College Record (Theses).doc

8/10/2019 College Record (Theses).doc

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO.

I INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Aim and objective 4

1.2 Location of the study area 4

1.3 River and water body 5

1.4 Methodoloy 5

II GEOLOGY !

2.1 "ntroduction !

2.2. #eoloical setu$ of south "ndia !

2.2.1 %harnoc&ite '

2.2.2 #ranitic neisses 1(

2.2.3 #ranulites 1(

2.3 #eomor$holoy 12

2.3.1 "ntroduction 12

2.3.2 Landforms 12

2.3.2.1 )ediments 13

2.3.2.2 *tructural hills 15

2.3.2.3 Residual hills 15

2.4. *tructural #eoloy 15

2.4.1 "ntroduction 15

2.4.2 Lineaments in the study area 1+


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III HYDROGEOLOGY 1,

3.1 "ntroduction 1,

3.2 -rainae 1,

3.3 *oil and %ro$s 21

IV HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY 22

4.1 "ntroduction 22

4.2 #round water sam$lin techniues 25

4.3.1 /ydro ion concentration 3(

4.3.2 0ater uality ma$s 43

4.3.2.1 -istribution of calcium 43

4.3.2.2 -istribution of manesium 4+

4.3.2.3 -istribution of sodium 4+

4.3.2.4 -istribution of $otassium 4+

4.3.2.5 -istribution of bicarbonate 4+

4.3.2.+ -istribution of chloride 54

4.3.2.! -istribution of sul$hate 54

V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION +1

"L"#RA)/ +2


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CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO.

I 1.1 ase ma$ +

"" 2.1 #eoloy ma$ 11

2.2 #eomor$holoy ma$ 14

2.3 Lineament 1!

III 3.1 -rainae ma$ 2(

3.2 *oil ma$ 22

IV 4.1 Location ma$ 32

4.2 -istribution ma$ of $/ 35

4.4 -istribution ma$ of c 3,

4.+ -istribution ma$ of %alcium 3'

4., -istribution ma$ of Manesium 4!

4.1( -istribution ma$ of *odium 4'

4.12 -istribution ma$ of $otassium 51

4.14 -istribution ma$ of icarbonate 53

4.1+ -istribution ma$ of %hloride 55

4.1, -istribution ma$ of *ul$hate 5!


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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO.

1 *tratira$hic succession ,

2 0ater sam$le Analyses of

adayam$atty bloc& $remonsoon 2+

3 0ater sam$le Analyses of

adayam$atty bloc& $ostmonsoon 2!


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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

0ater is a $recious natural resource6 without which there would be no life

on arth. 0e6 ourselves6 are com$osed of two7thirds water by body weih. ur

everyday lives de$end on the availability of ine8$ensive6 clean water and safe

ways to dis$ose of it after use. 0ater su$$lies are also essential in su$$ortin food

$roduction and industrial activity. As a source of water6 roundwater obtained

from beneath the arth9s surface is often chea$er6 more convenient and less

vulnerable to $ollution than surface water.

#roundwater6 because it is unnoticed underround6 is often unac&nowleded and

undervalued resultin in adverse environmental6 economic and social

conseuences. :he over7e8$loitation of roundwater by uncontrolled $um$in can

cause detrimental effects on neihbourin boreholes and wells6 land subsidence6

saline water intrusion and the dryin out of surface waters and wetlands. 0ithout

$ro$er consideration for roundwater resources6 roundwater $ollution from

uncontrolled uses of chemicals and the careless dis$osal of wastes on land cause

serious im$acts reuirin difficult and e8$ensive remediation over lon $eriods of

time. Major sources of contamination include arochemicals6 industrial and

munici$al wastes6 tailins and $rocess waster water from mines6 oil field brine

$its6 lea&in underround storae tan&s and $i$elines6 and sewae slude and

se$tic systems.

1


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THE WATER CYCLE

A useful start in $romotin a holistic a$$roach to lin&in round surface

waters is to ado$t the hydroloical cycle6 can be thouht of as the continuous

circulation of water near the surface of the arth from the ocean to the atmos$here

and then via $reci$itation6 surface runoff and roundwater flow6 bac& to the ocean.

0armin of the ocean by solar radiation causes water to be eva$orated into the

atmos$here and trans$orted by winds to the land masses where the va$our

condenses and falls as $reci$itation. :he $reci$itation is either returned directly to

the ocean6 interce$ted by veetated surfaces and returned to the atmos$here by

eva$otrans$iration6 collected to form surface runoff6 or6 infiltrated into the soil and

underlyin roc&s to form roundwater. :he surface runoff and roundwater flow

contribute to surface streams and rivers that flow to the ocean6 with $ools and

la&es $rovidin tem$orary surface storae.

f the total water in the lobal cycle6 that saline water in the oceans

accounts for '!.25;. Land masses and the atmos$here therefore contain 2.!5;.

