Coast and Sea - EPA · 2020-06-23 · 88 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2008 COASTS and SEA •...

88 S TAT E O F T H E E N V I R O N M E N T R E P O RT 2 0 0 8

COASTS and SEA

• Seagrassextentalongthemetropolitancoast:DECLINING.

• Nitrogenconcentrationalongthemetropolitancoastalwaters:INCREASING.

• Degradationofcoastalreefs:INCREASING.

• Conditionofcoastalecosystemsaffectedbypoorwaterquality:DECLINING.

• NutrientloadsinwastewaterdischargedfromtreatmentplantsintoGulfSt.Vincent:DECREASING.

• NutrientsinthePortRiver:DECREASING.

• NutrientsintheInmanEstuary:DECREASING.

Trends

Goals

Water Quality, Habitats and a Sustainable South Australia

Water Qual i tyand Habi tats

Thelongtermconservationandproductivityofcoastal,estuarineandmarineenvironmentsthroughintegratedmanagementandprotection.

Living Coast Strategy 2004

T3.4Marinebiodiversity:by2010create19marineparksaimedatmaximisingecologicaloutcomes.

South Australia’s Strategic Plan 2007

SouthAustraliahas4,000kilometresofcoastline,rangingfromcliffs,rockyshoresandsandybeachesintheSouthEastandon the West Coast to mud flats, seagrass, samphireandmangrovehabitatsintheupperSt.VincentandSpencerGulfregions.

Thestate’smarinewatersareamongthemostbiologicallydiverseanduniqueintheworld,withmanyendemicspeciesandinternationallyandnationallyimportantspecies.SouthAustralia’sestuarine,coastandmarineareasandresourcesarehighlyvaluedbythecommunityandarecriticallyimportanteconomically,recreationallyandculturally(EPA,2002).

89S TAT E O F T H E E N V I R O N M E N T R E P O RT 2 0 0 8

Water Quality

MaintainingwaterqualitythatmeetsenvironmentalvaluesisfundamentalforSouthAustralia.Researchshowsthatmanymarineecologicalsystems,suchasseagrassandreefhabitats,arelargelydrivenby“bottomup”processesandakeyfactoriswaterquality.

Goodwaterqualitywillsustainseagrassandrockyreefhabitatsthatprovidefood,shelterandnurseryareasforrecreationally and commercially fished species.Theyalsokeepbeachesingoodcondition,whichisimportantforrecreationandtourism.TheseecosystemservicesaddmillionsofdollarstoSouthAustralia’seconomy.

Theeconomiccostofecosystemserviceslostfromseagrassandtheresultantimpactsincludingbeachstabilisation,sandcartingbytheCoastProtectionBoardandlikelydecreases in fishery production along themetropolitancoastisestimatedtoexceed$50millionperyear(Deans&Murray-Jones,2002).Lossesduetodegradedreefsandpotentiallossestoaquaculturefrompoorwaterqualityarenotincludedinthisestimate.

Extensiveseagrasslosshasalsobeenrecordedinnon-metropolitanareas,further increasing the financial impact to thestateoflostecosystemsservicesandfishery production.

Seagrasses

Recognitionoftheimportanceofseagrassesincoastalandnearshoreenvironments,andtheircontributiontotheproductivityoftheworld’soceans,hasincreasedoverthelast40years.

Seagrassesandtheepiphyticalgaethatcolonisethemsupportcomplexfoodwebsthatdirectlyandindirectlyfeedawidevariety of reptiles, fish, birds, mammals andinvertebratesthroughouttheirrange(Edgar2001).Seagrassesarewidelyrecognised,duetotheirphysicalstructureandprimaryproducerroleasimportantbreedingandnurseryhabitats,andprovidethebasisforanimportantdetritalfoodchain(Sogard1989;BellandPollard1989;Guidetti2000;Coles et al.2001).

In comparison to other marine flora, seagrassesarearelativelysmallgroupofabout60speciesofangiosperms(flowering plants) that are adapted to livinginnearshoremarineenvironmentsworldwide–excepttheAntarctic(Edgar2001;GreenandShort2003).SouthernAustraliaisahotspotforseagrass

diversity,harbouringaboutonethirdofallspeciesandincludingatleast14exclusivetoourshores.

Speciesbelongingtothegenus PosidoniaareparticularlycommonthroughoutsouthernandsouthwesternAustralia.EightspeciesofPosidoniaoccurinSouthAustralia,withonlyoneofthosefoundoutsideAustralia(Edgar2001).Otherspeciescommontotheareaincludemembersofthegenera Zostera, AmphibolisandHalophila,allwithdistinctivemorphologiesthatcreateavariedarchitectureinseagrassmeadows.

Thevast,low-lyingsupratidalandsubtidalareasoftheGulfSt.VincentandSpencerGulfprovidehabitatforsomeoftemperateAustralia’slargestexpansesofseagrasscommunities(ShepherdandRobertson1989;Edyvane1999).Approximately5,512km2oftheseagrassor57%oftheirtotalareainSouthAustralia,havebeenrecordedintheSpencerGulfregion.Afurther2,500km2areestimatedforGulfSt.Vincent,approximately25%ofallSouthAustralianseagrasses(Edyvane1999).

ThewestcoastofSouthAustraliaisalargearea,including1,300kmofcoastlinefromtheheadoftheGreatAustralianBighttotheentranceofSpencerGulf.Theshelteredembaymentsofthewestcoast,particularlyStreakyBayandSmokyBayat862km2combined,andPortDouglasat86km2,supportextensiveseagrassmeadows(Edyvane1999).Overallthewestcoastseagrassesaccountforapproximately15%1,400km2ofthetotalarearecordedinthestate(Edyvane1999).

Mangroves and Saltmarsh

Mangroveandsaltmarshplantcommunitiesoccupyhabitatsthatareregularlyinundatedbyseawatereitherbyastronomicaltidesorbyraisedwaterlevelscausedbystorms.

Requiringshelteredconditionsandasoftsedimentsubstrate,theseplantcommunitiesarerestrictedtothestate’sgulfsandembayments.Theseareasaredominatedbythegreymangrove,Avicennia marinaandsalttolerantplantssuchasSarcocornia quinqueflora (samphire),Halosarciaspecies,Sclerostegia arbuscula,Suaeda australis, Maireana oppositifolia andsometimesMelaleucaspecies(Bryars,2003).

Inadditiontocontainingplantsofconservationimportancetheseplantcommunitiesformimportanthabitatforbothmarineandterrestrialinvertebrate

Sunrise at Horsehoe Bay, Port Elliot.

Photo: David Mudge

Water Qual i ty and Habi tats


COAST AND SEA

andvertebratefauna.Theyhavegreatimportanceasbufferareasbetweenthemarineandterrestrialenvironments.Theyinterceptlargerainstormandinlandflood events reducing the discharge of sedimentsandpollutantstothemarinewaters.Theyalsobufferadjacentterrestrialenvironments from the flooding effects ofcoastalstormsurges.Theirimportanceasbufferswillgrowassealevelcontinuestorise.

Mangroveandsaltmarshhabitatshavebeen mapped and classified by the DepartmentofEnvironmentandHeritage(DEH),withatotaloccupancyof89,000Haofcoastalland.Table3.1showsthedistributionofthishabitatbyNaturalResourcesManagement(NRM)region.

Beach and Dunes

Coastaldunesandclifftophabitatsareoccupiedbyavarietyofvegetationcommunities.Abiologicalsurveyoftheseplantcommunitieswasundertakenfrom199698(Oppermann,A.1999).Atotalof1,492plantspecieswererecordedasgrowinginthesehabitatsofwhich224wereratedasbeingconservationsignificant or as possibly conservation significant. The survey identified 52 floristically distinct plant communities in coastalduneandclifftophabitats.Nomappingwasundertaken.

Inadditiontocontainingplantsofconservationimportancetheseplantcommunitiesformimportantfaunahabitatandstabilisecoastaldunesediments.Seriouserosionmayresultfromdisturbancestothevegetation.Maintainingastabilisingvegetationcover will be more difficult if rainfall declinesalongtheSouthAustraliancoast,(McInnes,KLet al,2003).

Unvegetated Soft Sediments

Oceanscover70.8%oftheEarth’ssurfaceandsoformthelargesthabitat.Mostofthisisatdepthsofmorethan1,000mwithonlyabout5%constitutingshallowareas.Thebenthic(bottom-living)speciesthatliveinthishabitatarespeciesrich.Ofthe29knownnon-symbiontanimalphyla,28arefoundinmarinehabitatsand13areexclusivelyso(Snelgrove,1999).

Morethan10millionspecieshavebeendescribed,butmanyremainundescribed.Mostofthisdiversityofbenthicorganismsliving on (epifauna or flora) or in (infauna) sedimentsconsistsofinvertebrates,togetherwithbacteriaandalgae.

Epibenthicorganismsarethosethatliveattachedtoahardsubstratumoratshallowdepthbelowthesurface,withmostprojectingpartiallyintothewatercolumn,forexamplecoralsandlimpets.Infaunalorganismslivebelowthesediment-waterinterfaceasburrowersorborers,forexamplepolychaetes,clamsandisopods.

Manyswimminganimalssuchasscallopsandshrimps,areessentiallybenthic,spendingmostoftheirtimeontheseafloor. Interstitial organisms live and moveintheporewatersamongthesedimentary grains on the seafloor and includeforaminiferaand harpacticoid copepods.

Asbenthicinvertebratesrangewidelyinsize,theycanbeseparatedinto:

• macrofauna,(>500µm),includinglargeranimalssuchasmussels,scallopsandcrabs,aswellassmallerspeciessuchaspolychaetes,smallercrustaceansandsmallermolluscs;

• meiofauna(44-500µm),includingtinycrustaceansandnematodes;and

• thepoorlyknownmicrobiota(<44µm),includingbacteriaandprotists.

Meiofaunaandmicrobiotaareofteninterstitial.

ThemajorityoftheSouthAustralia’soceanareaconsistsofsandandmudhabitatslocatedmostlyinshelteredbaysandestuaries,andcoarsersedimentsontheshelf.Therefore,mostbenthicorganismsinSouthAustralianwatersliveonorinthesesoftsediments.TherearefewextensivestudiesondistributionofbenthicorganismsinSouthAustraliaotherthanthetwostudiesbyShepherdandSprigg(1976),andTanner(2005),coveringGulfSt.Vincent.Mostotherstudiesonepibenthicandinfaunalorganismshaveinvolvedsmall-scalelocalisedstudiesforenvironmentalimpactassessment.

Ofrelevancetothissectionaretheinfaunalorganismsusedasindicatorsofresourcecondition.Infaunaistaxonomicallyandfunctionallydiverse,occurringinhighdensities.Manyotherspecies,includingthoseofcommercialimportance,dependdirectlyorindirectlyonthem(Bilyard1987).

Polychaetewormsarethemostcommon,diverseandabundantininfaunalcommunities.SomeofthegreatestdiversityofpolychaetesintheworldhasbeenfoundinthemarinesoftsedimentofsouthernAustralia.Ofthe13,000speciesin81familiesdescribedworldwide,1,140

Coffin Bay


specieshavebeenfoundinAustralianwatersandmanyspeciesareyettobedescribed(Glasby et al.2000).

Thereisalargevarietyofsmallcrustaceansininfaunalcommunities,withamphipodsandtanaidsusuallythemostcommon.Echinodermsincludingseacucumbers,urchinsandbrittlestarsarealsofound,asaremolluscs(particularly bivalves).Other‘worm-like’animalsincludingribbonworms(Nemertea),roundworms(Nematoda),peanutworms(Sipuncula),phoronidworm (Phoronida),spoonworms(Echiura) and less commonly flats worms (Platyhelminthes)alsooccurinsoftsedimenthabitats.

Rocky Reefs

SouthAustralia’sreefresourcesarecomprisedofrockyoutcrops,coveredpredominatelybylargemarinemacroalgaeandnumerousinvertebratespecies.Inthestate’ssoutheastlargecanopyformingbrownmacroalgaedominatewaveexposednearshorereefs,includingMacrosystis angustifolia (giantkelp).Inotherareasofthestate,reefsaredominatedbyredalgae,suchasontheEyreandYorkePeninsulas,whichhaveahighmacroalgaediversity.

AreaswithlowmacroalgaldiversityincludethesouthernFleurieuPeninsulaandnorthernSpencerGulf,wheresoftsedimentsandseagrassbedsdominate.Althoughlessstudiedandknownthan

theirtropicalcoralcounterparts,rockyreefsarehighlydiverse,productiveand unique ecosystems with significant environmental,socialandeconomicvalue(EPA,2003andTurner et al.,2007).Thisincludesprovidinganimportanthabitattypeformanycommercialfisheries species such as abalone and rocklobster.

Estuaries

Estuariesaretheinterfacebetweencreeksandriversandthesea.Theychangewithoceantides,riverandsurface water flows and in some cases groundwaterupwellings.TheNatural Resources Management Act 2004 defines anestuaryas:

‘A partially enclosed coastal body of water that is either permanently, periodically, intermittently or occasionally open to the sea within which there is a measurable variation in salinity due to the mixture of seawater with water derived from on or under the land’.

Estuariesareuniqueenvironments,thathavebeennicknamedthe“nurseriesofthe sea” as many fish and other marine animalsusethemtobreedandgrow.Migratorybirdsvisitestuariestorestandrefuelthroughouttheirjourneys.Oftentheculturalcentresofcoastalcommunities,estuariesserveasfocalpointsfortrade,tourismandrecreation.Someestuariesaresitesofportsandharbours,vitalforshipping,transportationandindustry.

