colloids and it uses 2.docx

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Colloids and its uses

A colloid is a substance microscopically dispersed throughout another substance.[1]

The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter of between approximately 2 and

500nanometers.[2]Such particles are normally invisible in an opticalmicroscope, though their

presence can be confirmed with the use of an ultra microscope or anelectron

microscope.Homogeneousmixtures with a dispersed phase in this size range may be

called colloidal aerosols, colloidal emulsions, colloidal foams, colloidal dispersions, orhydrosols.

The dispersed-phase particles or droplets are affected largely by thesurface chemistrypresent

in the colloid.

Some colloids are translucent because of theTyndall effect, which is the scattering of light by

particles in the colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight color.

Colloidal solutions (also called colloidal suspensions) are the subject ofinterface and colloid

science. This field of study was introduced in 1861 byScottishscientistThomas Graham.

Types of colloids

Colloids are usually classified according to the original states of their constituent

parts:

Dispersing medium Dispersed phase Name

Solid Solid Solid sol

Solid Liquid Gel

Solid Gas Solid foam

Liquid Solid Sol

Liquid Liquid Emulsion

Liquid Gas Foam

Gas Solid Solid aerosol

Gas Liquid Aerosol
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Kinetic-Molecular Theory

The ideal gas equation

pV = nRT

Has been presented as a compilation of empirical observation, i.e. the historically

significant Gas Laws, but does The Ideal Gas equation have some deeper, more

fundamental meaning?

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory ("the theory of moving molecules"; Rudolf Claudius,

1857)

1. Gases consist of large numbers of molecules (or atoms, in the case of the noblegases) that are in continuous, randommotion. Usually there is a great distance

between each other, so the molecules travel in straight lines between abrupt

collisions at the walls and between each other. These collisions randomize the

motion of the molecules. Most of the collisions between molecules are binary,

in that only two molecules are involved.

2. The volumeof the moleculesof the gas is negligiblecompared to the totalvolume in which the gas is contained. A common bond length between atoms

is about 10-10 m or 1 Angstrom. Small molecules are therefore on the order of

10 Angstroms in diameter, or less than 10-24 Liters in Molecular Volume, quite

tiny indeed! Remember, however that there can be a great many molecules in the

sample of gas, perhaps on the order of a mole, or 6 x 1023. So that when

concentrations of molecules exceed about 1 mol/liter, then the approximation

that the volume of ALL the molecules in the container is much less than the

volume of the container itself, fails. In the case of an ideal gas, we will assume

that molecules are point masses, i.e., the volume of a mole of gas molecules (as

if they were at rest) is zero, so molecular and container volumes never becomecomparable.

3. Attr active forcesbetween gas molecules are negligible. We know that if theseforces were significant, the molecules would stick together. This happens

when it rains and gaseous water molecules stick together to form a liquid.

Water vapor is a condensable gas, and this shows us that gas molecules are

sticky, but at a high enough temperature they form only a permanent gas,


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because their stickiness can be considered negligible. We will assume that in

an ideal gas, molecular attractive forces are not just small, but identically zero.

Boyles Law

Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the BoyleMariotte law) is an experimentalgas

lawwhich describes how thepressureof agastends to decrease as thevolumeof a gas

increases. A modern statement of Boyle's law is:

The absolutepressureexerted by a given mass of anideal gasis inversely proportional to

thevolumeit occupies if thetemperatureand amount remain unchanged within aclosed

system.[1][2]

which can be written as:

or

where:

Pis thepressureof the gas

Vis thevolumeof the gas

kis aconstant.

The equation states that product of pressure and volume is a constant for a

given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. For

comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the

law can be usefully expressed as follows:

The equation shows that, as volume increases, the pressure of the gas

decreases in proportion. Similarly, as volume decreases, the pressure of thegas increases. The law was named afterchemistandphysicistRobert

Boyle, who published the original law in 1662.[3]

Charles Law
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(also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental law which describes howgasestend to

expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles's law is:

Thevolumeof a given mass of anideal gasisdirectly proportionalto its temperature on

theabsolute temperature scale(in Kelvin) if pressure and theamount of gasremain constant;

that is, the volume of the gas increases or decreases by the same factor as its temperature.[1]

thisdirectly proportionalrelationship can be written as:

or

where:


Tis thetemperatureof the gas (measured inKelvin).

kis aconstant.