"ce ca$s and laciers hold 2.(5;. #roundwater to a de$th of 4 m accounts for

(.+,;6 freshwater la&es (.(1;6 soil moisture (.((5; and rivers (.(((1;. About

!5; of the water in land areas is loc&ed in lacial ice or is saline. :he relative

im$ortance of roundwater can be reali


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0ater can enter the atmos$here by eva$oration6 trans$iration6 or

sublimation. va$oration occurs as liuid water becomes a as= the water can

come from anythin on the surface6 such as $lants6 soil6 rivers6 la&es6 and oceans.

:rans$iration is the $rocess by which water is released from reen $lants into the

atmos$here. "n many cases it is very difficult to distinuish eva$oration from

trans$iration= eva$otrans$iration refers to the combination of the two. *ublimation

is the $rocess of a solid turnin directly into a as= snow and ice chanin into

va$or is only a minor $art of water enterin the atmos$here. 0ater chanes from a

as into a liuid by condensation and returns to the arth $rimarily in the form of

$reci$itation >snow and rain?. Many different thins can ha$$en to $reci$itation @

in some cases it does not even reach the round. "t can eva$orate before hittin

anythin6 or can be interce$ted by veetation. 0hen water reaches the round6 it

can infiltrate into the round6 be stored on the surface6 or travel on. :he surface

until it aninfiltrate or be stored. #roundwater travels throuh roc& and sediment

by $ercolation. "t moves by ravity and $ressure until the water table intersects the

round surface. 0ater can then be dischared at s$rins or any other body of

surface water. nce returned to the surface6 this water can be used by $lants6

stored on the surface6 or eva$orated.

IMPORTANCE OF THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE FOR GROUNDWATER

"nfiltration su$$lies auifers with a continual source of water to re$lace

that $um$ed from wells and dischared naturally >such as at s$rins?. -urin

infiltration water can $ic& u$ acids in the soil that can subseuently e8$and the

$ore s$ace in auifers6 sometimes creatin caves. Lare areas of im$ervious

cover6 such as $ar&in lots6 do not allow infiltration. /ih volumes of rain over a

short $eriod of time also reduce the amount of water infiltratin= slow rainfall best

rechares roundwater.

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"nfiltration and $ercolation are usually slow $rocesses reuirin water to

move throuh a tiht ma


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$art of *alem -istrict. "t lies between the latitudes 11( 459 to 12o 4(9 and

lonitudes !,o to !,o159 of :o$osheet o.5, "C1 scale 1D5(6((( $ublished by

*urvey of "ndia in 1'!3 is iven in Fig.I.1.

1.3. RIVERS AND WATER BODIES

*alem -istrict is mar&ed by isolated hills. River li&e cauvery6 *arabana6

:hirumanimuthar6 *wetha and Easista are the im$ortant rivers drainin in this

district. :he %auvery is the only $erennial river *arabana6 :hirumanimuthar6

*wetha and Easista are the tributaries of the %auvery.

1.4. METHODOLOGY

:he *urvey of "ndia to$ora$hic ma$s and other base line information are

formin the basic source for the study. :he different thematic ma$s li&e eoloy6

eomor$holoy6 structures6 lineament6 and drainae ma$s are collected from

various aencies. 0ater sam$les we collected durin $re monsoon 2(12 and $ost

monsoon of 2(136 the study $eriod. :he cation anion distribution ma$s where

$re$ared by usin #"* :echniues.

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CHAPTER II

GEOLOGY

2.1. INTRODUCTION

/olland >1'((? first re$orted on the hy$ersthene ranite from *hevaroys

in *alem -istrict and later a similar roc& near Madras6 he made a detailed study on

the hy$ersthene ranite of Madras. :he ercaud hills >$art of *hevaroys? are $arts

of the astern #hates. :he ercaud were considered to be made u$ of

intermediate charnoc&ite massifs. aidu>1'+3? is of the view that iliris6

*hevaroys and )alani hills are neissic folded bloc&s of a ormer eosyncline and

are not charnoc&itic massifs.

:he three rou$s or su$errou$s reconicom$arable to *arur? and

3. arur su$errou$ >com$arable to -harwar?

:here is no any distinct contact amon these su$errou$s and the contacts are

mostly areas of mimatisation.

Recently isoto$ic datin of several roc&s from )eninsular "ndia es$ecially

in the study area to be as youn as !5( m.y.

2.2 GEOLOGICAL SET UP OF SOUTH INDIA

:he hih rade terrain of :amil adu re$resents an im$ortant

metamor$hic $rovince in the world6 wherein dee$er sements of the crust are

e8$osed6 and is dominated by am$hibolite and ranulite facies roc&s. "t is

essentially a )recambrian terrainm which covers over ,(; of the landmass.

)hanero


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Meso


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2.2. PROTERO0OIC SEUENCE

2.2.1. CHARNOCITE

:he name charnoc&ite refers to an ortho$yro8ene bearin ranite commonly foundin ranualite facies terrain. /ih $ressure tem$erature condition is essential for

the formation of charnoc&ites of ineous oriin by mamatic differentiatin and in

com$osition ranin from acid to ultra basic roc&s.