SettingRegionSpecific EnvironmentalValueandWaterQualityObjectivesSouthAustraliaisboundbytheNationalWaterQualityManagementStrategytosetagreedenvironmentalvaluesandwaterqualityobjectivesforeachregionacrossthestate.Thisisaprocesswherethecommunity,industryandgovernmentlookatthevarioususesofwaterandaskwhatqualityisneededtomaintainthoseuses.

Generallymostwatershaveecosystemvalues,whichmeansthatthey should be of sufficient quality tosupportandmaintainhealthyaquaticlife.

Waterqualityobjectivesarethensettomaintainwaterqualityparametersandprotecttheenvironmentalvalues.Ifawaterqualityobjectiveisnotprotectiveoftheaquaticenvironment,waterqualitycouldbemisinterpretedasbeingingoodcondition,wheninactualfactthereisongoingdegradationofthesystem.

Thisiscurrentlythecasewithtotalnitrogeninthemarineenvironment,e.g.:90%ofthetotalnitrogenconcentrationsinHoldfastBayarebelow0.608mg/LwhichwhenusingtheANZECCGuidelinevalueof1mg.L-1isconsideredtobegood.Howevermultiplelinesofevidencesuggestthatthosewatersareeutrophicandimpactingonseagrassandreefhealth.

Source: DEH mapping data, 2003

NRM Region Total Habitat Total NRM Habitat as %Area_Ha Area_Ha of NRM area

Eyre Peninsula Mangrove 4388 8143426 0.054

Samphire 13720 0.168

Northern & YorkeMangrove 8689 4980482 0.174

Samphire 37739 0.758

Adelaide & Mt Lofty Ranges Mangrove 2883 958956 0.301

Samphire 2499 0.261

Kangaroo IslandMangrove 0 1053517 0.000

Samphire 1138 0.108

SA Murray Darling Basin Mangrove 0 5716667 0.000

Samphire 314 0.005

South East Mangrove 0 3043454 0.000

Samphire 1630 NA 0.054

Total mangroves 15960Total saltmarsh 73000Total wetlands inundated by seawater 88960

Marina. Photo: Tim Lubcke

Table 3.1 Mangrove and saltmarsh habitats by NRM region, 2003



COAST AND SEA

CONDITION INDICATORS

• Animal or plant species abundance

Inmostecosystemsthereareanimalorplantspeciesthatarevulnerabletotheslightestchangeintheirsurroundingenvironment.Changesintheirextentandabundancecanprovideagoodindicationofhumaninducedchangestothehealthofestuarine,coastalandmarineresources.

• Quality of coastal waters assessed against national water quality guidelines

RatingsareassignedtowaterqualityaccordingtoANZECCwaterqualityguidelines.Theseprovideanindicationoftheriskmarinepollutionposestohumanhealthandthepressureitisplacingonthehealthofecosystems.

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• Volume and pollutant load of stormwater discharged to the marine and estuarine environment

Thevolumeofstormwaterandthepollutantscarriedwithitaffectsmarinewaterqualityandcanimpactonecosystemsandrecreationalusers.

• Point source discharges to the marine and estuarine environment

Thevolumeofwastewaterdischargedtothemarineenvironmentaffectswaterqualityandcanimpactonecosystemsinreceivingenvironments.

• Location, number and volume of marine pollution incidents

Indicatesthefrequencyandseverityofpotentiallyenvironmentallydamagingincidentssuchasoilspills.

• Presence and extent of marine litter

Indicatestheamountoflitterdiscardedintothemarineenvironment.Thisdebrishasthepotentialtocompromiseecosystemvaluesthroughingestionbyandentanglementwithmarinespeciessuchasseals.Itcanimpactonrecreationalvaluesbyposinghazardstoswimmersandmayalsoimpactontheaestheticvalueofbeaches.

RESPONSE INDICATOR

• Volume of stormwater and treated wastewater reused

Indicators

What is the current situation?

Stormwaterandwastewaterre-usereducespollutantloadsenteringcoastalmarineenvironments,improvingwaterqualityandreducingstressonaquaticenvironments.

• Coast and marine policy and planning programs and initiatives

CoastandMarinepolicyandplanningprogramsandinitiatives,playanintegralroleinmaintainingtheconditionofourestuarine,coastalandmarineenvironmentswhileprovidingforsustainableresourceuse.Thesuccessorotherwiseoftheprogramsandinitiativesisnotcurrentlyconsidered,whichlimitsthisindicator.

CONDITION INDICATOR: Animal or plant species abundance

Thestate’sestuarine,coastalandmarineresourcescontainsomeofthemostdiversehabitatsandspeciesintheworld.Inordertoappropriatelyreportontheirhealthorcondition,thisindicatorhasbeenappliedacrossa representative range of significant habitats.

Seagrass

ThecontinuinglossofseagrassinmanyofSouthAustralia’scoastalregionswasreportedasamajorconcerninthe2003 State of the Environment Report (SoE).Thereportnotedthatanestimated720HaofseagrasswerelostfromAdelaide’smetropolitancoastfrom1995to2002.Recentevidencesuggeststhatafurther590Haofseagrasshasbeenlostsince2002,(Cameron,2008)indicatingthatwaterqualityimpactsonseagrassesarecontinuing(referFigure3.1).

Additionalstudiesconductedintheperiodfrom2003-07wereacomparisonofseagrassextentsonthewesterncoastofYorkePeninsula,fromWallarootoHardwickeBayandinthecoastalwatersoffofBeachport.Thesestudiesutilisedaerialphotographytakeninthe1980sand2004andfromthe1950sto1997respectively.

TheYorkePeninsulastudyrevealednochangeinthepositionofthelandwardmarginofseagrassesinthearea


Figure 3.1: Metropolitan Coastline Seagrass Mapping, Substrate Change 2002 – 2007

Source: Department of Environment and Heritage, 2008

Note: Due to the low light environments characteristic of coastal waters, it is often difficult to discriminate benthic features such as rock, macroalgae, and seagrass. Instead, substrate (e.g. sand or no cover) is used as a substitute as it can be more readily identified, especially in deeper waters. ‘Substrate Gain’ is therefore an indicator of seagrass loss while ‘Substrate Loss’ is an indicator of a possible increase in seagrass cover.

Litter on Glenelg Beach. Photo: Steven Mudge



COAST AND SEA

betweenthetwotimeperiods,butdidnoteanincreaseinthenumberofblowouts(expandingsandypatches)inseagrassmeadowsgenerally.

The Beachport study showed significant seagrassloss(predominantly Posidonia sp.)initiallyattributedtodischargesfromDrainM,butexacerbatedbyseabedinstabilityanderosionofseagrasshabitatasaresultofahighwaveenergyenvironment.Thestudystatesthatitishighlylikelyerosionwilleventuallycausetheoriginalseagrassbedstodisappear(Seddenet al.,2003).

SeagrassmonitoringonKangarooIslandhasthusfarconsistedofbenchmarkingseagrasspercentagecover,speciescompositionandepiphyteloadsaswellascompilingfaunalbiodiversityinventoriesforseveralbays.Acrosssummer2008-09,anassessmentwillbemadeofwhethertocontinuemonitoringseagrasscover,compositionandconditionusingunderwatervideoorSCUBAtransectmethods.Additionalbiodiversityinventorieswillbecompiledforotherbaysprogressivelyoverthecomingyears,commencingwithEmuBay.

MonitoringofsitesinDecember2005indicatedseagrassmeadowscontinuingtomaintaingoodcoverandmoderateepiphyticloadscouldbefoundinEmuBay,betweenPt.MarsdenandBusbyIs,andinAntechamberandD’EstreeBays.However,theseagrassesoftheBayofShoals,AmericanRiver,IslandBeachandoffshorebetweenthespitbeaconatKingscoteandPenneshaw,allshowedsignsofhighepiphyticloadanddecliningcover(Southgate,2005).

Acomprehensivemappingprojectforsignificant areas of South Australia’s coastal watersiscurrentlybeingundertakenbyDEHinpartnershipwithNRMregions.Themappingprojectwillprovideamoreprecisemeasureofseagrassextentinkeyareas,particularlyinSpencerGulf,GulfSt.VincentandontheWestCoast.

AmonitoringstrategyshouldbedevelopedtoenableSoEreportingtodetectanychangeinseagrasshabitatextentduringfuturereportingcycles.Amonitoringprogram specific to the metropolitan coast shouldalsobeestablished.

Mangroves/saltmarsh

Thepressuresthatarebeingexertedonthesehabitatsincludelandreclamationfordevelopment,invasionbyweedspecies,inundationduetosealevelrise,changestohydrologyduetodevelopmentand

sedimentation,dumpingofrubbish,offroadvehiclesandbaitdigging.Theseimpacts are especially significant for saltmarshcommunities.Poorwaterqualityandincreasingpollutionlevelsarealsoimpactingonthecommunities,howeverasreportedinthepreviousSoE Report,thelackofinformationregardingchangeintheextentofmangrovesintheseareasmakesitdifficult to determine the nature of the risktomangroves.

Thereiscurrentlynooverallmonitoringofmangroveandsaltmarshcommunities.However,itisestimatedthattherehasbeenadecreasepredominantlyofsaltmarshesduetocoastaldevelopment.

Table3.1displaystheextentofmangrovesandsaltmarshesin2003accordingtoDEHmapping.Thereisscopeformonitoringbyremappingthedistributionofthecommunities.Thiswoulddetectlossesthatoccureachyearduemainlytodevelopmentandpotentiallyinthefutureasaresultofsealevelrise.TheCoastProtectionBoardhassurveyedanumberoftransectlines(withquadrats)acrosssaltmarshhabitatsinseverallocalitiesthatcanberesurveyedtoshowchangesinpatternsofvegetationandspeciescoverabundance.

Beach and dune species

Thepressuresthatarebeingexertedonbeachanddunehabitatsincludegrazingbystockandpestanimals,invasionbyweedspecies,erosionduetosealevelrise,developmentforcoastalhousing,offroadvehicles,tourismandrecreationalinfrastructureanddecliningrainfall.

There is no specific strategy to address pressuresoncoastalduneandclifftopvegetation,noroverallmonitoringofcoastalduneandclifftopvegetation.ApartnershipbetweenDEHandregionalNRMboardstoensurethatNRMPlanstakeregardofthecoastalduneandclifftopplantcommunitiesisnecessarytoaddressthis.

Unvegetated soft sediment species

Macrobenthicinfaunaarethemostwidelyknownandacceptedbiologicalindicatorsofenvironmentaldegradationandrestorationinmarinesediments(ClarkeandGreen1988,Austenet al.1989,Warwicket al.1990,Weston1990,

Dutton Bay, Eyre Peninsula at sunset.

Photo: Joel Davison


Minlaton

Good

Caution

Major road

0 10 20 30 km

0 2 kmSeacliff

Point Riley

Wallaroo

Cape Elizabeth

Wardang Island

Point SouttarCorny Point

Warooka

Yorketown

Stansbury

Ardrossan

Semaphore

GlenelgAdelaide

Balaklava

Clare

Port Wakefield

Edithburgh

TroubridgePoint

Marion Bay

Cape Spencer

Site Health Status

Poor

Built-up area

Data Source: SARDI

SPAR ID: 2766

Moonta

Kadina

Maitland

Hallett Cove

Christies Beach

Port Noarlunga

Moana

Kingscote

Penneshaw

Cape Jervis

Second Valley

Normanville

VictorHarbor

Goolwa

Aldinga Beach

SeeEnlargement


Map 3.1: The health of selected reefs along the South Australian coastline


COAST AND SEA

WarwickandClarke1991,Agardet al.1993,Ferraroet al.1994).

Theseassemblageshavebeenchosenbecausetheyencompassadiverserangeofspeciesillustratingamultiplicityofsizes,reproductivestrategies,feedingbehavioursandlifehistories.Collectivelythesecommunitieschangeinresponsetoaseriesofparametersincludingwaterquality,physio-chemicalstatusoftheseafloor and nutrient and organic carbon loading(Bilyard1987).

Changesinanimalorplantspeciesabundancecanbeusedtomonitorthedegreetowhichanthropogenicfactorsinfluences the benthic environment. Such monitoringprogramsarestrengthenedwhereabundancesarecomparedbetweenimpactedandcontrolareas.Thisenablesvariationinabundancesattributedtonaturalcausestobeseparatedfromthoseassociatedwithanthropogenicstressors.

ThismethodhasbeenusedextensivelyinSouthAustraliaforenvironmentalimpactassessmentsandforenvironmentalmonitoring,inparticulartheTunaEnvironmentalMonitoringProgram(TEMP)for southern bluefin tuna aquaculture.

The state’s tuna and finfish aquaculture industriesarerequiredtosubmitannualenvironmentalmonitoringprograms(EMP)aspartoftheirlicenceconditions.Infaunasamplingisacomponentoftuna and finfish EMPs, amongst other indicators.Inaquaculturezoneswherefarmingoccurs,thereareestablishedcontrolsitelocationsfromwhichinfaunaaresampledannually.Individuallicensedsitesaresampledforinfaunadependingontheirenvironmentalperformance,whichcanresultinmonitoringbeingasinfrequentasonceeverythreeyears.