This law explains how a gas expands as the temperature increases;

conversely, a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For

comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the

law can be written as:

The equation shows that, as absolute temperature increases, the

volume of the gas also increases in proportion. The law was named

after scientistJacques Charles, who formulated the original law in his

unpublished work from the 1780s.

Gay-Lussac's Law

A third gas law may be derived as a corollary to Boyle's and Charles's laws. Suppose we double

the thermodynamic temperature of a sample of gas. According to Charless law, the volume

should double. Now, how much pressure would be required at the higher temperature to return

the gas to its original volume? According to Boyles law, we would have to double the pressure

to halve the volume. Thus, if the volume of gas is to remain the same, doubling the temperature

will require doubling the pressure. This law was first stated by the Frenchman Joseph Gay-
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Lussac (1778 to 1850). According to Gay-Lussacs law, for a given amount of gas held at

constant volume, the pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature. Mathematically,

Where kG is the appropriate proportionality constant.

Gay-Lussacs law tells us that it may be dangerous to heat a gas in a closed container. The

increased pressure might cause the container to explode.

Avogadro's law

(Sometimes referred to as Avogadro's hypothesis orAvogadro's principle) is an

experimentalgas lawrelating volume of a gas to theamount of substanceof gas present. A

modern statement of Avogadro's law is:

For a given mass of anideal gas, the volume and amount (moles) of the gas are directly

proportional if the temperature andpressureare constant.

Which can be written as?

Or

Where:


Nis theamount of substanceof the gas (measured inmoles).

Kis aconstant.

This law explains how, under the same condition

oftemperatureandpressure, equalvolumesof allgasescontain the same

number of molecules. For comparing the same substance under two

different sets of conditions, the law can be usefully expressed as follows:

The equation shows that, as the number of moles of gas increases, the

volume of the gas also increases in proportion. Similarly, if the number

of moles of gas is decreased, then the volume also decreases. Thus,
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the number of molecules or atoms in a specific volume of idealgasis

independent of their size or themolar massof the gas.

The law is named afterAmedeo Avogadrowho, in 1811,[1]hypothesized

that two given samples of an ideal gas, of the same volume and at the

same temperature and pressure, contain the same number ofmolecules. As an example, equal volumes of molecular hydrogen

andnitrogencontain the same number of molecules when they are at

the same temperature and pressure, and observe gas behavior. In

practice, real gases show small deviations from the ideal behavior and

the law holds only approximately, but are still a useful approximation for

scientists.

Grahams law of effusion

Graham's law, known as Graham's law ofeffusion, was formulated by Scottish physical

chemistThomas Grahamin 1848. Graham found experimentally that the rate ofeffusionof a

gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles.[1]This formula can be

written as:

Where:

Rate1 is the rate of effusion of the first gas (volume or number of moles per unit time).

Rate2 is the rate of effusion for the second gas.

M1 is themolar massof gas 1

M2 is the molar mass of gas 2.

Graham's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely

proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Thus, if the molecular

weight of one gas is four times that of another, it would diffuse through a

porous plug or escape through a small pinhole in a vessel at half the rate of

the other (heavier gases diffuse more slowly). A complete theoretical

explanation of Graham's law was provided years later by thekinetic theory

of gases. Graham's law provides a basis for separatingisotopesby diffusion

a method that came to play a crucial role in the development of the

atomic bomb.

Graham's law is most accurate for moleculareffusionwhich involves the

movement of one gas at a time through a hole. It is only approximate
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fordiffusionof one gas in another or in air, as these processes involve the

movement of more than one gas.

Daltons Law of gases

Inchemistryandphysics,Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) statesthat the totalpressureexerted by the mixture of non-reactive gases is equal to the sum of

thepartial pressuresof individual gases. Thisempiricallaw was observed byJohn Daltonin

1801 and is related to theidealgas laws.

