

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