TwomethodshavebeenusedforTunaEMPsinSouthAustraliasince2001.Upuntil2004traditionalmethodsofmanualsorting, identification and enumeration ofbenthicinfaunaassemblageswereused.Sincethen,aDNAAssayandEnvironmentalComplianceScorecardSystemhasbeenutilised.TheDNAassaysweredevelopedforenvironmentalmonitoring of the southern bluefin tuna farmingzoneinPortLincoln.

AcurrentprojectinFitzgeraldBay,ArnoBayandBostonBayisinvestigatingtheextensionofthismonitoringtechniquetoother finfish aquaculture.

Rocky reef species

IncreasedpublicconcernoverthedegradationofAdelaide’snearshoremetropolitanreefsassociatedwithurbanisation,leadtotheestablishmentofasurveyprogramin1996aimedatassessingtheircurrenthealth(Turneret al.,2007–Figure2).Thesurveyswerefurtherexpandedin1999and2005,acquiringgreaterknowledgeonthestatusofreefsthroughoutSouthAustralia.

Theresultsofthe2005surveyshowedacontinuationofanorthtosouthgradientalongthemetropolitancoast,wherenorthernreefs(SemaphoretoBrokenBottom)weregenerallyinpoorerconditionanddominatedbyred foliaceous and turfing macroalgae. Therearesignsoffurtherdeclinescomparedtoprevioussurveys,oncentralmetropolitanreefs.FromSeaclifftoSouthport,inparticularHorseshoeReefandsomesitesonNoarlungaReef,showlossofrobustbrownmacroalgae,establishmentofmusselmats,andinsomeinstances,thedevelopmentoflargeareasofbaresubstrate.SouthernreefsfromMoanatoAldingahaveremainedmuchthesameandappearhealthy,retainingmostoftheirrobustmacroalgalcanopy(Turneret al.,2007).

Similaranalysesofmacroalgalcoverandcompositionatsitessurveyedduring2005at11YorkePeninsulaandeightFleurieuPeninsulasitesfoundreefsweregenerallyhealthy,particularlywhencomparedtometropolitanreefs.However,therewasconsiderablevariabilitywithinregions.SomesitesnotablyPointSouttarandPointRileyonYorkePeninsula,hadarelativelylowcoverofcanopymacroalgalspecies,butthiscannotbeinterpretedaspoorconditionwithoutfurtherinformation(Turneret al.,2007).

Inordertoobtainamorerobustindicationofreefstatus,10biologicalindicesweredeveloped.Furtherrefinement of these is required, particularlywhencomparingreefsoverawidegeographicalrange.Inaddition,thelinkagesbetweenabioticfactorssuchaswaveexposure,depthandtemperature,requirefurtherinvestigationtoestablishthelinkbetweenpatternsandprocessestoprovidepredictionsofexpectedbioticassemblagesassociatedwithdifferentenvironmentalconditions(Turneret al.,2007).

OtherinitiativesthatareincreasingtheknowledgeofrockyreefecosystemsincludetheConservationCouncilofSA

Salisbury Wetlands. Photo: Steven Mudge


ReefWatchCommunityEnvironmentalMonitoringProgram.Thiswasestablishedin1997asapartnershipbetweenthescientific, conservation and management sectorsandprovidespublicelectroniceducationandreportingresources.Community-basedprogramssuchasthis require ongoing financial and technicalsupport,withmentoringfromthe scientific community.

Estuaries

SouthAustralianestuariesaregenerallypoorlyunderstoodandareoftenunderthreatfrompollutantsoriginatingupstream,adjacenttheestuaryandalsofrommarinebasedpollutants.

ThewaterqualityandecologicalconditionofanestuaryinSouthAustraliais very difficult to assess due to their highly variable nature, fluctuating flows, connectivitytotheseaandthehighlyadaptedorganismsthatinhabitthem.TheEPAmonitorsanumberofestuariesforwaterqualityparametersandpatternsareoftendrivenbytidalmovementinandoutofthem.

Qualityisoftendependantonthelocationofthesiteinrelationtothemouthandthedirectionofthetide.Severalmonitoringoptionshavebeentrialledincludingusingrecentandhistoricaldepositsofthesilicaskeletonsofsinglecelledorganisms(diatoms)inordertolookatconditionovertime,knownasmicropaleontology.UnfortunatelythismethodwasnothighlysuccessfulfortheassessmentofSouthAustralianestuariesduetotheconsiderablevariabilityinsedimentdepositionanderosionwithineachestuary.

Specialisedmonitoringprogramsneedto be developed looking at site specific riskfactorsandindividualassessmentsofconditionbasedonarangeofindicators.TheEPAisconsideringtriallingthismethodduringthenextSoEreportingperiod.

TheCoorongisauniqueenvironment.Itisanestuaryinpartsthatreceivesfreshwater inflow from the River Murray in thenorth,butsouthoftherivermouththelagoonscouldbeconsideredareverseestuarywherethesalinityrisesabovenormalseawaterduetolowmixingwithfreshwaterandhighnetevaporativeeffects(Geddes,2003).TheSouthlagoonoccasionally receives freshwater inflows fromSaltCreekviaMorellabasinandalsothrough groundwater inflow. This makes foraverycomplexandvariablesalinityregime(Geddes,2003).

ARAMSARwetlandofinternationalimportanceformigratorybirdstheCoorongisunderseverestress.Todaythewetland is very different with significant flow modification resulting in very small inflows of freshwater. As a result water quality is generally classified as poor with manyparametersdeclining.

Ecologically,theCoorongisconsideredtobeinpoorconditionandisatahistoricallowpoint(Geddes,2003).Withoutlargeamountsoffreshwaterinflow the water quality and ecological conditionarelikelytoworsenandmuchofthedamagemaybeirreversible.TheCSIROiscurrentlyundertakingmodellingof‘whatif’scenariosinvestigatingdifferentwaterdischargevolumesandtheirpossibleimpactonthehydrodynamicsandbiogeochemistryofthesystemtoaidintheCoorong’smanagement.FurtherinformationontheCoorongcanbefoundintheRiver MurrayChapter.

Asaninterimmeasure,monitoringandreportingontheconditionofthe state’s previously identified and described significant estuarine habitats isconsideredtoprovideagoodrepresentationofthehealthofthestate’sestuarineresources.

CONDITION INDICATOR: Quality of coastal waters assessed against national water quality guidelines

The EPA has classified water quality asbeinggood,moderateorpoorbasedonwaterqualitydatasampledbetweenJuly2002andJune2007atnumerouslocationsinthemarineandestuarineenvironmentacrossthestate.Comparisonsofdatafromthe2003SoEReport to that from the last five years havebeenusedtoassesschangeovertime.Waterqualityinthenearshoremarineenvironmentacrossthestateisconsideredtohavechangedlittlesince2003.Thereareanumberofexceptionstothisthatwillbeexplainedinmoredetail.

WaterqualitywithinthenearshorecoastalwatersoftheAdelaideandMountLoftyRangesNRMregionwaslargelyunchangedformanyelevatedparameterssuchasthemoderateclas-sifications for ammonia and oxidised nitrogen, and the poor classification for chlorophyllasreportedinthe2003 SoE Report.

Acrosstheentireregiontotalnitrogenhas significantly increased in the

Stokes Bay, Kangaroo Island.

Photo: David Mudge



COAST AND SEA

0 20 40 60 80 100 km0 20 km

Venus Bay

Port Augusta

Whyalla

Port Pirie

Port Hughes

Boston BayCoffin Bay

NepeanBay

Cygnet Estuary

Monitoring site

SeeEnlargement

Built-up area

Major road

Data Source: Environment Protection Authority

SPAR ID: 2769

Port River

West LakesMetropolitan Coastal waters

Patawalonga Lake

Onkaparinga Estuary

Inman Estuary

CoorongVictorHarbor

Water Quality Classification: Good Moderate Poor

Environment Value: Ecosystem AquacultureRecreation

Whyalla

Site

PtAugusta

BostonBay

Coffin Bay

VenusBay

Eyre Peninsula

NepeanBay

Site

CygnetEst.

Kangaroo Island

NA

VictorHbr

Site

InmanEst.

Coorong

Victor Harbor

NA

NA

Metro.CoastalWat.

Site

PtRiver

OnkaEst.

Patawa.Lke

WestLakes

Adelaide

NA

NA

**

NA

PtPirie

Site

PtHughes

Yorke Peninsula

*DepartmentofHealthrecommendthatpeopledonotswiminareasofdiscolouredwaterafterheavyrainfall

**PIRSAhasprohibtedtakingofshellfish in West Lakes andthePortRiverbetweenBowerRdandNorthArmbasedonadvicefromDoH.

* *

*

*

**

Map 3.2: Coastal water quality for selected sites along the South Australian coastline


WaterqualityinthePortRiverremainsclassified as being moderate to poor due tothelonglegacyofnutrientpollutionoverthelast70yearsfromthewastewatertreatmentplant,andalsocontinualdischargeofhighconcentrationsofammoniafromthePenriceSodaAshplantatOsborneandthetranslocationofnutrientrichwaterfromtheBolivarwastewatertreatmentplant.Whilethenutrientconcentrationsarereducinginthewatercolumn,itisexpectedthatpollutedsedimentswillbereleasingnutrientsintothewaterforsometimetocome.TheEPAhasdevelopedandisimplementingaWaterQualityImprovementPlan(WQIP)forthePortRiverthatinvolvessettingreductiontargetsforbothPenriceandSAWater’sBolivardischarge.Itisanticipatedthatintimewaterqualitywillmeetenvironmentalvaluesfortheregion.

AnEPAreporthaslinkedelevatedlevelsofnitrogen(particularlyammonia)inthenearshoreregionsofNepeanBaytosignificant seagrass loss in the Kangaroo Islandregion(Bryarset al,2003).TheseconditionsarelikelytobeduetothenutrientrichagriculturalrunoffdischargedfromtheCygnetRiverandpotentiallyleakagefromtheSTEDschemeatBrownlow(Gaylard,2005).ThatreportalsosuggestedthateutrophicconditionsarenotlimitedtoWesternCovewithBayofShoalsexperiencingsimilarconditions.Itwassuggestedthatthecausemighthavebeen very low water flow and very slow flushing rates (Gaylard, 2005), concepts supportedbytheKangarooIslandNRMBoard(Southgate,2005).

Since2003,KangarooIsland’swaterquality has improved with significant reductionsinammoniaconcentrationsthroughoutNepeanBayandmostwater quality classifications being good, althoughwaterqualityintheCygnetestuaryisunchangedaslargelymoderatetopoor.ThereductioninammoniaintheBayislikelytobelinkedtolowerrainfalltransportingfewerpollutantsfromtheagriculturalcatchmentsintothemarineenvironment,withthestaticlevelintheestuarylikelytobelinkedtothelackof flushing water flowing through it. It is recommendedthatanassessmentoflocalcurrentsbeundertakenincludingplumemodellingoftheCygnetRiverduringalargedischargeevent.

WaterqualityinthenearshoreenvironmentsontheEyrePeninsulaisrelativelygoodwiththelowestnutrientlevelsrecordedthroughouttheEPA’s65ambientwaterqualitymonitoringsites.Waterqualitywasgenerally classified as being good with

metropolitancoastalwaterssince2003. This parameter was classified as good,howeverduetothesensitivityofmetropolitancoastalwatersitisimpactinglocalecosystems.Elevatednitrogenconcentrations are likely to be significantly contributingtothedegradedstateofrockyreefhabitats(Turneret al, 2007),especiallyinthenorthernandcentralregions.ThisisalsoaconcernaroundthePortNoarlungaregion,wheretherehasbeen a significant increase in nitrogen concentrations over the past five years. This,amongotherfactors,isputtingnearshorereefsunderstressresultingindecreasesinconditionatNoarlunga,SouthportandHorseshoereefsoverthelastfive years (Turner et al,2007).

Elevatednitrogenlevelsarealsolikelytobecontributingtotheseagrasslossalongthemetropolitancoastline.Thisdemonstratesthatthe ANZECC GuidelinevaluefortotalnitrogenisinneedofreviewthroughthesettingofagreedEnvironmentalValuesandWaterQualityObjectives specific to local conditions forallcoastalregions.LikelysourcesofthenitrogenaretheBolivar,GlenelgandChristiesBeachwastewatertreatmentplantsandPenriceSodaProducts.

Stormwaterisalsoconsideredamajorcontributortodecliningwaterqualityalongthemetropolitancoasteventhoughthere has been significantly less rainfall duringthisreportingperiod.Thiscouldbeduetosimilaramountsofpollutantsbeingdepositedinthecatchment,withtheirentrytothemarineenvironmentspreadoverfewerrainfallevents.

EPAmonitoringshowsthatmarinewatersaregenerallysafeforswimmingandareclassified as good for the protection of recreationalusers.Occasionallywaterqualitycantemporarilyexceedguidelinevaluesafterperiodsofheavyrain.AnEPAstudyshowedthatwaterqualityneartheBarcoooutletatHoldfastBayreturnstogoodconditionwithintwotothreedaysafteralargerainfallevent(>5mm)(Corbin&Gaylard,2005).SAHealthrecommendsthatswimmersdonotswimindiscolouredwaterafterperiodsofheavyrain.

WaterqualitywithinthePortRiverhasgreatly improved. Significant reductions inammonia,oxidisednitrogen,totalphosphorus,totalnitrogenandturbidityhavebeenrecordedsincethelastreportingperiod.ThisislikelytobeduetotheclosureandcessationofdischargefromtheSAWaterPortAdelaidewastewatertreatmentplantatthetopofthePortRiver.