Eerdenber >1'1'? correlated the charnoc&ite series and &hondalite series to

the -harwar system of arnata&a. Accordin to him6 charnoc&ite and &nondalite

re$resented intensely metamor$hosed facies of -harwar system.

/owie >1'55? on the basis of studies on the eochemistry near %hennai e8$ressed

the view that the roc& re$resented calc7al&aline $lutonic ineous roc&s that has

recrystalli1'+'?6 the charnoc&ite are rou$ed into four ty$es as

followsD

i. Acid micro$erthitic charnoc&ite ii. "ntermediate nessic charnoc&ite iii.

asic nortic charnoc&ite >)yro8ene ranulite? and iv. Fltrabasic charnoc&ite. Acid

micro$erthitic charnoc&ite occurs as conformable lenses and bands of different

dimensions within arnetiferous neiss and mimatites. :he intermediate neissic

charnoc&ite is the most $revalent and it is banded and foliated. Alternatin bands

of liht coloured micro$erthitic charnoc&ite and layers of $yro8ene ranualite are

seen in sheet li&e form.

:he formation of charnoc&ite6 are in the dee$ tectonic levels influence of

stu$endeous $ressure and tem$erature of roc&s may will be ductile. "n such

environment6 the line of division between ineous and metamor$hic may be will

be narrowed down. :he ductile mass may be mar&ed by reuisite mobility to form

intrusive features6 characteristics of ineous roc&s.

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%harnoc&ites of :amil adu has been classified into the massive Hhihland ty$eI

of the first eneration charnoc&ites and another Hlow landI or Hinci$ient ty$eI.

:he charnoc&ite of the study area is fine6 medium to coarse rained.

*$hene6 a$alite6


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2.3 GEOMORPHOLOGY

2.3.1. INTRODUCTION

:he eomor$holoy is the study of landforms and surface features. :heinvestiation reardin mountain6 $lateaus6 $lains6 valley and basins and their

association with landform and its develo$ment and dis$osition are comin under

the domain of eomor$holoy.

:he im$ortant features overnin the land form are develo$ment6 and its

resistance to erosion and the underlyin roc&s6 climate and veetative cover. :he

mor$hometry and the measurement of land form are useful in evaluatin drainae

basin $arameters which is in turn useful in understandin roundwater interaction.

:he roundwater rechare and runoff due to $reci$itation is controlled by

eomor$hic features. :he occurrence and movement and uality of roundwater

are also controlled by eoloic formations. :he landforms are de$endin u$on the

followin features.

1? %limate settin includin its variation in the $ast. 2? Fnderlyin bed roc& and

3? :ime s$an involved.

0ith the hel$ of aerial $hotora$h and landsat imaery6 the terrain

$arameters are $redicted and they are land form structure6 drainae6 landuse and

land cover etc.

2.3.2. LAND FORMS

:he $resent day landforms and irreulara outline are different of

eomor$hic $rocess. :he rate of de$osition and erosion is never bein uniform

and causin uneven outcro$$in limits. y careful analysis of various outcro$

$atterns with the hel$ of aerial $hotora$hs and lands at imaeries6

the characteristic land form is reconi


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landforms $resent in the study area. Alluvial $lain6 ajada6 %ollovial $lain6 -ee$

$ediment /ill6 )edi$lain and *tructural /ill.

2.3.2.1. PEDIMENTS

"n many arid and semi7arid reions lon6 smooth roc&s cut $lains e8tend

out varyin distances u$ to several miles from mountain fronts. :hese $lains are

H)edimentI. :he $ediments are $lains of deradation. A $ediment may or may

not have an alluvial veneer over it6 but it is basically bed a roc& surface. Althouh

some may have develo$ed across oldest alluvial de$osits.

)ediments may have a thin veneer of ravel over them adjacent to the

mountain of this may be etchin away from the mountains thus become Hconcealed

sedimentsI. ven where concealed a $ediment is believed to be most ty$ically a

conve8 roc& surface which $lunes beneath the bajada that observes it. "ndividual

$ediments at the $oint where mountain valleys dischare into a $ediment slo$e

may e8$and to form Hcoalescin $edimentsI6 which may in time $ractically

consume a mountain mass. *ome $ediments e8hibit a considerable deree ofdissertion and are reard to as Hdissected $edimentsI.

"n many cases $ediments re$resent the recession of mountain fronts due to

weatherin and stream erosion. Accordin to some views as reion attain reater

to$ora$hic ae6 the width of $ediments increases mountain wards it follows then

that ultimately either isolated mountains ranes may be so thorouhly worn away

or $ediments will cover at the to$ of the eroded mountain.

:he $ediment is located as intermediate landform between inselbere and

shallow $ediments. :he roundwater condition in $ediments is e8$ected to vary

de$endin u$on the ty$e of underlyin folded structures6 fracture systems and

dderee of weatherin. #roundwater $ros$ectin in $ediments can be considered

as normal to $oor >*an&ar6 2((2?6 but $resence of any lineaments or fractures can

$rovide some sco$e for movement of roundwater and hence the $ros$ectin for

13


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roundwater e8$loration. -u wells located in shallow buried $ediments have

shallow water table as com$ared to those in dee$ buried $ediments.