Mathematically, the pressure of a mixture of gases can be defined as the summation

or

Where represent the partial pressure of each component.

It is assumed that the gases do notreactwith each other

Where is themole fractionof the i-th component in the total mixture

ofn components?

The relationship below provides a way to determine thevolume based concentrationof

any individual gaseous component

Where is the concentration of the i-th component expressed inppm.

Dalton's law is not exactly followed by real gases. Those deviations are

considerably large at high pressures. In such conditions, the volume occupied by

the molecules can become significant compared to the free space between them. In

particular, the short average distances between molecules raise the intensity

ofintermolecular forcesbetween gas molecules enough to substantially change the

pressure exerted by them. Neither of those effects are considered by the ideal gas

model.

Ideal gas law

An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or molecules are

perfectly elastic and in which there are no intermolecular attractive forces. One can

visualize it as a collection of perfectly hard spheres which collide but which otherwise

do not interact with each other. In such a gas, all theinternal energyis in the form of
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kinetic energy and any change in internal energy is accompanied by a change

intemperature.

An ideal gas can be characterized by threestate variables: absolute pressure (P),

volume (V), and absolute temperature (T). The relationship between them may be

deduced fromkinetic theoryand is called the

n = number ofmoles

R = universal gas constant = 8.3145 J/mol K

N = number of molecules

k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38066 x 10-23 J/K = 8.617385 x 10-5 eV/K

k = R/NA NA = Avogadro's number = 6.0221 x 10

23 /mol

The ideal gas law can be viewed as arising from thekinetic pressureof gas molecules

colliding with the walls of a container in accordance with Newton's laws. But there is

also a statistical element in the determination of the average kinetic energy of those

molecules. The temperature is taken to be proportional to this average kinetic energy;

this invokes the idea ofkinetic temperature. One mole of an ideal gas atSTPoccupies

22.4 liters.

Combined Gas Law:

The pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other, but directly

proportional to the temperature of that gas.

Mathematically, this can be represented as:

Temperature = Volume x Pressure / Constant

or

Volume = Constant x Temperature / Pressureor

Pressure = Constant x Temperature / Volume

or

Pressure x Volume/Temperature = Constant

Substituting in variables, the formula is:
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PV/T=K

Because the formula is equal to a constant, it is possible to solve for a change in

volume, temperature, or pressure using a proportion:

PV/T = P1V1/T1

Atomic structures

The text provides a historical perspective of how the internal structure

of the atom was discovered. It is certainly one of the most important

scientific discoveries of this century, and I recommend that you read

through it. However, we will begin our discussion of the atom from the

modern day perspective.

All atoms are made from three subatomic particles

Protons, neutron & electrons.These particles have the following properties:

Particle Charge Mass (g) Mass (amu)

Proton +1 1.6727 x 10-24 g 1.007316

Neutron 0 1.6750 x 10-24 g 1.008701

Electron -1 9.110 x 10-28 g 0.000549

History of the development of the atomictheory

The earliest Greek philosophers thought that all the different things in the world were

made out of a single basic substance. Some thought that water was the fundamental

substance and that all other substances were derived from it. Others thought


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that air was the basic substance; still others favored fire. But neither water, nor air nor

fire was satisfactory. No one substance seemed to have enough different properties to

give rise to the enormous variety of substances in the world. According to another

view introduced by Empedocles around 450 B.C., there were four basic types of

matter- earth, air, fire, and water. All material things were made out of them. He

proposed that these four basic materials could mingle and separate and reunite indifferent proportions. By doing so they could produce the vast variety of familiar

objects around us as well as explain the changes in those objects. But the basic four

materials, called elements, were supposed to persist through all these changes. This

theory was the first appearance of a model of matterexplaining all material things as

just different arrangements of a few elements.