People swimming at Brighton Beach.

Photo: Cate Owen



COAST AND SEA

Giant Australian Cuttlefish The Giant Australian Cuttlefish (Sepia apama)areshort-lived(12to18months)andthereforethestrengthofapopulationiscriticallydependantonthestrengthandspawningsuccessoftheprecedinggeneration.Ifonegenerationisoverexploiteditisexpectedthata significant population decline would be observed in the following season.

SARDI Aquatic Sciences research indicates this species is now under significant stressandthepopulationissteadilydecreasing.ThelateststageofathreeyearcomprehensivestudyundertakenbySARDIandjointlyfundedbyDEHtookplaceinMayandJune2005,andshowedthatthe:

• abundance of the cuttlefish population has declined by 27.9% and biomass by 34%

• the study author suggests that this could be due to “illegal fishing during the peak spawningperiod”.

TherehasrecentlybeenanARCLinkageprojectwithadditionalfundingfromSAMuseum,DEH,PIRSAandNatureFoundationundertakenintothepopulationstructureof the Giant Australian Cuttlefish across the species range.

This project suggests that there are five distinct populations. The population north of WallarooinSpencerGulfincorporatingamassivespawningaggregationthatisuniqueintheworldisseparatetotheGulfSt.VincentandlowerSpencerGulfpopulation,whichextendstoVictoria.Thereisalsosomeevidencetosuggestthatthebreedingaggregationmayinfactbeaseparatespecies.

Essentiallythisresearchwasundertakeninresponsetotheneedtodevelopalongtermmanagementplanforthespecies.Theserecentresultssuggestthatweneedtobeevenmorecautiousinrelationtodevelopmentintheareaofthebreedingaggregationsincethereisvirtuallynoinputtothepopulationfromelsewhere.

‘Thereareseveral

largefacilitiesthat

dischargepollutants

directlyintothe

marineenvironment

andhistorically

significant impacts

havebeennotedasa

resultofthese.’

theexceptionofchlorophyllatseveralsites.Itisanticipatedthatchlorophyllmaybenaturallyelevatedduetonaturalcauses,e.g:nutrientrich,deepwaterupwellings near Coffin Bay, however it maybeindicatingasubtleincreaseinnutrientlevelsinsomeregions.BostonBayhasshownreductionsinammonia,totalnitrogenandturbiditylevelssince2003.Thistrendhascontinueddownwardssincethelate1990sandmaybearesultofmovingthemajorityoftunaaquacultureoutsideofBostonBayatthattime.

AmbientwaterqualitymonitoringinthenorthernSpencerGulfhasbeenunderwaysinceJune2006.Datatodateshowsthatthewatersareunsurprisinglyimpactedbymetals,particularlycopper,leadandzincadjacenttoPortPirieandPortAugustaduetotheirmineralsprocessingindustries,whichwere all classified as being poor.

ThismonitoringalsoshowedthatwaterqualityatPortAugustaandPortPirieisalsosignificantly impacted by nutrients with elevatedconcentrationsofammonia,chlorophyllandoxidisednitrogenthatwereall classified as moderate to poor. Recent EPAseagrassmonitoringintheseregionshasbeeninconclusiveastotheimpactofthispoorwaterquality.

Monitoringindicatesthatwaterqualityalongthemetropolitancoastisinpoorconditionforseveralindicatorsandcontinuestodecline.Anumberofseagrassandreefsystemsarealsoinpoorconditionanddecliningaspreviouslydescribedunderotherindicators.TheobviousconclusionisthatthecurrentwaterqualityiscontributingtothedegradationofthenearshoremarineenvironmentalongAdelaide’smetropolitancoast.

SouthAustraliaisfollowingtheNational Water Quality Management Strategy tosetagreedenvironmentalvaluesandwaterqualityobjectivesforeachofitsregions.ThisisanticipatedtotakeplaceprimarilythroughtheNRMboards,butitwillalsooccurthroughtheEPA’swaterqualityimprovementplans,whichwillsetwaterqualityobjectivesornewguidelinevaluesthatwaterqualityshouldmeet.Thiswillrectifythesituationwhereaguidelinevalueisobviouslytoohightobeprotectiveofanecosystem.ItisanticipatedthatthiswillbeinplacepriortothenextState of the Environment Report in2013.


Coffin Bay National Park coastline.

Photo: Joel Davidson

What are the pressures?

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Volume and pollutant load of stormwater and effluent discharged to the marine environment

Thedischargeofwastewaterandstormwaterintothemarineenvironmentisthemajorcauseofdegradationofnearshoreseagrassmeadowsandreefhabitats.Themainfactorscontributingtothedeclineinconditionarenutrientsandreducedwaterclarity.

SouthAustralianwatersarelargelyoligotrophic,i.e.verylowinnutrients,andproductivityismainlylimitedbyalackofnitrogen(Steffensenet al,1989).Theadditionofnitrogenviawastewater,industrial,agricultural,andstormwaterdischargeshasresultedintheambientnutrientconcentrationstobelocallyelevatedandtheimpactonseagrasscommunitieshasbeenwidelydetailedaroundAdelaide(Neverauskas,1989;EPA,1998;Seddon2002;Westphalenet al,2004)andotherregionalareassuchasNepeanBayandRivoliBay(Edyvane,1997;Bryars et al,2003;Seddonet al,2003).Inareaswherethereisnonotablehumandischargeofnutrients,thewatersaretypicallyoligotrophicandbenthiccommunitiesaregenerallyingoodcondition.

ThegreatestsourcesofnitrogenforAdelaide’scoastalwatersaretheSAWaterwastewatertreatmentplants(WWTP)atBolivar,GlenelgandChristiesBeachandtheindustrialdischargefromPenriceSodaProductsatOsborne.Therearealsooccasionallargedischargesofnitrogenfrommetropolitanstormwaterdrainsandcreeks,mostnotablytheTorrensRiverandBarcoooutlet,buttheseare only significant following very large rainfallevents(Wilkinson et al,2005).

SAWater’sWWTPdischargestothemarineenvironmenthavedecreasedsince2003.Nitrogendischargesreducedfrom1,161tonnesin2002-03to887.1tonnesin2006-07.TheAdelaide Coastal Waters Study recommendsthatthenitrogenloadinthenearshorewatersofGulfSt.Vincentneedstobereducedbyapproximately75%of2003levels(to600tonnes)ifnearshorecoastalwatersaretoreturntoanoligotrophicstateand for significant seagrass regrowth to bepossible.

Suspendedsolidsaredischargedprimarilythroughstormwaterdrainsandcreeksthatdischargeintothemarine

environmentratherthanfromWWTPorindustrialsources.

Itisthoughtthatthesourceofthesuspendedsolidsiscreekbederosionduring flow events. High suspended solids canreducelightpenetrationthroughthewatercolumnandmayrestrictthephotosyntheticabilityofbenthicplantsandalgae.Hydrodynamicmodellinghasshownthatwatermovementinthenearshorezonealongthemetropolitancoastisrestrictedduetoacombinationofthelowenergyconditionsofthesurfzoneandshorelineboundaryeffectthatresultsinwaterbeingmovedalongtheshoreratherthanawayfromthecoast(Pattiaratchi&Jones,2005).

Wilkinsonet al,(2005)hassuggestedthattheturbidityloadfromstormwaterhasremainedfairlyconstantat2,700tonnesperyearsincethe1960s.Itishighlylikelythatthisloadofsuspendedsolidsisimpactingonthenearshoreseagrasscommunitiesalongthemetropolitancoastandthenearshorereefcommunities.

Pressure Indicator: Point source discharges to marine and estuarine waters

Thereareseverallargefacilitiesthatdischargepollutantsdirectlyintothemarineenvironmentandhistoricallysignificant impacts have been noted asaresultofthese.InrecentyearstheloadsfrommanyofthesefacilitieshasreducedduetoEPA Environment Improvement Plans.

PortPirie’sNyrstarLead&Zincsmelter(formerlyZinifex,andcalledPasmincointhe2003SoE)isonefacilityundertakingsuchimprovements.Recentlythedischargeloadofmetalsfromthisregionhasdecreased,althoughlocalisedcontaminationremainsinthewaterandsediment.OtherdischargesintheregionincludetheOnesteelsteelworks,landbasedandoffshoreaquacultureandtwolargepowerstationsatPortAugusta.

PredictablytherearemanydischargestothemarineenvironmentaroundAdelaide’smetropolitanregion.AnEPAriskassessmentonthreatstowaterqualityinGulfSt.VincentdeterminedthedischargesfromtheWWTPsandurbanstormwatertobehighrisks.

AnotherhighrisktotheprotectionofecosystemsisthePenriceSodaProductsfacilityatOsborne.AsapartofthePort Waterways Water Quality Improvement



Plan(WQIP),Penricehasreduceditsammoniadischargefrom1,000tonnesin2002toapproximately750tonnes.WhilethisreductionisapositivestepthislevelofammoniaisstillcontributingtothePortRiver’seutrophicconditionandrecentevidencesuggeststhatthiswastestreamisalsotransporteddownthemetropolitancoastasfarasHoldfastBay,whereitcouldbecontributingtoimpactsseenalongthatpartofthecoast.

Penricehascommittedtofurtherreducingnutrientdischargesto250tonnesby2015underthePortWQIP.TheAGLTorrensIslandpowerstationdischarge of heated effluent has remainedunchangedsincethe2003anditislikelythatthereceivingenvironmentremains in a significantly modified state.Manyotherfacilitiesdischargesmallvolumesorloadsintothemarineenvironment,buthavebeenassessedtobealowrisktowaterqualityinGulfSt.Vincent(Gaylard,2008).

OntheEyrePeninsulaevidenceofalocalisedimpactonseagrasshasbeenobserved from the discharge of fish processingwastewaterinProperBay,PortLincoln(EPAandDEHAA,1997).TheEPAhas been working with the fish processors topreventthisdischarge,whichshouldimprovewaterqualityinProperBay.

AnupgradeoflocalseweragesysteminfrastructurehasbeenagreedtobySAWaterand,followingcompletionofthis,fish processors will be required to direct all wastewatertosewereffectivelyceasingdischargetoProperBay.

There is significant nutrient loading from seacageaquaculturefarmsthatarecentredaroundPortLincoln,ArnoBayandFitzgeraldBayontheEyrePeninsulaandinLacapedeBayintheSouthEast.Currentmonitoringindicatesthatwhiletheareasdirectlyunderneathand surrounding the Southern Bluefin Tuna cages are significantly impacted byorganicenrichment,thisisprobablylimitedtothesedimentwithintheaquacultureleasearea(Looet al, 2004).However,studieshaveshownthatmorethan90%ofthenitrogenand50%ofthephosphorousarereleasedfromthematerialintothewatercolumnbeforeitreachesthebottomandarelikelytomoveoffsite.

ThereisevidenceofwaterqualitydegradationandseagrasslossinthevicinityofthedischargesfromagriculturalcatchmentsfromtheCygnetRiverandthedrainsintheSouthEast(Edyvane

COAST AND SEA

1997;Bryars et al,2003;Gaylard,2005;Southgate,2005;Seddonet al,2003).Thelikelysourceofthepollutantsareagriculturalcatchmentswheresomepoorlandmanagementpracticesarecontributingtostreambankerosiontransportingsedimentintothemarineenvironmentwhereitcanimpactonseagrassandreefhabitats.Thereisalsothepotentialforoveruseoffertilisersandpesticides,whichcansporadicallyenterthemarineenvironment.

Pressure Indicator: Location, number and volume of marine pollution incidences

Since2003therehavebeennumeroussmalloilspills,particularlyaroundmarinasincludingPortLincolnandNorthHaven,andalsoboatingfacilitiessuchasPortAdelaide,OuterHarbourandWallaroo.Themajorityofthesewereonaverysmallscalewithlocalspillresponseundertaken,itislikelythattherewasnolongtermharmtothemarineenvironmentbuttherehasbeennomonitoring to confirm this.

Over the past five years SA Water has hadaseveralincidentsinvolvingthefailureofpumpingstationsenablingrawsewagetoentercreeksinAdelaide’ssouthernregion.OneoftheseincidentsresultedinsewageenteringthemarineenvironmentandSAHealthclosedpartsofHallettCovebeachtoswimmersduetopotentiallycontaminatedwaters.While there were significant impacts on recreationalusersofthesebeaches,itisanticipatedthattherewillbenolongtermeffectonmarineecosystemshowever,again,therehasbeennomonitoring to confirm this.

Pressure Indicator: Extent or presence of litter in the marine environment

Thepresenceofmarinelitterisasignificant issue not only for the negative aestheticvalues,butalsoduetotheriskentanglementoringestionofrubbishbymarinelife,particularlyhigherfoodchainandiconicspeciessuchasseals,seabirdsanddolphins.

Rubbishinthemarineenvironmentoriginatesfromawidevarietyofsources,butmuchoftherubbishthatisthoughttoimpactonmarinemammalsislinkedto commercial fishing.