2.3.2.2. STRUCTURAL HILLS

:hese are acts as main water divide as initial unit of the watershed with

numerous drainaes oriinatin from them. :hey are linear to arcuate hill features

showin definite trend in their formation. :he major roc& ty$e of these areas are

hornblende7biotite neisses. %hances of occurrence of roundwater de$end on the

eoloical structures in this area6 althouh a reion with structural hills is normally

considered as $oor source of roundwater.

2.3.2.3. RESIDUAL HILL

:he term refers to a residual hill raisin above an erosion surface thouht

to be a $ediment or $edi$lain. :hese stee$ sided are most $rominent features of

island mountain landsca$e made famous form for ornhard6 $assae and others.

"n the beinnin6 this term has indiscriminately a$$lied for the term inselbere to

any hill reardless of its oriin. 0ills >1'3+? attem$ted to clarify.

2.4. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

2.4.1. INTRODUCTION

:o assess the roundwater movement in a hard roc& terrain6 the structure

of the hard roc& terrain of the study area in detail becomes a necessity. :he

roundwater in a hard roc& terrain and that too hihly metamor$hosed6 can move

only alon structural discontinuities li&e roc& cleavae6 $artitions6 joints6 faults and

unconformities etc.

Earious ma$s were $re$ared from the field data6 aerial $hotora$hs and

satellite imaeries6 which show the reional rain6 fold $attern and the sinatures

of major and minor shears that develo$ in res$onse to the forces o$eratin in the

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reion. *hear


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CHAPTER III

HYDROGEOLOGY

3.1. INTRODUCTION

H/%+g#+"+g>hydro7meanin water6 and @ eoloy meanin the study

of the arth? is the area of eoloy that deals with the distribution and movement

of roundwater in the soil and roc&s of the arth9s crust6 >commonly in auifers?.

:he term g#+'/%+"+g is often used interchaneably. *ome ma&e the minor

distinction between a hydroloist or enineer a$$lyin themselves to eoloy

>eohydroloy?6 and a eoloist a$$lyin themselves to hydroloy >hydroeoloy?.

/ydroeoloy >li&e most earth sciences? is an interdisci$linary subject= it

can be difficult to account fully for the chemical6 $hysical6 bioloical and even

leal interactions between soil6 water6 nature and society. :he study of the

interaction between roundwater movement and eoloy can be uite com$le8.

#roundwater does not always flow in the subsurface down7hill followin the

surface to$ora$hy= roundwater follows $ressure radients >flow from hih

$ressure radient to low? often followin fractures and conduits in circuitous $aths.

:a&in into account the inter$lay of the different facets of a multi7com$onent

system often reuires &nowlede in several diverse fields at both the e8$erimental

and theoretical levels. :his bein said6 the followin is a more traditional

>reductionist view$oint? introduction to the methods and nomenclature of saturated

subsurface hydroloy6 or sim$ly hydroeoloy.

3.2 DRAINAGE

:he drainae $attern in the basin shows both radial and dentritic

$attern. Most of them are either circular or oval. :o$ora$hically hih areas are

1,


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drained by streams which radiate outward from the central $art and flow down the

flan&s in all the directions.

:he drainae $attern of the study area is shown in Fig.3.16 0e can

observe that all over the reion6 the streams were erodin headword alon the

shear


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3.2 SOIL AND CROPS

0eatherin of roc&s led to formation of four ty$es of soil. :hey are red

soil6 brown soil and red colluvial soil.

Red soil >non calcareous? covers ma8imum area in this reion. :he soil

ma$ of the study area is shown in Fig.3.2:hic&ness of the soil cover in the study

area varies from 1.2m to 4.5 m.

:he area is mainly covered by red soil blac& cotton soil and blac& soil to

the minor e8tent. :he total area covered by ariculture is !2; and the forestland

is 11;. At the time of normal seasons both wet and dry cro$s are cultivated. :he

wet cro$ is cultivated mainly with the hel$ of du cum bore wells and bore wells.

:he most common trees found in the area are eem >Aasria6 L

atfifolia6 anyan >Gicuss enalenis?6 Murunai >Marinae #lerifera?6

Aathi >Aathi #round Glora?6 >Mananifera "ndica?6 *il& %otton >rodendron

)entantdum?. ther than these6 trees li&e ucoly$tus6 )unam6 amboo and

abool are noticed.

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CHAPTER IV

HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY

4.1. INTRODUCTIONH0ater is the eli8ir of life. 0ithout it life is not $ossibleI. 0ater is a

natural resource for e8cellence6 while soil is womb of all life on earth. :he

millions of s$ecies of $lants6 cro$s and trees $rovidin food and fodder for billions

of livin creatures and the sun and the life iver water is catalyst for the sustained

of life on this earth. %ivili


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limitations in the su$$ly on the other hand made it absolutely necessary to $ay

closer attention to all as$ects of water resources. Assessin and $lannin and

manain water source for sustainable use become our im$ortant issue es$ecially

in water scarcity reion.