The first atomic theory of matter was introduced by the Greek

philosopherLeucippus, born about 500 B.C. and his pupil Democritus. Only

scattered fragments of the writings of these two philosophers remain. But their ideas

were discussed in considerable detail by the Greek

philosophers Aristotle and Epicurus, and later by the Latin poet Lucretius. To these

men we owe most of our knowledge of ancient atomism. The theory of the atomists

was based on the following assumptions:

1. Matter is eternal - no material thing can come from nothing, nor can anymaterial thing pass into nothing.

2. Material things consist of very small indivisible particles. The word atommeant "uncut table" in Greek.

3. Atoms differ chiefly in theirsizes and shapes.4. Atoms exist in otherwise empty space (the void) which separates them, and

this space allows them to move from one place to another.

5. Atoms are continually in motion, although the nature and cause of the motionare not clear.

6. In the course of their motions atoms come together and formcombinations which are the material substances we know. When the atoms

forming these combinations separate, the substances decay or break up. Thus,

the combinations and separations of atoms give rise to the changes which

take place in the world.

7. The combinations and separations take place according to natural laws whichare not yet clear, but do not require the action of gods or demons or othersupernatural powers. In fact, one of the chief aims of the atomists was to

liberate people from superstition and fear. With these assumptions, the ancient

atomists worked out a consistent story of change, which they sometimes

called "coming-to-be" and "passing away". They could not demonstrate


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experimentally that their theory was correct - it was simply an explanation

derived from assumptions that seemed reasonable to them.

The atomic theory was severely criticized by Aristotle. He argued logically - from his

own assumptions - that no vacuum or void could exist. Therefore, the idea of atoms in

continual motion must be rejected. He was also probably aware of the fact that in his

time belief in atomism was identified with atheism as it stated that gods were

unnecessary - not a very healthy view in 450 B.C

Daltons atomic theory.

Democritus first suggested the existence of the atom but it took almost two

millennia before the atom was placed on a solid foothold as a fundamental chemical

object by John Dalton (1766-1844). Although two centuries old, Dalton's atomic

theory remains valid in modern

Dalton's Atomic Theory

1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and

indestructible.

2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass andproperties

3) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more

different kinds of atoms.

4) A chemical reaction is arrangementof atoms.

Modern atomic theory is, of course, a little more involved than Dalton's theory but the

essence of Dalton's theory remains valid. Today we know that atoms can be destroyed

via nuclear reactions but not by chemical reactions. Also, there are different kinds ofatoms (differing by their masses) within an element that is known as "isotopes", but

isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties.

Chemical thought.


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Modern atomic theory

In 1808 an English schoolteacher proposed the following explanation ofmatter. Since then we have learned more about the atom and now

have a slightly different theory.

All matter is composed of extremely small particles called

atoms.

Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass and other

properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass and

other properties.

Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.

Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number

ratios.

in chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or

rearranged.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons; the

different possible versions of each element are called isotopes. For example,

the most common isotope of hydrogen has no neutrons at all; there's also a

hydrogen isotope called deuterium, with one neutron, and another, tritium,

with two neutrons.

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium


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If you want to refer to a certain isotope, you write itlike this:AXZ. Here X is the

chemical symbol for the element, Z is theatomic number, and A is the number of

neutrons and protons combined, called the mass number. For instance, ordinary

hydrogen is written 1H1, deuterium is2H1, and tritium is

3H1.

Alkaline earth metals (uses)

, alkaline earth metals any of the sixchemical elementsthat comprise Group 2

(IIa) of theperiodictable. The elementsareberyllium(Be),magnesium(Mg),calcium(Ca),strontium(Sr),barium(Ba),andradium(Ra).

Occurrence, properties, and uses

Prior to the 19th century, substances that were nonmetallic, insoluble inwater, and unchanged byfire were known as earths. Those earths, such as lime (calcium oxide), that resembled

thealkalies(soda ash andpotash) were designated alkaline earths. Alkaline earths were thus

distinguished from the alkalies and from other earths, such asaluminaand therare earths. By the

early 1800s it ... (100 of 3,073 words)

Boron group (uses)

The boron group is theseriesofelementsingroup 13(IUPACstyle) in theperiodic

table. The boron group consists

ofboron(B),aluminium(Al),gallium(Ga),indium(In),thallium(Tl),

andununtrium(Uut).