RobelittersurveyshavebeenundertakenonLongBeachwithanestimated6,700kgofrubbishcollected


overa10yearperiod.Althougharecentdecreasehasbeenobserved,thetotalamountoflitternowcollectedannuallyisgreaterthanatthestartoftheprogramin1997(Eglintonet al,2006).Oneoftheimpactsofdebrisinthemarineenvironmentisthedeathofapproximately1,500sealseachyearasaresultofentanglementwithdiscardedrubbishandthenumberofentanglementsappearstobeincreasing(Pageetal,2004).Thesourcesarebelievedtoprimarilybethelocalfishing fleets, but rubbish transported fromoffshoredisposalisanotherpossiblesource(Page et al,2004).Theoccurrenceandimpactofotherwildlifeinteractionswithmarinedebrisisunknownandrequiresfurtherresearch.

COAST AND SEA

EffectofremovingwastewatertreatmentplantdischargesfrommarineandestuarineenvironmentsIn2004and2005twoofthestate’sWWTPswereupgraded,whichhadanalmostimmediateimpactonreceivingwaterquality.

ThePortAdelaideWWTPwasdivertedtoBolivarin2004andsincethattimenutrients in the Port River have significantly reduced. Water quality in the River is still classified as poor due to the Penrice Soda Products ammonia discharge, the BolivarWWTPdischargeandthereleaseofnutrientsfromthesedimentsbutitisanticipatedthatitwillimproveoverthenext10-20years.

In2005SAWaterspent$42millionontheVictorHarborWWTPtoupgradeitsplantandthathasimprovedthequalityofthewatertoastandardwhereitcanbe reused for irrigation. This reduction in discharge has resulted in a significant dropinboththetotalandsolublenutrientconcentrationsintheInmanestuarysincetheupgrade.

Soluble phosphorus before and after Victor WWTP upgrade (June 2005)

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FRP

(mg/

L)

‘Theimprovement

planhasset

environmentalvalues

andwaterquality

objectivesforthe

regionincluding

targetsforNitrogen

andPhosphorous

dischargereductions.’

What are we doingabout it?

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Volume of stormwater and treated wastewater reused

Over the course of the last five years, sincethelast SoE Report,ithasbecomeclearthatcurrentlevelsofwateruseandofwastewaterandstormwaterdischargestothemarineandestuarineenvironmentsarenotsustainable.Thedroughtandpredictedimpactofadverseclimatechangehavemadeitclearthatwaterisascarceresource.

Efforttoreusestormwaterandwastewaterisparamounttomaintainingadrinkingwatersupplyandisalsovitalto



Response Indicator: Coast and marine policy and planning programs and initiatives

Water Quality Improvement Plans (WQIPs)

ThePortWaterwaysWQIPwasdevelopedtolookatarangeofoptionstoreducepollutiondischargedintothePortRiverandBarkerInletfromindustriesandcatchments.Thisprocesshassetlegislatedtargetsfornutrientreductionfromthetwodominantsourcesofnutrientpollution,SAWaterandPenriceSodaProducts.TheWQIPsetsoutatimeframeforreductionandaimstorestorewaterqualityinordertomeetenvironmentalvaluesfortheregion.

ThecompletionoftheAdelaideCoastalWatersStudyandthesuccessfulresponsetothePortWaterwaysWQIPhasinspiredtheEPAtodevelopaWQIPforAdelaide’scoastalwaters.TheimprovementplanhassetenvironmentalvaluesandwaterqualityobjectivesfortheregionincludingtargetsforNitrogenandPhosphorousdischargereductions.PenricehasenteredintoanEnvironmentalImprovementProgramwithassociatedtargets.SAWaterisyettoenterintosuchaprogramfortheiroperations.

Wetlands Strategy for South Australia

ToaddresscoastalpressuresaWetlandsStrategyforSouthAustraliahasbeendeveloped.ThisistobeincorporatedintoNRMManagementPlansforthedeliveryofprograms.

ItwillbeimportantforDEHtoworkcollaborativelywithNRMRegionstoensurethattheirManagementPlansgiveregardtotheStrategy;andthattheirBoardsdevelopinitiativesandpoliciestomanageandmonitormangroveandsaltmarshcommunitiesintheirregions

COAST AND SEA

Glenelg beach. Photo: Steven Mudge

improvingtheRiverMurrayandCoorong,andmarineandestuarineenvironmentsacrossthestate.(AlsoseetheWater chapterwithinHumanSettlementstheme)

In2003,15%ofwastewaterwasreusedprimarilyforirrigationonparksandgardens.In2006-07almost30%ofwaterenteringthemetropolitanSAWaterWWTPswasreusedratherthandischargedtothemarineenvironment.CountryWWTPreusewaslowerthanmetropolitanat19%:a4.6%increasesince2001-02.

The1998 SoE Reportpredictedthatby2003wewouldbere-using29%ofourtreatedwastewaterandstormwater,butthiswasn’tachieveduntil2007.ForSouthAustraliatocontinueasaworldleaderinwaterreuseandrecycling,itneedstodedicatemoremoneyandresourcestoincreasingwastewaterandparticularly,stormwatertreatmentandreuse.Thiswillreducethepollutantloadsenteringmarineandestuarineenvironmentsandprovidemoresuitableconditionsfortherecoveryofecosystemsandtheirservicesforfutureuse.

TheAdelaideregionproduceslargequantitiesofstormwaterthatforthemostpart,drainintoGulfSt.Vincentunabatedandcausedamagetonearshoreenvironments.OnlyaverysmallpercentageofthetotalstormwaterrunofffrommetropolitanAdelaideisreused.Whilethecapture,storageandreuseoflargequantitiesofstormwaterremainsproblematicinmanyurbanareasbecauseoflackofsuitableopenspaceforcapture,thereremainssignificant scope to increase the amount ofstormwaterharvestedforreuse.Thiswouldultimatelyreducetheimpactonthenearshorecoastalenvironment.LocalgovernmentisleadinginnovationinthisareainSouthAustraliawithanumberofcouncilsactivelyinvolvedinmanagedaquiferrecharge.Notably,SalisburyCouncilisrecognisednationallyasaleader in this field.

TheAdelaideandMountLoftyRangesNRMBoardisalsoactivelypursuingstormwaterharvestingopportunitieswithrecentprojectsfocusingongolfcoursesinAdelaide’swesternsuburbs.ForfurtherinformationonwastewaterandstormwaterreuseseetheWaterchapterundertheHumanSettlementstheme.


What more should we be doing?

COAST AND SEA

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan targets

ForfurtherdetailonSouthAustralia’sStrategic Planvisitwww.stateplan.sa.gov.au

TheEnvironmentProtectionAuthorityrecommendsthefollowing:

R3.1 Provideadequatebufferzonestofacilitatetheretreatofcoastalecosystems(e.g. mudflats, mangroves and samphire) in response to sea level rise induced byclimatechange.

References

Agard,JBR,Gobin,JandWarwick,RM.(1993).Analysis of marine macrobenthic community structure in relation to pollution, natural oil seepage and seasonal disturbance in a tropical environment (Trinidad, West Indies)MarineEcologyProgressSeries92(3):233-243.

Anderlini,VCandWear,RG.(1992).The effect of sewage and natural seasonal disturbances on benthic macrofaunal communities in Fitzroy Bay, Wellington, New ZealandMarinePollutionBulletin24(1):21-26.

Aschan,MMandSkullerud,AM.(1990).Effectofchangesinsewagepollutiononsoft-bottommacrofaunacommunitiesintheinnerOslofjord,NorwaySarsia75:169-190.

Australian water quality guidelines for fresh and marine waters(1992).150pp.AustralianandNewZealandEnvironmentandConservationCouncil(ANZECC),Australia.

Austen,MC,Warwick,RMandRosado,MC.(1989).Meiobenthic and macrobenthic community structure along a putative pollution gradient in southern Portugal MarinePollutionBulletin20(8):398-405.

Bayne,BL,Clarke,KRandGray,JS.(1988).


Background and rationale to a practical workshop on biological effects of pollutantsMarineEcologyProgressSeries46(1-3):1-5.

Bilyard,GR.(1987).The value of benthic infauna in marine pollution monitoring studiesMarinePollutionBulletin18(11):581-585.

Cheshire,ACandMiller,DJ.(1999).The impact of sand dredging on benthic community structure at Pt Stanvac Dredge Site: Final report on the results of surveys 1992 to 1999AreporttotheCoastandMarineSection38pp.4,EnvironmentProtectionAuthorityofSouthAustralia.DepartmentofEnvironmentalBiology,UniversityofAdelaide,Adelaide.

Clarke,KRandGreen,RH.(1988).Statistical design and analysis for a “biological effects” study MarineEcologyProgressSeries46(1-3):213-226.

Clarke,KRandWarwick,RM.(2001).Change in marine communities: an approach to statistical analysis and interpretation. 2nd edition171ppPRIMER-ELtd.Plymouth,UK

Clarke,S,Cartwright,C,Smith,B,Madigan,SandHaskard,K.(1999).Southern Bluefin Tuna Aquaculture Environmental Monitoring Report 1996 1998120ppSouthAustralianResearchandDevelopmentInstitute.

Clarke,S,Madigan,SM,Edwards,J,Mathews,C,Preece,PandHaskard,K.

R3.1

Growing Prosperity T1.1, T1.14, T1.15

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.4

Fostering Creativity and Innovation

Building Communities

Expanding Opportunities


COAST AND SEA

Semaphore Jetty

(2000).Southern Bluefin Tuna Aquaculture Environmental Monitoring Report 1999 – 200080ppSouthAustralianResearchandDevelopmentInstitute.

Connell,DW.(1993).Water pollution - causes and effects in Australia and New Zealand. 3rd203ppAustralia,UniversityofQueenslandPress.

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Adelaide’sLivingBeaches:A Strategy for 2005–2025,(2005)DEH,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,AdelaideDEH,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide

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EdyvaneKS.Seagrass loss in Nepean Bay: the need for integrated catchment management (2October1997).ReportpreparedforPrimaryIndustriesKangarooIsland(PIKI)andtheKIIntegratedCatchmentManagementCommittee(KIICMC),SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Eglinton,YM,Wear,RJ,Theil,MJ,O’Loughlin,EJ.(2006).Marine Debris Monitoring in South Australia: A Report on the 2005 Annual Robe Litter Survey, PublicationnumberRD99/0176-4PreparedfortheAustralianGovernmentEnvirofundandtheSouthEastNaturalResourceConsultativeCommittee.SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Ferraro,SP,Swartz,RC,Cole,FAandDeben,WA.(1994).Optimum macrobenthic sampling protocol for detecting pollution impacts in the Southern California BightEnvironmentalMonitoringandAssessment29(2):127-153

Gaylard,S.(2005).AmbientWaterQualityofNepeanBay,KangarooIsland1999-2004EnvironmentProtectionAuthority,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

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Biological indicators and their use in the measurement of the condition of the marine environment(1995).IMO/FAO/Unesco/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEPJoint Group of Experts on the Scientific AspectsofMarinePollution(GESAMP),56pp.ReportsandStudiesNo.55

Gray,JS,McIntyre,ADandStirn,J.(1992).Manual of methods in aquatic environment research: Part II Biological assessment of marine pollution, with particular reference to benthosFAO,Rome.49pp.Rome324.

Loo,MGK.(2001).Effects of wastewater effluent on macrobenthic infaunal communities at Christies Beach, South Australia,UnpublishedPhD,171pp.DepartmentofEnvironmentalBiology,UniversityofAdelaide,Adelaide.

Loo,MGKandDrabsch,SL(2005).Southern Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) Aquaculture Environmental Monitoring Program 2004 Report for Tony’s Tuna International Pty Ltd, Licence Number FB00069(2005).24pp.RD05/0023.ReportpreparedforTheTunaBoatOwnersAssociationofSouthAustraliaInc.SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.(Note:thereare12similarreportsforeachlicencenumber)

Loo,MGK,Drabsch,SLandEglinton,YM.(2004).Southern Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) Aquaculture Environmental Monitoring Program 2003 Report for Australian Tuna Fisheries Pty Ltd, Licence Number FB00062,33pp.RD04/0060ReportpreparedforTheTunaBoatOwnersAssociationofSouthAustraliaInc.SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.(Note:thereare18similarreportsforeachlicencenumber)

Loo,MGK,Ophel-Keller,KandCheshire,AC.(2006a).Final Report - Development of novel methodologies for cost effective assessment of the environmental impact of aquaculture,116pp.SARDIPublicationNo.RD01/0169-2Aquafin CRC, Fisheries Research and DevelopmentCorporationandSARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Loo,MGK,Ophel-Keller,KandMcKay,A.(2007). Southern Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) Aquaculture Environmental Monitoring Program 2006 Report for Tony’s Tuna International Pty Ltd, Licence Number AQ00053,18pp.PublicationNo.F2007/000821-1.ReportpreparedforThe


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Madigan,S,Loo,M,Cheshire,AandClarke,S.(2002).Southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) Licence-based environmental monitoring report. Ajka Pty Ltd. Licence area FB00019 and FB00030,44pp.SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.(Note:thereare18similarreportsforeachdifferentcompany).

Madigan,S,Loo,M,Cheshire,AandClarke,S.(2003).Southern Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) Licence-Based Environmental Monitoring Report for Australian Fishing Enterprises Pty Ltd, Licence Areas FB00008, FB00038 and FB00039,48pp.SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.(Note:thereare16similarreportsforeachlicencenumber)

Maher,WAandNorris,RH.(1990).Water quality assessment programs in Australia deciding what to measure, and how and where to use bioindicators, EnvironmentalMonitoringandAssessment14(2/3):115-130.