At $resent only one fifth on all water used in the world is obtained from

round water resources. Ariculture is the reatest user of water accountin for

,(; of all consum$tion. Animal husbandry and fisheries all reuire abundant

water. *ome 15; of the world9s cro$land is irriated. :he $resent irriated land

in "ndia consumes 4(; of roundwater.

About two thirds of land in our country com$rises of consolidated

formation6 5; $ercent bein made u$ of crystalline roc&s and consolidated

sediments and the remainin twenty five $ercent of tra$. :he remainin one third

of the land area com$rises of semi7consolidated and unconsolidated formations

li&e alluvial tracts.

ur country in fortunately enclosed with ood river wealth. 0e have 14

major rivers drainin more than 2(((( s.&m. ach6 44 medium rivers in the

cateory drainin between 2((( and 2(((( s.&m and several minor rivers

drainin less than 2((( s.&m. ,3; $ercent of eora$hical area is within the

catchments drained by the major rivers and about ,(; of the $o$ulation lives in

their basins.

River cauvery is one of the major rivers in the *outh and the only major

river :amil adu can boost of. %auvery is held sacred and shi$$ed in :amil adu6

as life ives and $rofusely mentioned in the scri$tures and literature.

:he surface water is now a days inadeuate to meet the various $ur$oses

and hence the round water is the only resource. :he sub7surface auifers are the

main and only source of fresh water in areas where there are no $erennial rivers.

:he occurrence and movement roundwater in an area is overned by several

23


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factors such as to$ora$hy6 litholoy6 eoloical structure6 de$th of weatherin6

e8tent of fractures6 slo$e6 drainae $attern6 land use and land cover6 climatic

condition and inter relationshi$ between these factors. Gor delineation of

$ros$ective


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hihly useful in roundwater e8$loration by identifyin and outlinin various

eomor$hometric units as direct and indirect indicators of $ros$ective round

water


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*.. Area )/ c %a M a %3 /%3 %l3 *4

1. anavai$udur !.+ 1.2 3.! 5.( 3.2 (.(5 7 +., 5.( (.2(

2. E.Manani&adu !., (.' 3.3 4.( 1.! (.(, 7 4.! 3.! (.+2

3. Eadaam$atty !.+ 2.1 !.( 11.3 2.+ (.15 7 '.5 1(.5 1.(4

4. ommiam$atty !.+ 1.+ 5.3 '.2 1.+ (.(5 7 !.' !.5 (.+2

5. Fmbilic&am$atty !.+ 1.5 5.2 '.1 1.5 (.(4 7 !., !.4 (.+1

+. adayam$atty ,.2 1.! 5.' ,.1 3.( (.(5 1.5 ,.2 +.2 1.(4

!. )anna$atty !.! 1.! 5.' '.( 2.1 (.(2 7 3.5 12.5 1.(3

,. Kodu&uli ,.( 2., '.3 1(.( ,.+ (.(2 1.( 13.( 12.5 1.5

'. %hinnathiru$athi !.4 2.' ,.( 14.4 +.5 (.12 ( 11.2 15.5 2.3

1(. *emmanda$atty !.! 3.( +.! ,.( 15.2 (.1( 7 1(.2 1!.5 2.3

2+

T!"# 4.2 W$#% *&"#* A,"*#* +- /&$$ !"+(5 P+*$+,*++, 2612

*.. Area )/ c %a M a %3 /%3 %l3 *4


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1. anavai$udur !.3 1.( 3.3 4., 3.( (.(! 7 +.5 4.! (.1,

2. E.Manani&adu !.5 (.! 3.1 3.! 1.2 (.(3 7 4.2 3.2( (.32

3. Eadaam$atty !.3 1., 4.( 1(.' 2.1 (.' 7 ,.' '.' 1.(1

4. ommiam$atty !.2 1.2 4.' ,.' 1.2 (.2 7 !.1 !.2 (.32

5. Fmbilic&am$atty !.3 1.2 4., ,.! 1.1 (.3 7 !.1 !.2 (.33

+. adayam$atty !.' 1.2 5.2 !., 2.' (.2 1.2 !., 5.' (.'

!. )anna$atty !.2 1.2 5.3 ,.5 1.' (.(1 7 2.' 11.' 1.(1

,. Kodu&uli !.! 2.2 ,.' '.+ ,.1 (.(1 (.' 12.5 11.' (.'

' %hinnathiru$athi !.1 2.5 !.5 13.' !.' (.! 7 1(.' 14.' 2.1

1(. *emmanda$atty !.2 2.5 +.2 !.5 14 (.! 7 '.' 1+.' 1.'

2!

4.3. CHEMICAL ANALYSES

A wide rane of analytical techniues are available for the detection and

uantification of metal s$ecies. :hese techniues can be classified into two main

rou$s6 namely6 s$ectrosco$ic and non7s$ectrosco$ic techniues. *$ectrosco$ic

techniues include the followinD

Atomic Absor$tion *$ectrosco$y >AA*?

