Cognitive maps What is a cognitive map? Example: rat in a maze.
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Transcript of Cognitive maps What is a cognitive map? Example: rat in a maze.
Cognitive maps
What is a cognitive map?Example: rat in a maze
Cognitive maps manage knowledge of, and behavior in, space manipulable vs. non-manipulable
space small vs. large spaces
Why study cognitive maps?
Predicting spatial behavior stay or go, where to go, which route to
take, choice of transport, ...
Learn effective strategies people use for learning about the environments for integrating environmental
information with map-based information educate other people, design better
tools
Models of cognitive mapping
Perceptual schemata of spatial behavior
Gibson 1979Environmental features are perceived directly with little intervention of cognitive processesPerson moving through a landscape has a vista vista changes gradually or abrubtly at
transition points
Models of cognitive mapping I
Cognitive mapping as information processing
Kirk 1963, Downs 1970, ...Separation of environment .. world of physical facts and behavior
... and individual with a value system and decision making
capability
Individual receives information from the environment through ”filters”, the information then goes through value system and constraints, updates ”an image”, and is a basis for decisions
Models of cognitive mapping II
Cognitive mapping as transactions
Neisser 1976Individuals searches, samples and interprets actual world for relevant information relevant = contributes to the individual’s
plans for action searching, sampling and interpretation is
based on anticipatory schema individuals may have several concurrent
anticipatory schemas
Models of cognitive mapping III
Computational Process Models
Early example: Kuipers’ TOUR 1978Computer simulation models spatial map (preprogrammed/perceived,
static/dynamic) route planner (routes/subroutes are
learnt/inferred) executor
Some features of CPMs or whole CPMs have reflected beliefs about human cognitive maps There have been attempts to compare CPM
performance and human performance
Models of cognitive mapping IV
Connectionist Schema of Spatial Behavior
From the late 1980sNon-symbolic information processing (ANNs)Connectionist models link (through hidden layer) discrete/fuzzy values of variables for example ”tall buildings” could be
linked to ”lot of traffic” and to ”lot of noise”
Models of cognitive mapping V
Inter-Representational Networks
Haken and Portugali 1996Related to transactional modelConcentrates on the development of a cognitive map and how certain patterns become dominant
Models of cognitive mapping VI
Learning and acquisition of cognitive maps
compare to models of CMs:stimulus centeredsubject (individual) centeredinteraction centered
Learning of CMs
Primary (direct) learning from experience / interaction with an
environment
Secondary (indirect) learning from maps, books, stories, etc
Factors affecting learning
Primary learning
What are the important features of spatial environment? Places, landmarks Paths
Vista
What are the important forms of spatial behavior? Being at a place Moving from one
place to another (navigation)
Looking around(?)Spatial database
Series of vistas
Siegel and White 1975, Siegel 1977:
1. Landmarks are learnt2. Actions are attached to landmarks3. Patterns of landmarks + actions are
encoded as routes4. Clusters of landmarks and routes form
”minimaps”5. Minimaps are related together and a
configurational representation of the environment is achieved
However, sometimes (adult) persons have been observedto learn configurational representation very rapidly.
Primary learning
Anchor-point theory (Golledge 1978): individuals form a hierarchical
structure of places
Gärling et al 1981: routes are learnt first, landmarks are
learnt as a sequence which forms the route
Primary learning
Any feature of a place can be a landmark length of a street, ...
Primary learning
Distortions
”Tectonic plates” an anchor point and features
associated with it are displaced as a whole
”Magnifying glass” well-known areas are ”stretched out”
”Magnet” the opposite of magnifying glass
Primary learning
Environmental characteristics
Barrier effectImpression of the environment to walkers, bicyclists, car drivers, ...
Complexity paradox: greater complexity makes
environment feel larger because of detail but smaller because time passes faster
more complex more prone to distortions cultural factors
Primary learning
What makes a landmark a landmark? (Evans et al 1984)
Number of persons moving in or aroundClarity of contourVertical heightComplexity of the shapeExtent of its useUniqueness of its functionExtent of its cultural importanceAmount of physical maintenance
Texture an colorNaturalness of the landscapingAccessDistinctiveness
Primary learning
Legibility of urban space (Greene 1992)
UsabilityUnderstandabilityDistinctivenessAppeal
Primary learning
Secondary Learning
Useful supplement to direct experienceOnly source of information for environments which cannot be experienced directly because of scale because of inaccesibility
Lots of sources: formal education, self-study media, talking to others, games
Formal vs. informal
Maps Use of maps is a skill Maps give (more accurate)
configurational knowledge directly
Secondary learning
Factors influencing learning and use of information
AgeIndividual differences Personality Social and cultural background Education
Gender differencesVisual impairmentFamiliarity and experienceEffort effects (e.g. travel time)
Structure and form of CMs
Mapping of physical elements to cognitive elements
Golledge (1993): all elements of physical space have cognitive counterparts
1. individual occurrences of elements2. grouping, connectivity and
sequence of elements3. classification of elements
Structure and form of CMs
Spatial decision making and behavior
Three levels of knowledge:1. Declarative
– ”database of spatial features”
2. Procedural– rules for action, based on declarative knowledge
3. Configurational– adds orientation to procedural knowledge
– spatial learning is not necessarily in the order: 1,2,3!
Structure and form of CMs
Reference systems
Piaget et al (1956,1960): how do children learn spatial knowledge? in the order: topological, projective,
Euclidean
Egocentric frame of referenceFixed (landmark-based) frame of referenceGlobal frame of reference
Structure and form of CMs
Metrics
time – distance instead of just distancedistance from A to B is not necessarily the same as distance from B to A
Structure and form of CMs
Structure of CMs
Non-hierarchical (holistic) theories networks, each place may be stored more than
once images
Hierarchical theories strict spatial relations are not explicitly encoded partial hierarchical structures have spatial
relations much experimental evidence
Schemas people have abstract templates of generic cities,
buildings, traffic systems etc
Structure and form of CMs
Form of CMs
verbal form non-hierarchically or hierarchically
structured, or propositions
image form
people can construct images in mind
people use many different strategies in completing tasks requiring CMs
Structure and form of CMs
Expression of spatial knowledge
image(map) formverbal form more similar to direct experience uses often fuzzy concepts three elements: object to be located,
reference object, relationship
Structure and form of CMs
Accessing and using spatial knowledge
Information is recalled from long-term memory into working memorySmith et al (1982): working memory uses task-dependent frames whose slots access different knowledge bases in long-term memory (or are left empty)Spatial mental model is another name for a frame, which has knowledge in its slots and is in the working memory
Structure and form of CMs
Spatial mental models
The type of model constructed will depend on existing knowledge scale of the environment specfic task required detail
People can switch between different model types
Structure and form of CMs
Direction giving and spatial mental models (Couclelis 1996)
1. Initiationshared understanding of the request
2. Representationshared frame of reference, shared understanding of the route
3. Transformationshared model is transformed by direction giver to some concrete form
4. Symbolizationcommunication and reinforcement
5. Termination
Structure and form of CMs