Maurer,DandNguyen,H.(1996)The brittlestar Amphiodia urtica: a candidate bioindicator?MarineEcology17:617-636.

McInnes,KL,Suppiah,R,Whetton,PH,Hennessy,KJandJones,RN.(2003)Climate change in South Australia, CSIRO,Australia

Oppermann,A.(1999).A Biological Survey of the South Australian Coastal Dune and Clifftop Vegetation, Coast and Marine Section, EnvironmentProtectionAgency,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Page,B,McKenzie,J,McIntosh,R,Baylis,A,Morrissey,A,Calvert,N,Haase,T,Berris,M,Dowie,D,Shaughnessy,PD,Goldsworthy,SD.(2004).Entanglement of Australian sea lions and New Zealand fur seals in lost fishing gear and other marine


debris before and after Government and industry attempts to reduce the problem, MarinePollutionBulletin49,33-42

Roberts,RD,Gregory,MRandFosters,BA.(1998).Developing an efficient macrofauna monitoring index from an impact study - a dredge spoil example,MarinePollutionBulletin36(3):231-235.

Rygg,B.(1985). Distribution of species along pollution-induced diversity gradients in benthic communities in Norwegian Fjords,MarinePollutionBulletin16(12):469-474.

SeddonS,Miller,D,Fotheringham,D,Burgess,S,&McKenchie,J.(2003).Beachport Seagrass Loss and Links with Drain M in the Wattle Range Catchment. A report for the Department of Environment & Heritage and Environment Protection Authority, SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Shepherd,SAandSprigg,RC.(1976).Substrate, sediments and subtidal ecology of Gulf St. Vincent and Investigator Strait, NaturalHistoryoftheAdelaideRegion.(pp.161-174).SouthAustralia:RoyalAdelaideSocietyofSouthAustralia.

Snelgrove,PVR.(1999).Getting to the bottom of marine biodiversity: Sedimentary habitats - Ocean bottoms are the most widespread habitat on Earth and support high biodiversity and key ecosystem services,Bioscience49(2):129-138

Tanner,JE.(2004).Environmental assessment for proposed dredging of the Outer Harbour approach channel, 83 pp. Report prepared for KBR Pty Ltd.SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Tanner,JE.(2005).Three decades of habitat change in Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia 129:65-73.TransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Tanner,JE,Fairhead,A,Marsh,RandMiller,DJ.(2003).Environmental assessment of the dredge site at Outer Harbor: Berth 8 option,62pp.ReportpreparedforGHDPtyLtd.SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Turner,D,Kildea,T,&Westphalen,G.(2007).Examining the health of subtidal reef environments in South Australia. Part 2: Status of selected South Australian reefs based on the results of the 2005 surveys,


RD03/0252-6.SARDIAquaticSciences,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

UnderwoodAJ.(1991).Beyond BACI: Experimental designs for detecting human environmental impacts on temporal variation in natural populations,42:569-587.AustralianJournalofMarineandFreshwaterResearch.

UnderwoodAJ.(1994).On beyond BACI: sampling designs that might reliably detect environmental disturbances, EcologicalApplications,4:3-15.

Underwood,AJandChapman,MG.(1996).Subtidal assemblages on rocky reefs at a cliff-face sewage outfall (North Head, Sydney, Australia): what happened when the outfall was turned off?MarinePollutionBulletin,33(7-12):293-302.

Warwick,RM.(1986). A new method for detecting pollution effects on marine macrobenthic communities, MarineBiology92(4):557-562.

Warwick,RM.(1988).Effects on community structure of a pollutant gradient – summary, MarineEcologyProgressSeries46(1-3):207-211.

Warwick,RMandClarke,KR.(1991).A comparison of some methods for analysing changes in benthic community structure,JournalOftheMarineBiologicalAssociationOftheUnitedKingdom71(1):225-244.

Warwick,RMandClarke,KR.(1993).Comparing the severity of disturbance: a meta-analysis of marine macrobenthic community data,MarineEcologyProgressSeries92(3):221-231.

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Warwick,RM,Platt,HM,Clarke,KR,Agard,JandGobin,J.(1990).Analysis of macrobenthic and meiobenthic community structure in relation to pollution and disturbance in Hamilton Harbour, Bermuda,JournalofExperimentalMarineBiologyandEcology138:119-142.

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WilkinsonJ,White,N,Smythe,L,Hutson,J,Bestland,E,Simmons,C,Lamontagne,S,&

COAST AND SEA

Further in format ion

Concrete drain into sea. Photo: Anita Harmer.

Fallowfield, H. (2005). Volumes of inputs, their concentrations and loads received by Adelaide metropolitan coastal waters ACWS TechnicalReportNo.18preparedfortheAdelaideCoastalWatersStudySteeringCommittee.FlindersCentreforCoastalandCatchmentEnvironments,FlindersUniversityofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Adelaide’s Living Beaches: A Strategy for 2005 – 2025 www.environment.sa.gov.au/coasts/adelaides_living_beaches.html

Department for Environment and Heritage www.environment.sa.gov.au

Environment Protection Authority www.epa.sa.gov.au/

SARDI Aquatic Sciences www.sardi.sa.gov.au/aquatic/ index.html

SA Water www.sawater.com.au


COAST AND SEA

• South Australian fisheries: MOSTLY FULLY FISHED (attheiruppersustainablelimit),SOME OVER FISHED.

• The number of fisheries that are fully fished: INCREASING.

• The number of fisheries that are over fished or depleted: STABLE.

• Volumeofaquacultureproduction:INCREASED 29%from2001-02to2005-06.

• AquacultureEnvironmentalmonitoring:INCREASEDandmandatoryforalllicensees.

• Aquaculture escapes from finfish farms:STABLEduetodevelopmentandimplementationofmandatoryescapepreventionstrategiesbyYellowtail kingfish farms.

• Shipping traffic: INCREASINGduetoincreaseinglobaltradeandminingoperations,whichwillincreasetheriskofmarinepesttransfersthroughballastwater.

• Developmentofcoastalareas:INCREASING.

• Seachangetrendsinhousingandpopulationincoastaltowns:INCREASING.

• Developmentofmarinaswithassociatedresidentialdevelopments:INCREASING.

Note:Fisheriesassessmentsusedinthisreportwerereleasedin2006andnewdatawillbereleasedin2009.

Trends

Key facts

Goals

Coastal and Marine Resources and a sustainable South Australia

Coastal andMarine Resources

Protect,manage,useanddeveloptheaquaticresourcesofthestateinamannerthatisconsistentwithEcologicallySustainableDevelopment(ESD)andpreventsover-exploitationofthoseresourceswhilemeetingtheequalneedsofthecommunityandfuturegenerations

Fisheries Management Act 2007

Topromotetheecologicallysustainabledevelopmentofmarineandlandbasedaquaculture; to maximise the benefits tothecommunityfromthestate’saquacultureresources;andtoensuretheefficient and effective regulation of the aquacultureindustry.

Aquaculture Act 2001

Thecoastal,estuarineandmarineenvironmentssupportlargecommercialindustriessuchasaquaculture,fisheries and the emerging industries of bioprospectingandoffshoreexploration.SouthAustralia’suniquemarinehabitatsandspeciesdiversitycreatestourismandrecreationalopportunitiesindiving,boatingandmarinecetaceanobservationorsightseeingalongsomebeaches.

Degradationoftheseenvironmentsasaresultofpoorwaterquality,overexploitation,pollution,introducedpestspecies,unsustainabledevelopmentandotherfactorswilldiminishthevalueofourcoastlinetolocalandoverseasvisitors, result in a decline of fisheries and aquacultureproduction(twoindustriesthatrelyonpristinewaters)andmayresultinlossofspeciespriortotheirbiologicalcapabilitiesbeingdiscovered.

Fisheries

In2005-06thestate’scommercialwildfisheries were valued at $193.5 million (Knightet al.,2007).Amajornationwidesurveyin2000-01estimatedtheexpenditureattributabletorecreationalfishing within South Australia at $148.48 millionplusorminus$14.06million(JonesandDoonan,2005).Indigenouscommunitiesmaintainaculturaland subsistence affinity with these environmentsandresources.

Commercial and recreational fishing industriesrelyonhealthyhabitatsandwell-managedresources.PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSouthAustralia(PIRSA) manages South Australia’s fish stocksinpartnershipwithstakeholdersandthegeneralcommunitythroughaformalconsultativeco-managementprocess.

• ThelengthofthecoastalteredbydevelopmentinSouthAustraliaincreasedbyaround70kmovertheperiodfrom1980to2004.

• In2006therewerealmost700newdwellingsbuiltwithinhalfakilometreofthecoast.

• Somecurrentlysmallcoastaltownshipswillexperienceademographicshifttowardsolderpeopleintheircommunityasaresultofpeopleseekingseachangelifestyles.

Coastal and Marine Resources


Despitetherelianceofmarineresourcesona healthy environment, fisheries habitats in SouthAustraliahaveoftenbeenabusedinthepastthroughover-harvestingandpollution,andremainvulnerabletoavarietyofthreats.Inparticular,land-basedactivitiessuchascoastaldevelopment,industry, effluent, stormwater discharge andagricultureallhavethepotentialtoseriouslyjeopardisethefuturewellbeingoflocalandlargerscalehabitatsinmanyareasofSouthAustralia(Bryars,2003).

Aquaculture

EconSearchreportedestimatesoftheeconomicimpactofaquacultureproductioninSouthAustraliain2005-06(Figure3.2).Totalproductionvolumeshadincreased29%fromin2001-02,upfrom13,548tonnesto17,535tonnes.Thelargestgains were made by the marine finfish sector (predominantly Yellowtail kingfish), increasing643%from334tonnesto2,148tonnesoverthesameperiod.

TheGrossStateProduct(GSP)ofaquaculturewasvaluedat$265.1millionin200506,equivalentto0.42%ofthestate’stotalGSP.

Approximately74%ofaquaculture’scontributiontoGSPwasgeneratedinregionalSouthAustraliaandtheindustryprovidedtotalemploymentof3,348fulltimeequivalentpositions.Directhouseholdincomewasestimatedtobearound $51 million with flow-on income of approximately$72million,givingatotalhouseholdincomeeffectof$123millionormore.

Inregionalcommunitiesduring2005-06,theaquacultureindustrywasconcentratedin the Eyre Peninsula region, reflecting the dominanceoftunafarminginthetotalfigures. (EconSearch, 2007).

Tourism, recreation and cultural significance

Thestate’scoastalandmarinebasedtourismexperiencescontributetoSouthAustralia’sdistinctivenessasadestination,generating economic benefits for the stateandregions.

SouthAustraliaoffersrecreationaldiversclean,uncrowdedandtemperatewaters,amongthemostbiologicallydiverseintheworld.Diveexperiencesincludediving with giant cuttlefish off the coast ofWhyalla,greatwhitesharksnearPortLincolnandtherareleafyseadragonoffKangarooIslandandFleurieuPeninsula.

Themassspawningaggregationofthegiant cuttlefish near Whyalla is recognised asuniqueintheworld,andoneofthemore significant and spectacular natural eventsinAustralianmarinewatersbymarinebiologistsworldwide.Theaquacultureindustrynowoffersswimminganddivingintunapens.

Therearealsomorethan700shipwrecksalongSouthAustralia’scoastline,manyofwhichareopentodivers.Adelaide’sUnderwaterHeritageTrailonGulfSt.Vincentlinksfourofthemosthistoricwrecks:theGrecian,theZanoni,StarofGreeceandNorma,allofwhichsankbetween1841and1893.Thereismoreinformationonshipwrecksinthe Cultural Heritagechapter.

TheuniqueecologicalcharacteristicsoftheLakesandCoorongwetlandsarerecognisedinternationallyfortheir significance to waterbirds. High conservationstatusisaffordedtotheareaasaSouthAustralianNationalParkandasawetlandarealistedundertheinternationalRamsarconvention.Thesystemremainsunderseriousstressfromreduced flows into the greater Murray-DarlingSysteminthelast10years.

TheMurray-DarlingBasinCommissionhasrecognisedtheimportanceoftheMurrayMouthbyidentifyingitasoneofsixsignificant ecological assets in the Basin. This area also harbours significant cultural andspiritualimportanceforIndigenouscommunitiesandtheNgarrindjeripeoplestill practice traditional fishing and food gatheringinthearea(Hemmingetal.,2002).FurtherinformationontheCoorongandLowerLakescanbefoundintheRiver Murraychapter.

Shipping

ShippingasanactivityisdiscussedmoreexpansivelyintheTransport Chapter.Theinformationprovidedinthischapterrelatestotheproliferationofmarinepestsasaresultofballastdischargeandhullfouling,atopicthatisalsodiscussedintheIntroduced Specieschapter.

CONDITION INDICATOR

• Fish Stock Status

FishStockStatuscombinesbiologicalparameterswithavailableinformationoncommercial,recreationalandindigenousfishing activities for an indicator of the conditionofindividualspeciesandtheirfisheries.

COAST AND SEA

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

350000

2006

/07

2005

/06

2004

/05

2003

/04

2002

/03

2001

/02

2000

/01

1999

/00

1998

/99

1997

/98

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/97

1995

/96

1994

/95

Source: PIRSA Aquaculture, 2008

Value (AUD $’000)

Va

lue

(A

UD

$’0

00)

Volume (tonnes)

Vo

lum

e (

ton

ne

s)

0

2,000

4,000

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8,000

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16,000

18,000

20,000

Figure 3.2: Annual aquaculture production,

volume and value


Fisheries are classified as uncertain, under fished, fully fished, over-fished, or environ-mentallylimited.