"nductively %ou$led )lasma Atomic mission *$ectrosco$y >"%)7A*?


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J7Ray Gluorescence *$ectrosco$y >JRG?

"nductively %ou$led )lasma Mass *$ectrometry >"%)7M*?

eutron Activation Analysis >AA?

on7*$ectrosco$ic methods include6 but are not limited to6 the followinD

"on %hromatora$hy

:itrimetric and Eolumetric Methods

%olorimetric Analysis

#ravimetric Methods

*$ecific "on lectrode Methods

)olarora$hic :echniues.

*$ectrosco$ic techniues are based on the $remise that all elements

absorb and emit radiation at s$ecific and characteristic wavelenths6 and the ability

of a s$ectrometer to measure the absor$tion emission $roduced. :herefore6

elements can be identified by their characteristic radiation and uantified by the

s$ectrosco$ic techniue.

Analyses of metals by non7s$ectrosco$ic methods usually involves the

se$aration of the s$ecies of interest from their matri8 by basic chemical $rocedures

2,

and final uantification by ravimetric6 colorimetric6 conductivity6 volumetric or

other means.

Metal leachin into the environment is the $rinci$al concern of acidic

drainae. Metal analysis is one of the &ey $arameters in assessin the weatherin

characteristics of mine waste. Metal analyses of water sam$les are a$$licable forD

)redictin the uality of water that will contact mine waste= and


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-eterminin the water uality of runoff6 receivin surface water6 and

roundwater after it has contacted mine waste.

Metal analysis is only limited by selection of the a$$ro$riate analytical

method and $ro$er sam$lin and $re$aration.

:he most common method for analy"%)7A*? and is described in section 312( >*tandard Methods6

1'',?. "%)7A* is $articularly useful when the concentration of a lare number of

metals is reuired in sam$les. Another method of analysis is inductively cou$led

$lasma mass s$ectrometry >"%)7M*?. "%)7M* $rovides reater sensitivity for

most elements com$ared to "%)7A*= however6 the cost is substantially hiher and

total dissolved solids content must be &e$t low to avoid adverse instrument

$erformance.

*am$les may be analy$/!?. "n

al&aline >basic? conditions6 there are more /7ions than /ions >$/N!?. 0hen


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conditions are neutral6 the concentration of /and /7ions are eual >$/O !?. $/

is defined as @loP/Q6 where P/Q is defined as the /concentration. $/values are

on a scale from ( to 14. :his scale is based on the $roduct of the / and the /7

concentrations which is eual to 1(714 m26 the euilibrium constant6

DP/QP/7Q O 1(714 M2

M re$resents molarity which is molar concentration >moles of solute C liters

of solution?. 0here does that number 1(714 M2 come from anyway "t is based

on the theory of euilibrium and the enery reuired for reactions to ta&e $lace.

uilibrium is based on chemical reactions >such as the dissociation of /2?D

/2 7 N / /7

which are reversible and $roceed until the forward and bac&ward reactions

occur at the same rate. :he reaction is then said to be at chemical euilibrium6 and

no further chane in the concentration of $roducts and reactants occurs. At

euilibrium6 the chemical reaction reuires no enery to be maintained.

Movement away from euilibrium is nons$ontaneous= which means that an outside

enery source is reuired. :he actual numbers that are derived as euilibrium

constants >i.e. 1(714 M2 for the dissociation reaction of /2? oriinate from the

conce$t of the enery reuired for a reaction to $roceed de$endin on how far the

reaction is away from euilibrium.

3(Gor a more in de$th understandin of the relationshi$ between

euilibrium6 enery and the euations that the euilibrium constant6 6 is based on

"n a neutral solution6 P/Q O 1(7! M and P/7Q O 1(7! M6 and the $roduct is 1(714

M2 >1(7! M S 1(7! M?. "f enouh acid is added to a solution to increase P/Q to

1(75 M6 thenP/7Q will decline by an euivalent amount to 1(7' M >1(75 M S 1(7'

M O 1(714 M2?. 0henever we &now the concentration of either / or /7 a

solution6 we can deduce the concentration of the other ion.


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ecause the /and /7concentrations of solutions can vary by a factor

of 1(( trillion or more6 scientists develo$ed a way to e8$ress this variation more

conveniently6 by use of the $/scale6 which ranes from ( to 14. y ta&in the

neative lo of the P/

QD

$/O 7lo P/Q6

$/will always be between ( and 146 which ives an easier scale for

understandin the balance between /and /7ions in solution.

"t is im$ortant to remember that each $/ unit re$resents a tenfold

difference in /and /7concentrations. "t is this mathematical feature that ma&es

the $/scale so com$act. A solution of $/3 is not twice as acidic as a solution of

$/+6 but a thousand times more acidic. 0hen the $/of a solution chanes slihtly6

the actual concentrations of /and /7in solution chane substantially.

