Why Groups?

Collaborative nature of human endeavorsAnd competition between groups

Pronounced effects on behaviorGood and bad; moral compass/deviance

Contemporary organizations structure work in groups

Work teamsManagement delegationTechnology

Group Perspectives

PsychoanalysisPeople join groups to reduce anxiety & fulfill power motives

BehaviorismPeople join groups to secure rewards & avoid punishment

CognitivePeople join groups to affirm their self-concept

Why does someone join a church group?

GroupsRock!

• Meet new people• Discover new ideas• Validate our beliefs• Provide help• Increase one’s own

commitment• Reaffirm our sense of

agency

Green Eggs & Ham

• Take too much time• Reward popularity and

not good ideas• Social loafers steal credit• Imposes limits on

personal freedom

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Models of Group DevelopmentA. 5-Stage Model

1. Forming (Orientation)• getting acquainted; KSAO inventory

2. Storming (Conflict)• conflict & coalition formation

3. Norming (Cohesion)• norm development & groupthink; high

maintenance4. Performing (Maturity)• efficient & tolerant; less process loss

5. Adjourning

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B. Punctuated Equilibrium Model

pv

Sequence of actions:1. Setting group direction

2. First phase of inertia

3. Half-way point transition

4. Major changes

5. Second phase of inertia

6. Accelerated activity

Sequence of actions:1. Setting group direction

2. First phase of inertia

3. Half-way point transition

4. Major changes

5. Second phase of inertia

6. Accelerated activity

A Model constrained to Temporary Groups with deadlines.

Often, temporary groups exhibit features of both the 5 stage model and the PEM.

Implications

Groups require time to form, transition, and consolidate into effective teams

Teams require group maturity Conflict is inevitable and can be functional

conflict resolution is a group ‘success’Groups may cycle through these stages as old members leave and new members join

Managers often are threatened by group changes and yet these are often inevitable

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Group PhenomenaDiffusion of Responsibility

Social LoafingSocial Facilitation

Well-learned behaviorStress and Behavior

Social Influence in GroupsInformational influence

Appeal to factsSocial proof to validate reality or reduce ambiguity

Normative influenceAppeal to moralsConformity and compliance to gain social approval

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Social Presence

Increased Arousal

Strengthened Dominant Response

Group NormsInformal rules adopted to regulate member behavior

Immediate objective is to gain conformityclassroom participation; on-time arrival

Often considered ‘courtesy’ Developed for behaviors considered important to group survival/successDo not equally apply to all members

idiosyncrasy credits senior, junior, more capable members

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Return Potential ModelHighly approve

Indifferent

Highly disapprove

A. Point of maximum return

B. Range of tolerable behavior

C. IntensityD. Crystallization

ParticipationAbsences Cuss words Eye contactPlagiarizingReturn to buffet

Functions of Norms

Enhance group survival/privilegesex: not discuss salaries outside department

Simplify behavior & expectationsex: establish routine for paying lunch

Avoid embarrassing situationsex: romantic relationships

Identify the Group and express valuesattire; office design; logo; corporate colors; language

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Transmission of NormsMuzafir Sherif (1936)

Autokinetic Effect visual anchor (horizon)

Social anchoringopinions of others

An Unknown Truth ambiguous stimulusInformational influence

Generational transmission fads & fashions

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Alone Group trial 1

2 3 Alone0

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4

5

6

7

8

A subject B

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Conformity to Group Norms Solomon Ash (1951)

Conformity to the group Known Truth Normative influence

7 panelists (1 subject & 6 confederates)

Boundary conditions Size of the group (3) Group member status

(freshmen, seniors) Presence of dissent

even when dissent is incorrect it reduces conformity

0

20

40

0 2 4 6 8 10

Group Size

Con

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Factors that Influence Conformity

1. Group size (levels off at 3)

2. Presence of dissent Potential coalition

3. Private/Public response Personnel decisions

4. Prior commitment Avoidance of dissonance

5. Member status

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Group Cohesion

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1. Similarity

2. Maturity

3. Frequency of contact

4. Goal clarity

5. Success

6. External threat - competition

7. Group size

8. Resources

9. Isolation

10. Difficulty of admission

Groups vs. TeamsIdentification

Team goals are one’s ownTrust

Open expression of ideasConstructive resolution of conflict

Creating ‘win-win’ accommodationsRecognition of uniqueness of team members

Each member has special status by virtue of being on the team

MaturityTeam functions at the performing stage

Tolerance of dissent Less obsessed with maintenance

pv