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• Length and area of estuarine and coastal foreshore altered for human purposes

UrbanisationofSouthAustralia’scoastlineplaces significant pressure on the estuarine,coastalandmarineresourcesofthestate.

• Change in area of potential coastal acid sulfate soils under development for human use

Disturbanceofcoastalacidsulfatesoilsthroughdevelopmentofestuarineandcoastalhabitatscanhaveadevastatingimpactontheadjacentmarineecosystem.Anindicationofpotentialacidsulfatesoilsdeveloped,zonedfordevelopmentorprotectedfromdevelopmentprovidesanindicationoftheriskofoccurrenceinSouthAustralianwaters.

• Effect of fisheries on non-target species

Interactions of fisheries with non-target speciesgiveanindicationoftheireffectontheenvironmentandotherspecies.Effectscanbeassessedovertimetodeterminethedeclineorincrease,inriskandoccurrenceofnegativeimpacts.

• Illegal fishing activities via prosecutions

Prosecutions,expiationsandwarningsadministeredbyFisheriesComplianceOfficers can be seen as an indicator of therelativepressureonspeciesfromillegal fishing activities, however the true valueoftheindicatorreliesonadequateresourcingofenforcementactivities.

• Shipping ballast water discharges in South Australian waters

Thispressureindicatorwasdevelopedtoassesstheriskofpestspeciesbeingintroducedintothestate’swatersbytheshippingindustry.Althoughballastwaterdischargesarenotcurrentlyrecorded,theycanbeestimatedbasedonthenumberofshipscarryingballastintothestate’sports.

What is the current situation?

RESPONSE INDICATORS

• Changes in area of the marine environment subject to the prohibition or management of fisheries operations

Thesechangesareanindicatoroftheeffectivenessofthemanagementofestuarine,coastandmarineresourcesandhabitat,andasurrogatemeasureofmanagementovertime.

• Comparison of area zoned as suitable for aquaculture development, maximum area available to lease within an aquaculture zone and area zoned to exclude aquaculture development and change between years

Theareazonedforaquacultureintegratesthreespatialindicators:theareasuitablefordevelopment;thatavailableforleasing;andthatexcludedfromdevelopment.Thisresponseindicatorpresentsthelevelofaquaculturedevelopmentinthestate’scoastalwatersandenablesacomparisonoftotalzonedareawitharealeasedforandexcludedfromfarming.

• Coast and marine policy and planning programs and initiatives

Programsandinitiativesforcoastandmarinepolicyandplanning,playanintegralroleinmaintainingtheconditionofourestuarine,coastalandmarineenvironmentswhileprovidingforsustainableresourceuse.

CONDITION INDICATOR: Fish Stock Status

SouthAustraliahasarangeofstrongandviable fishing industries many of which arelowinvolume,buthighineconomicvalue.

Thecontinentalshelfandoffshorewatersarehometosouthernrocklobster(Jasus edwardsii),abalone(Haliotis laevigataandHaliotis rubra),giantcrab(Psuedocarcinus gigas),andsardine(Sardinops sagax). Commercial fishing for thesespeciesaccountformorethan80%oftotalproductionbyweightandalmost70%ofthetotalvalueofSouthAustralia’sfisheries resources.

Inshorewaterssupportthewesternkingprawn, marine scalefish and blue crab

BioprospectingDrKirstenBenkendorfffromtheSchoolofBiologicalSciencesatFlindersUniversityisexploringthemedicinalpropertiesofSouthAustralianMarineMolluscs.Inparticularthedogwhelk(Dicathais orbita)isbeinginvestigatedasacomplementarymedicineforthetreatmentofcancer,gastrointestinaldisordersandfemalereproductiveproblems.

Researchisalsobeingundertakentouncoverthebiosyntheticenzymesandgenesassociatedwiththenaturalproductionofthesebioactivesecondarymetabolites.Toensuresustainabledevelopmentofbioactiveextractsfromthisspecies,aquacultureresearchisbeingundertakentoestablishlarvalcultureandoptimisejuvenilegrow-out.

ThedefensivesecretionsandhumoralimmunefactorsfromothermolluscsarealsobeingscreenedforantimicrobialandanticanceractivityinDrBenkendorff’slaboratory,andmolluscaneggmassesarebeinginvestigatedfortheirantifoulingproperties.Assoc.Prof.MichaelPerkinsfromtheSchoolofChemistry,PhysicsandEarthSciencesisinvestigatingpolyproprion-atesproducedbythelocalmarinepulmonatesSiphonariaspp.

AspartoftheCooperativeResearchCentreforSeafoodInnovation,researchersfromFlindersUniversityarealsoinvestigatingthebioactivepropertiesoflocalseacucumbers.ThisprojectwillbeleadbyProfChrisFrancoandDrWeiZangfromtheDepartmentofMedicalBiotechnology.



fisheries. Inland waters support the River FisheryandLakesandCoorongFishery,whichtargetanumberofnativeandnon-nativespecies.

Arangeofdevelopingandsmall-scalefisheries, with low production and low value,arecategorisedasMiscellaneousFisheriesincludingseaurchin(Heliocidaris erythrogramma),scallop(Pecten fumatus),specimenshells,polychaeteworms,nativeoyster(Ostrea angasi),andbeach-castseagrassandmacroalgae.Ofthe 21 commercial fisheries operating in the 2004-05 fishing season 14 are now fully fished, four remain overfished or depleted andthreeareconsideredtobeenviron-mentallylimited(Table3.2and3.3).

Rock lobster: The most productive fishing groundsforthesouthernrocklobster(Jasus edwardsii)areinwatersadjacenttoSouthAustralia.Thetotalcommercialcatchfromthesewatersisonaverage2,500tonnesperyear,whichrepresentsabout30%ofthetotalannualnationalcommercialcatch.Therecreationalcatchisestimatedtobebetween87and118tonnesperyear(Currieet al.,2006).

In2004-05thenorthernzoneoftheRock Lobster Fishery was classified as overfished. The most likely cause of the biomassdeclinewasthecontinuedfishing pressure applied to the fishery duringanextendedperiodofvariableanddecliningrecruitment(PIRSA,2006;Prescottetal.1997).Astockrecoverystrategyisnowinplaceandnewstockassessmentsmayindicateanimprovement from its overfished status (PIRSA,2006).

Conversely,allperformanceindicatorsfor the southern zone fishery are positive: catchrates,biomassandeggproductionlevels are the highest in the fishery’s recenthistory;recruitmentlevelshavebeenhighoverthelastfewseasons;andtheexploitationrateislow.TheSouthernRockLobsterindustryhasdevelopedacodeofpracticethatrequirescommercial fishers to adopt environmen-tallyfriendlyoperatingpracticesaimedatreducingoverallenvironmentalimpacts(PIRSA,2006).

Prawns:SouthAustraliahasthreePrawnFisheriesbasedexclusivelyonthewesternkingprawn(Melicertus latisculatus)locatedinGulfsSt.VincentandSpencer,andoffthewestcoast.

Theworld’slargestknownpopulationofwesternkingprawnsisinSpencerGulf

and this fishery has maintained stable productionthroughoutits40yearhistory,despitemorethanhalvingthenominaleffortforthecatchdueintroductionoftheRealTimeManagementsystemthatcapitalisesontheresultsofspatiallyandtemporallyexplicitharvestsurveys(CarrickandOstendorf,2005).

WesternkingprawnsinGulfSt.Vincenthowever,arerecoveringfrombeingoverfished. Since 2000-01, the total catch,CatchPerUnitEffort(amountof catch for a defined amount of effortputin),andthemeanprawnsizedecreasedsubstantiallyresultingina57%reductioninthecatchduring2004-05(PIRSA,2006).

Abalone:Withthe900t2004-05harvestvaluedatnearly$34million,theAbaloneFisheryisthestate’ssecondmost valuable fishery. It has stabilised wellfollowingtheintroductionofaquotasystemmorethanadecadeagoalthoughblacklipabalone(Haliotisrubra) in the central zone is classified as overfished.

TheTotalAllowableCommercialCatch(TACC)forthisspeciesinthecentralzonehasrecentlybeenreducedtopromotestockrecovery.Researchfocusedonunderstandingthespatialscaleofvariationinabalonebiologyisbeingconductedtodeterminemore appropriate finer scale spatial managementarrangements(PIRSA,2006).

Sardines:Since2001catchandeffortintheSardineFisheryhavebeenrapidlyincreasing.TheSardineFisheryissignificantly the largest by total weight ofcatchinSouthAustralia,buthasaloweconomicvalue.

Arecentincreaseinthespawningbiomassestimatesuggeststhestockisincreasinginabundance.However,as shown by significant mass mortality eventsin1995and1998,sardinestockscan undergo significant variations inabundance.Toaddressthis,aconservativeTACChasbeensetforthisfishery (PIRSA, 2006).

King George whiting:SouthAustralia’shighest valued finfish species both commerciallyandrecreationally,KingGeorge whiting has been over fished inbothSpencerGulfandGulfSt.Vincent and fully fished for the West Coast(PIRSA,2006).

Increasedminimumsizelimitsintroducedin1994andanetbuy-back

COAST AND SEA

Commercial crab pot retrieved.

Photo: Dale McKerlie


schemeandnettingclosuresundertakenin2005,arethoughttohaveaidedintherecoveryofthisspecies.

Detailed fishery assessment reports areduetobereleasedinlate2008(unavailableattimeofwriting)willprovidegreatercertaintyonthestockstatus.

Snapper: AccordingtoanassessmentreportproducedinJuly2007theSnapperFisheryhasimprovedinconditionandisnow classed as fully fished.

Statewideseasonalclosureshavebeenusedasamanagementtoolsince2000to reduce fishing effort and to protect aproportionofthespawningstock.MonthlongclosuresduringNovemberhavebeeninplacesince2003andcommercialcatchesareincreasing(PIRSA,2006).

Garfish: In recent years significant managementchangeshaveoccurredto rebuild depleted and overfished garfish stocks.

In2005avoluntarynetbuybackschemeresultedinthepermanentremovalofmorethan50%ofallgillandhaulnetendorsements (permits) in the fishery. Followingthebuybacktherehasbeena statewide 40% reduction in net fishing effort.Inadditiontothebuyback,spatialareaclosureswerealsointroduced.

Catcheshavestabilisedsincethedeclinesintheearly2000sandafullassessment of the fishery in 2009 will indicatewhetherthestockisnowoverfished or fully fished (PIRSA, 2006).

Blue swimmer crab:Establishedasacommercial fishery in 1996, the Blue Crab Fishery is considered fully fished.

ManagedusingasystemofIndividualTransferable Quota the fishery is divided intotwoareas(SpencerGulfandGulfSt.Vincent). Marine Scalefish Fishery licence holdersarealsoentitledtotakebluecrab,butarerequiredtoholdbluecrabquotashouldtheywishtocatchbluecrabs in the areas of water defining the BlueCrabFishery.

Blue crabs are a significant target catch for recreational fishers over the warmer summermonths.TheresultsofaNationalRecreationalandIndigenousFishingSurvey,undertakenoverathree-yearperiod,estimatedthattherecreationalshareofthetotalharvestwas37.5%during2000-01(HenryandLyle,2003).

Inland waters fisheries: SouthAustralia’sinlandwatershavetwoseparatelymanaged fisheries. The River Fishery encompassesthewatersoftheRiverMurrayupstreamofWellingtonandtheLakesandCoorongFisheryincludesthelowerlakes,Cooronglagoonsandadjacentoceanbeaches.

HistoricallytheRiverFisheryhasbeenbasedonthetakingofMurraycod(Maccullochella peelii peelii)andgoldenperch(Macquaria ambigua).Amajorrestructure of the fishery in 2003 prohibited thecatchofsomenativespecies,includingMurraycodandgoldenperch,and the fishery is now structured on the catchofpredominantlynon-nativespecies(PIRSA,2006).

BiologicalinformationforkeyspeciesintheLakesandCoorongFisheryispoorandassessmentofstockstatusreliesheavily on fishery data. Collaborative researchisbeingdoneonthebiologyandecologyofmulloway,Goolwacockles, fish passage, larval recruitment andgearinteractionswithnon-targetspecies.Futureresearchwillpotentiallyfocusontheroleofhabitatandenvironmentalfactorsinthelifehistoryofkeyspecies(PIRSA,2006).

Mud cockles:Increaseddemandformudcockles has led to significant increases in catch and effort over the last five years, particularly in Coffin Bay. Coffin Bay and theSectionBankatPortAdelaidearethetwomainharvestingregionsinSouthAustraliaandtogetheraccountforover90%ofthetotalcatch.

Stockstatusisconsidereduncertain,however it is clear that the fishery cannot withstandever-increasingcatches.Currentmanagementarrangementsrelyonlimitingtheeffortputinbycommercialfishers as a means of indirectly controlling theircatch(inputcontrols),plusenvironmentalandmarketdrivenfactorstomaintaintheharvestatsustainablelevels.

Thesearrangementsareconsideredinadequatefordealingwiththeincreasingcatchandeffort.Followingindustryconsultation,outputcontrolslimitingthevolumeofcocklesthatcanbetakenplusaquotamanagementsystemwillbeusedfortheFisheryfrom2008(PIRSA,2006).