$/measurement is conducted usin a standard hydroen electrode and a

reference electrode in order to determine the activity >concentration? of the

hydroen ions by $otentiometric measurement. Modern electrodes combine the

reference and standard electrodes into one unit. :he electrode is calibrated over

the measurin rane usin certified standard buffers standardi


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hih in adayam$atty villae $remonsoon. :he $/ value is low in

%hinnathiru$athi villae durin $remonsoon. :he $/ value is low in

%hinnathiru$athi6 $anna$atty and ommiam$atty durin $remonsoon.

4.3.2. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE 7EC8

:he electrical conductance >%? of a solution is a measure of the ability of

a solution to conduct a current. "t is a $ro$erty attributable to the ions in solution

lectrical current is trans$orted throuh solutions via movement of ions6 and

conductivity increases as ion concentration increases. :he conductivity of a

solution is measured between two s$atially fi8ed inert electrodes of &nown surface

area. %onductance is directly $ro$ortional to the electrode surface area and

inversely $ro$ortional to the distance between the electrodes. "n the international

system of units6 conductivity is re$orted as decisiemens $er meter >d*Cm?.

%onductivity can be used for a variety of a$$lications at mine sites6 includinD

%om$arin with other water uality $arameters to show $otential ross errors inanalysis. Gor e8am$le6 an increase or decrease in conductance of a $articular

water source will result in a similar increase or decrease in other water uality

$arameters such as total dissolved solids6 sulfate6 and metals. "f this is not

observed6 analysis should be considered sus$ect and re$eated=

34

stimate the total dissolved solids in a sam$le by multi$lyin conductivity by an

em$irical factor determined from analysis.

%onductivity results iven alone are very limitin as they do not measure

individual contaminants nor the overall state of the water

%onductivity method descri$tion :he conductivity of a sam$le is

measured with a self7contained conductivity meter >0heatstone bride or

euivalent?. :he instrument must be standardi


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conductance before use. :he cell is washed with (.(1 M %1 followed by one to

two rinses with the sam$le $rior to measurement. :em$erature corrections are

made if the sam$le is not analy-:A? titration $rocedure is em$loyed alternatively for

calcium and %a M determination because of its s$eed and sim$licity. %alcium

contributes hardness in water. :he hihest concentrations are usually formed in

water that has been in contact with limestone6 dolomite or y$sum. *odium and

$otassium salts $resent in water to increase the solubility of calcium carbonate6

#ar >1'!,?. Manesium behaves in a very similar manner as calcium and the

common source of manesium in round water is form dolomite and dolomitic

limestone of sedimentary roc&= olivine6 biotite6 hornblende and auite of ineous

roc&s. "t enerally varies from (.5( $$m in natural water.

DETERMINATION OF SODIUM 7N8 ,/ POTASSIUM 78

Fsin standard stoc& solutions of (71(( $$m6 a wor&in curve is drawn

form the alvanometer readin when the res$ective solutions are automi1'++?. 0hen salt de$osits of eva$orate oriin are

$resent6 it leads to very hih concentration of sodium. *ometimes clay mineral


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releases lare to very hih concentration of sodium. :he concentration of sodium

is an im$ortant inde8 for sodium ha1'!(? observed that

waters $ercolatin throuh eva$orates contain hiher concentration of $otassium.

Anions are electro7neative ions and are usually acids. :he concentration

of anions includes :otal al&alinity6 *ul$hate6 %hloride6 itrate6 Gluoride6 oron

and *ilica. :he sinificance of the im$ortant anions is e8$lained in the followin

DETERMINATION OF TOTAL ALALINITY 7T+$" A"58

Al&alinity is the ca$acity of a system to neutraliacid? is added to the water source6

the /ions will chemically bond with the bases. Gor e8am$leD

/7 / 7777777N /2=

%37 /777777N /%3

7=

/%37 /777777N /2%3

it is shown here how the / ions chemically bond with the carbonate

minerals. 0hen the only carbonate mineral in solution is /2%36 all the al&alinity


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has been used u$ since there are no carbonate molecules left for the / ions to

chemically bond with.

0hen there are mostly basic carbonate molecules in solution >/% 37

6

%376 and /7?6 the $/is corres$ondinly basic >almost always N !?. "n contrast6 if

the carbonate molecules in solution are mostly /2%36 the $/ is corres$ondinly

acidic >!?. :he larer the concentration of basic molecules6 the more /ions that

can be added to the water source without the $/ dro$$in ra$idly to a low level. "f

more acid is added to the system than can chemically react with the basic

molecules6 all carbonate molecules will be in the form of /2%3and the $/will

dro$ to a very low level. :his is classically re$resented by acid mine drainae

with very low $/s O 2 or 3.

:he $resence of lare uantities of al&alinity in water sources that are

im$acted by minin is very im$ortant in $reventin hihly acidic conditions. "t is

uite common to add al&alinity to a water source to raise the $ /. Al&alinity is

commonly added in the solid form of calcium carbonate >%a%3?6 also &nown as

limestone. 0hen limestone dissolves in water6 the calcium carbonate molecule

dissociates and lare concentrations of %37are released into solution which will

chemically bond with /ions. 0hen all the /ions have chemically bonded with

41

the %37molecules6 %3

7 and /%37will accumulate in solution6 increasin the

al&alinity of the water source and also raisin the $/.