Uses of boron

1) used as a deoxidizer in casting of copper

2) used as control rods in atomic reactors3) catalytic agent

Uses of compounds of boron

1) Borax

stiffening of candles

making optical and borosilicate glasses
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in water softening

as a flux

in qualitative analysis

2) orthoboric acid

in glass industryfood preservative

eye wash and antiseptic

3) diborane

reducing agent

catalyst in polymerization reactions

Carbon group

The carbon group is aperiodic table groupconsisting

ofcarbon(C),silicon(Si),germanium(Ge),tin(Sn),lead(Pb), andflerovium(Fl).

In modernIUPACnotation, it is called Group 14. In the field ofsemiconductor physics, it is still

universally called Group IV. The group was once also known as the tetrels (from Greek tetra,

four), stemming from the Roman numeral IV in the group names, or (not coincidentally) from the

fact that these elements have fourvalence electrons(see below). The group is sometimes also

referred to as tetragens orcrystallogens.

Carbon uses

Heat resistant devices, tools and metal cutters have carbon built in. The metal is also

used in cooling systems and machinery. Carbon monoxide is employed as a reduction

agent. This is necessary to get compounds and other elements.

As carbon dioxide, it can be found in dry ice, fire extinguishers, carbonated and fizzy

drinks. Vegetal carbon is sometimes used as a gas absorbent or bleaching agent. The
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same element is utilized as a decorative tool for jewelry. Many inkjet printers employ

carbon as ink base. It is applied as a black fume pigment in car rims.

Nitrogen group

The pnictogens[1]/nktdnz/are thechemical elementsingroup 15of theperiodic table.

This group is also known as the nitrogen family. It consists of the

elementsnitrogen(N),phosphorus(P),arsenic(As),antimony(Sb),bismuth(Bi) and

thesynthetic elementununpentium(Uup) (unconfirmed).

In modernIUPACnotation, it is called Group 15. InCASand the old IUPAC systems it was

called Group VA and Group VB, respectively (pronounced "group five A" and "group five B", "V"

for theRoman numeral5).[2]In the field ofsemiconductor physics, it is still usually called Group

V.[3]The "five" ("V") in the historical names comes from the "pentavalency" of nitrogen, reflected

by thestoichiometryof compounds such as N2O5.

Chalcogen group

The chalcogens(/klkdnz/) are thechemical elementsingroup16 of theperiodic table.

This group is also known as the oxygen family orgroup 16. It consists of theelementsoxygen(O),sulfur(S),selenium(Se),tellurium(Te), and theradioactiveelement

polonium (Po). Thesynthetic elementlivermorium(Lv) is predicted to be a chalcogen as

well.[1]The word chalcogen is derived from a combination of the Greek word khalks()

principally meaningcopper(the term was also used forbronze/brass, any metal in the poetic

sense,oreorcoin),[2][3]and the Latinized Greek word genes, meaning born orproduced.[4][

Halogen group

The halogens orhalogen elements(/hldn/) are agroupin the table consisting of five

chemically relatedelements,fluorine(F),chlorine(Cl),bromine(Br),iodine(I), andastatine(At).

The artificially created element 117 (ununseptium) may also be a halogen. In the

modernIUPACnomenclature, this group is known as group 17.
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inhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-Chalco--2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-Chalco--2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-Chalco--2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brominehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brominehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brominehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ununseptiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ununseptiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ununseptiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ununseptiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brominehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-Chalco--2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-Chalco--2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen#cite_note-ReferenceB-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livermoriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telluriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_tablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pnictogen#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pnictogen#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_numeralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_Abstracts_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_tablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pnictogen#cite_note-1


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The group of halogens is the onlyperiodic table groupwhich contains elements in all three

familiarstates of matteratstandard temperature and pressure. All of the halogens form acids

when bonded to hydrogen. Most halogens are typically produced frommineralsof salts. The

middle halogens, that is, chlorine, bromine and iodine, are often used as disinfectants. The

halogens are also all toxic.