:he eneral method for measurin al&alinity is the $otentiometric titration

techniue. :his method involves continuously addin volumes of acid with a

certain concentration to a water sam$le until the $/of the water reaches a s$ecified

end$oint. :he total volume of acid reuired to dro$ the $/to a certain level is

called a titration. H)otentiometricI refers to the use of a $/meter to identify when

the desired $/ has been reached. :he amount of acid added is converted to


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euivalent m >%a%3C1 and re$orted alon with the titrated $/ end$oint. m

%A%3C1 is the common way to e8$ress the concentration of al&alinity.

SULPHATE 7SO48

*ulfate >*47? is a naturally occurrin ion and may be $resent in waters

over wide concentration rane. Acidic drainae may contribute lare amounts of

sulfate from o8idation of $yrite and other sulfide minerals. "ncreased levels of

sulfate are usually the first indication of acid eneration. *ulfate concentrations

can be measured by ion chromatora$hy6 colorimetry6 ravimetrically6 or

turbidimetrically usin either manual andCor automated $rocedures. :he main

limitation of sulfate occurs in the inter$retation of data. :he source of the sulfate

ion can be incorrectly attributed to acidic drainae6 when in fact it may be from

solubili


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used when sulfate levels are very hih. *ulfate can be determined colorimetrically

by the methylyhymol blue method. :his colorimetric $rocedure can only be

conducted on sam$les that are free of color and turbidity.

CHLORIDE 7CL8

As silver nitrate solution is titrated with chloride solution in $resence of %r 4only

momentary formation of real A2%r4occurs as lon as some chlorides $ersist in

the solution. 0hen the chloride in the solution is e8hausted by the $reci$itation of

A%l6 the red $reci$itate of silver chromate starts formin6 which indicates the

end$oint.

4.3.2. WATER UALITY MAPS

0ater uality of roundwater bodies in a reion can be studied by $lottin

the result of analysis of water sam$les on ma$s6 Line of eual concentration and

$lottin the values in the -urov $lot and :rilinear diaram.

4.3.2.1 DISTRIBUTION OF CALCIUM

:he distribution of calcium for $remonsoon iven in the Fig.4.9.

:he hih value in the location at Kodu&uli and the low value in the location at

43

anavai$udur. :he distribution of calcium for $ostmonsoon iven in the Gi.4.!.

:he hih value in the location at adayam$atty and the low value in the location at

)anna$atty6 *emmanda$atty.

4.3.2.2. DISTRIBUTION OF MAGNESIUM

:he distribution of manesium for $remonsoon iven in the Fig.4.:. :he

hih value in the location at %hinnathiru$athi. :he distribution of manesium for

$ostmonsoon iven in the Fig.4.;. :he hih value is in the location of%hinnathiru$athi and the low value are at adayam$atty.


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4.3.2.3. DISTRIBUTION OF SODIUM

:he distribution of sodium for $re monsoon iven in the Fig.4.16. :he

hih value in the location at *emmanda$atty and the low value in the location at

)anna$atty6 adayam$atty. :he distribution of sodium for $ostmonsoon iven in

the Fig.4.11. :he hih value in the location at *emmanda$atty and the low value

in the location at )anna$atty6 )ommiyam$atty6 and anavai$udur.

4.3.2.4. DISTRIBUTION OF POTASSIUM

:he distribution of )otassium for $remonsoon iven in the Fig.4.12. :he

hih value in the location at Eadaam$atty and the low value in the location at

Kodu&uli. :he distribution of $otassium for $ost monsoon iven in the Fig.4.13.

:he hih value in the location at Eadaam$atty and the low value in the location at

)anna$atty6 Kodu&uli and anavai$udur.

4.3.2.


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4.3.2.=. DISTRIBUTION OF SULPHATE

:he distribution of sul$hate for $remonsoon iven in the Gi.4.1,. :he

hih value in the location at %hinnathiru$athi6 *emmanda$atty and the low value

in the location at anavai$udur. :he distribution of sul$hate for $ostmonsoon

iven in the Gi.4.1'. :he hih value in the location at %hinnathiru$athi6

*emmanda$atty area and the low value in the location at ommiyam$atty6

Fmblic&am$atty6 anavai$udur and E.Manani&adu.

54

CHAPTER V


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"n %ha$ter "6 the author $resents the location6 and river systems and minor

basins of the adayam$atty bloc&.

"n cha$ter "" the author $resents review of literature cited from various

sources. #eoloy of the adayam$atty bloc& and brinout the different ty$es of

roc&s. :he eomor$holoical and structural ma$s showin faults and lineaments.

All the @ *0 and 0 @ * lineaments are intersected around adayam$atty

bloc& is a ood $otential for round water.

"n %ha$ter """6 :he author $resents the oriin of round water in

adayam$atty bloc&. :he several litholoy of the study area is an u$$er layer of

soils followed by weathered


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