Noble gasThe noble gases make a group ofchemical elementswith similar properties: under standard,

they are all odorless, colorless,monatomicgases with very low chemical. The six noble gases

that occur naturally arehelium (He),neon (Ne),argon (Ar),krypton (Kr),xenon (Xe), and the

radioactiveradon (Rn).

For the first six periods of the periodic table, the noble gases are exactly the members of

group 18 of theperiodic table. It is possible that due torelativistic effects, thegroup

14elementfleroviumexhibits some noble-gas-like properties,[1]instead of the group 18

elementununoctium.[2]

The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories ofatomic structure:

theirouter shellofvalence electronsis considered to be "full", giving them little tendency to

participate in chemical reactions, and it has been possible to prepare only a few hundrednoble

gas compounds. Themeltingandboiling pointsfor a given noble gas are close together,

differing by less than 10 C (18 F); that is, they are liquids over only a small temperature range.

Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained fromairin anair separationunit using the

methods ofliquefaction of gasesandfractional distillation. Helium is sourced fromnatural gas

fieldswhich have high concentrations of helium in thenatural gas, usingcryogenicgas

separationtechniques, and radon is usually isolated from theradioactive decayof dissolved

radium compounds. Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as

lighting, welding, and space exploration. A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deep-

sea divers at depths of seawater over 55 m (180 ft) to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen,

the lethal effect of high-pressure oxygen, andnitrogen narcosis, the distracting narcotic effect of

the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold. After the risks caused by the

flammability ofhydrogenbecame apparent, it was replaced with helium inblimpsandballoons.
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Early transition metal

Early transition metals are does starting at the beginning of the transition metals (i.e. Sc)

and going through about d5 which would be Mn. These metals are less electron rich ascompared to the so-called "late" transition metals and the chemistry of each is somewhat

different and definitely unique. Hardness and softness of the each of these groups changes

(see Hard Soft Acid Base Theory) as does the stable oxidation states and coordination

numbers.

Late transition metal

A transition metal carbine complex is a organ metallic compound featuring a divalent organic

ligand. The divalent organic ligand coordinated to the metal center is called a carbine. All

transition metals form such complexes. Many methods for synthesizing them and reactions

utilizing them have been reported. The term carbene ligand is formalism since many are not

derived from carbenes and almost none exhibit the reactivity characteristic of carbenes.

Described often as M=CR2, they represent a class of organic ligands intermediate between

alkyls (-CR3) and carbynes (CR). They feature in many catalytic reactions in the petrochemical

industry and are of increasing interest in fine chemicals.

The characterization of (CO) 5Cr (COCH3 (Ph)) in the 1960's is often cited as the starting point

of the area,[1] although carbenoid ligands had been previously implicated.

Lanthanides & Actinides

Thelanthanideandactinideseries make up the inner transition metals.They belong between groups 2 and 3 of the transition metals.

The lanthanide series includes elements 58 to 71, which fill their 4f sublevel

progressively. The actinides are elements 90 to 103 and fill their 5f sublevelprogressively.

Actinide series are typical metals and have properties of both the d blockand the f block elements, but they are also radioactive. Lanthanides havedifferent chemistry from transition metals because their 4f orbitals areshielded from theatom's environment.
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TERMS

lanthanide

Any of the 14 rare earth elements from cerium (or from lanthanum) tolutetium in the periodic table. Because their outermost orbitals are empty,they have very similar chemistry. Below them are the actinides.

lanthanide contraction

The progressive decrease in the radii of atoms of the lanthanide elements asthe atomic increases; evident in various physical properties of the elementsand their compounds

actinide

Any of the 14 radioactive elements of the periodic table that are positionedunder the lanthanides, with which they share similar chemistry

EXAMPLES

Atomic bombs charged with plutonium (actinoid) were used in World WarII (Figure 1). Plutonium was a power source for Voyager spacecraftslaunched in 1977 and is also used in artificial heart pacemakers.

Atomic Bomb Explosion

Plutonium charge was used in the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki.
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