Recreational fishery:In2000-01anestimated$148.48(±14.06)millionwasexpended on recreational fishing (Jones andDoonan,2005).

Commercial fishing boats, Boston Bay. Photo:

Frank Dal Piva



NowAustralia’slargestparticipationsport(JonesandDoonan,2005),recreationalfishing is enjoyed by an estimated 328,000 SouthAustralianseachyear.

Of62speciesrecordedin2000-01,marinescalefish, in particular King George whiting,Australianherring(tommyruffs)and garfish, plus blue crab and Goolwa Cocklewereamongthemostpopularspecies(Table3.4).PIRSAFisheriesiscurrentlyconductingarecreationalfishing survey with identical methods to thoseof2000-01toupdateinformationonspeciescatchandtargetrates.

Withtheimplementationofnewlegislation,thissurveywillguidethereviewandimprovementofmanagement

COAST AND SEA

arrangements for recreational fishing from2009andtheimplementationofnewperformanceindicators.

Indigenous fishing:Indigenouscommunitiesmaintainaculturalandsubsistence affinity with fisheries habitats andresources,inparticularthroughtheInlandFishery.

Theimplementationofnewlegislationthroughthe Fisheries Management Act 2007hasimprovedtheincorporationof Indigenous fishing activities and requirements,throughprovisionforIndigenous Land Use Agreements and specific Management Plans.

Stock Status Classification 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05

Uncertain 1 1 0

Under fished - - -

Fully fished 13 12 14

Over fished or depleted 3 4 4

Environmentally limited 4 4 3

Total 21 21 21

Source: PIRSA, 2006

Stock status summary for key commercial fisheries (2004-05)

Fishery Stock Status* Total Catch (t) Value ($'000) Catch and Effort trends^

Prawn, Gulf St. Vincent Over fished 213 3 761 Nil

Prawn, Spencer Gulf Fully fished 1 939 31 759 Decreasing catch

Prawn, West Coast Environmentally Limited 21 284 Decreasing catch & effort

Rock Lobster, Northern Zone Over fished 446 11 643 Decreasing catch & effort

Rock Lobster, Southern Zone Fully fished 1 897 54 397 Increasing catch & effort

Giant Crab Fully fished 19 218 Nil

Abalone, Western Zone Fully fished 565 20 505 Stable

Abalone, Central Zone Fully fished 180 7 402 Stable & decreasing catch & effort

Greenlip abalone Fully fished Stable

Blacklip abalone Overfished Decreasing catch & effort

Abalone, Southern Zone Fully fished 157 5 914 Stable

Blue Crab Fully fished 632 3 591 Increasing catch & effort

Sardine Fully fished 56 952 28 476 Increasing catch & effort

Marine Scalefish, King George Whiting Over fished 347 3 585 Decreasing catch & effort

Marine Scalefish, Snapper Fully fished 504 3 301 Nil

Marine Scalefish, Garfish Over fished 364 1 929 Decreasing catch & effort

Marine Scalefish, Southern Calamary Fully fished 504 2 823 Decreasing catch & effort

Marine Scalefish, Australian Salmon Fully fished 133 222 Nil

Lakes and Coorong, Mulloway Environmentally Limited 39 216 Decreasing catch & effort

Lakes and Coorong, Goolwa Cockle Fully fished 1 066 1 305 Increasing catch & effort

Lakes and Coorong, Black Bream Environmentally Limited 6 55 Decreasing catch & effort

Lakes and Coorong, Golden Perch Fully fished 103 1 039 Increasing catch & effort

Lakes and Coorong, Yellow-eye Mullet Fully fished 110 245 Decreasing catch & effort

Notes:

* Stock Status classifications are for data accumulated to 2005. Recent data may alter the status of some stocks.

^ Catch and effort trends are for data accumulated to 2005. Recent data may alter the trends in catch and effort.

Source: PIRSA, 2006

Table 3.2: Stock status classification

Table 3.3: Stock status summary for key commercial fisheries (2004-05)

Tuna Catch, Boston Bay. Photo: Frank Dal Piva


Recreational fishery harvest and release of key species in South Australia (2000-01)

Species Numbers of fish harvested Biomass harvested (kg) Released numbers (% total catch)

Australian herring 2 973 402 297 340 775 783 (20.7 %)

Australian salmon 715 768 372 199 213 466 (23.5 %)

Bream 81 088 31 949 181 333 (69.1 %)

Garfish 1 511 250 132 990 224 950 (11.6 %)

King George Whiting 2 238 071 606 517 820 446 (26.8 %)

Snapper 115 798 370 554 325 785 (73.8 %)

Sharks and rays 30 722 614 440 NA

European Carp 483 310 273 553 22 774 (4.5 %)

Golden Perch 86 732 91 069 135 107 (60.9 %)

Other finfish 1 964 399 336 725 NA

Blue crabs 1 139 795 389 810 524 906 (31.8 %)

Rock Lobster 113 679 95 490 34 870 (23.5 %)

Freshwater yabbies 593 113 23 725 676 691 (12.4 %)

Other crustaceans 1 282 928 41 712 NA

Abalone 17 780 8 588 3 988 (18.3 %)

Goolwa Cockle 1 474 859 22 900 820 446 (19.3 %)

Squid and cuttlefish 1 047 904 423 353 14 274 (1.5 %)

Other molluscs 852 314 480 609 NA

Other animals 61 645 606 NA

Total 17 413 688 5 027 466 NA

Source: Jones and Doonan, 2005

What are the pressures?

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Length and area of coastal and estuarine foreshore altered for human purposes

SouthAustraliahas4,000kmofcoastline.CoastalareasvaryfromtherockyshoresandsandybeachesoftheSouthEastandWestCoasttoextensivecalmwatermud flats, seagrasses and mangrove habitatsinthegulfregions.Lessthan10%ofthecoasthasbeendevelopedforurbanpurposes.However,thecoasthasbeenalteredbyarangeofnon-urbandevelopmentssuchasboatingfacilities,publicaccesspoints,offshoreaquaculture,marinasandboatramps.

Coastalenvironmentsareextremelysensitivesystemsthatareeasilyaffectedbydevelopment.Coastalerosion,lossofhabitatandpollutionarekeyissuesofconcernwithcoastaldevelopment.This conflict between coastal systems anddevelopmentislikelytobefurtherhighlightedwithpredictedsea-levelrisesassociatedwithadverseclimatechangeimpactingdirectlyoncoastalsettlements.

ComparedtootherAustralianstates,SouthAustraliahasarelativelylowproportionofitscoastunderdevelopment.Forcomparison,in2004inNewSouthWales,27%ofthecoastlinewasurbanisedcomparedto7%ofSouth

Australia’s.AsTable3.5shows,thelengthofthecoastalteredfordevelopmentinSouthAustraliaincreasedbyaround70kmfrom1980to2004.

Zoning of land on the coast

In2007PlanningSAdataindicatedthatapproximately64%ofthelandwithinhalfakilometreofthestate’scoastwaseitherzonedasbeingCoastalorcoveredbyanEnvironmentalConstraintthateffectivelyrestricteddevelopment(Table3.6).

Afterthese,themostfrequentzoningoflandadjacenttothecoastwasRural(22.5%)andResidential(3.4%).Lessthan1%waszonedforfutureurbangrowth(DeferredUrban).

Land division applications near the coast

Table3.7showsproposedlanddivisionsaffectingproperties500metresfromthecoastasatOctober2007.ThemajorityofthesewerezonedeitherResidentialorRural.

WhiletherewerenumerousapplicationsforRuralLivingsubdivisionscoveringthegreatestlengthofcoastline,therewasahighernumberofproposedResidentialsubdivisions.RuralLivingsubdivisionsdonotgenerallyrequirethesamelevelofservices,e.g.roadsiderubbishcollectionandconnectiontoseweragemains,asresidentialones.

Table 3.4: Recreational fishery harvest and release of key species in South Australia (2000-01)

Sunset at Semaphore Jetty. Photo: Tim Lubcke



COAST AND SEA

Map3.3illustratesincreasesinhousingintheVictorHarbor-PortElliotarea.Thisgrowthisplacingpressureoninfrastructureincludinghealthcareprovidersandschools,andisincreasingthevolumesofstormwaterandwastewatergenerated.Themapshowsareasthathavebeendevelopedpost-1990wherelargeparcelsoflandclosetothecoasthavebeensplitintosmallerhousingblocks.ThereisalsoarecentpatternoflifestylehousingaroundagolfcourseinVictorHarborandalakeinEncounterBay.

InanticipationofcontinuedgrowthandtoreducetheimpactofthewastewaterdischargeintotheInmanRiverandtheadjoiningcoastalareas,SAWaterrecentlybuiltanewwastewatertreatmentplantinVictorHarbor.Anotherbenefit of this project has been that 115millionlitresperyearoftreatedwastewaterwillbeavailabletoirrigatealocalgolfcourseandvineyard.

Sea Change Phenomenon

TherehasbeenincreaseddemandforhousingonthecoastinbothAdelaideandregionalSouthAustralia.Theprocessofintensifyingthelanduseadjacenttothecoastputspressureonthestormwaterinfrastructureandpoormanagementofbuildingsitescanleadtocontaminationinstormwaterrunofftothesea.

TherehasbeenincreaseddemandforhousingincoastalcommunitiesinregionalSouthAustraliaaspartoftheseachangephenomenonwherepeopleseekcoastallocationsforlifestylereasons.Projectedpopulationandhousingincreasesincoastalsmalltownsasaresultofnewdevelopmentscanbeproportionallyquite significant as evidenced by the growthofWallarooandCapeJaffa.TheseachangephenomenonisfurtherdiscussedintheUrban Form and Populationchapterofthisreport.

New Dwellings adjacent to the Coast

Figure3.3showsthenumberofnewdwellingsbuiltwithinhalfakilometreoftheSouthAustraliancoastfrom1996to2006,duringwhichtimetherewasarapidincreaseinthenumberofdwellingsbuilt.Thispeakedat855dwellingsbuiltin2000andhasremainedrelativelysteadysince.

Themovementtowardsdevelopmentalongthecoastrequiresseriousconsiderationoflikelyclimaterelatedscenariosshouldsea-levelsrise.Increasingdevelopmentalongthecoastalsoimpactsonlandscapesandamenity.

Metropolitan Adelaide

ThemajorityofgrowthinnewhousingadjacenttocoastalareasinAdelaidehasoccurredintheoutersouthernsuburbs.

State 1980 (km) 1989 (km) 2004 (km) Total Coast Length (km)

NSW 438 490 524 1973

NT 26 29 36 5438

QLD 381 429 474 6967

SA 182 232 251 3815

TAS 148 185 267 2827

VIC 270 298 311 1870

WA 217 271 299 12 913

Source: Australian Government State of the Environment Report 2006, derived from Australian Greenhouse Office 2006 unpublished data

Development Category Length (km) % Total

Coastal 1450 37.6

Environmental Constraint* 1016 26.3

Rural 867 22.5

Residential 131 3.4

Other Categories# 110 2.8

Industry 69 1.8

Rural Living 50 1.3

Recreation 40 1.0

Special use 40 1.0

Commercial 21 0.5

Watershed Protection 19 0.5

Mixed uses 12 0.3

Deferred Urban 11 0.3

Country Township 11 0.3

Community Facilities 5 0.1

Historic Residential 3 0.1

Hills Face Zone 2 0.1

Total 3858 100

Notes:*combines Environmental Constraint and Conservation categories#includes areas with no zones and that were excluded from zoning

Source: Planning SA, 2007

Table 3.5: Length of coast altered for human development

Table 3.6: Zoning of land 500 metres from the

coast, October 2007

RegionalexamplesoftheimpactofSeaChangedevelopmentVictorHarborandWallarooaretwocoastalcommunitiesthathavebeenexperiencingpopulationandhousinggrowth.Whilebotharepopularseachangedestinations,VictorHarbor has experienced significant populationandhousinggrowthoveralongerperiod.Therecentpopularity of Wallaroo is reflected in the difference in demographic profile tothatofVictorHarbor.

Locatedonthecoastapproximately80kmsouthofAdelaide,VictorHarborisaholidayandretirementlifestyledestination.Overthelast35yearsVictorHarbor’surbanareahasnearlytripleditssizetoanestimated10,000peoplein2006,ahighproportionofwhomareover65yearsoldandamuchsmallerproportionofwhoareintheir20sand30s.

Sited160kmnorthofAdelaide,Wallaroohasamulti-milliondollarresidentialmarinadevelopmentthatbeganconstruction10yearsago.Aswellasbeingapopularholidaydestination,ithasadeepseaportthatisimportanttotheagriculturalindustryinthesurroundingregion.Inthe1970sthepopulationwasdeclining,butaturnaroundappearstohaveoccurredfromtheearly1980sandthetrendofpeoplemovingtoWallarooforaseachangelifestylehas intensified in recent years. Accordingtothe2006Census,thepopulationofWallaroohadgrownby46%overthepreceding25yearstoreachapopulationofcloseto3,000.

The age profile of Wallaroo differs significantly from that of Victor Harbor, asthereisahigherproportionofyoungerpeopleandfeweragedover70years.Continueddemandforhousingwillputpressureoninfrastructuresuchasstormwaterandwastewatersystems.


Purpose Code Count LENGTH (Km) % Total

Rural 302 161 76.8

Residential 522 17 8.0

Rural Living 101 9 4.1

Balance Allotment 28 4 2.1

Reserve 40 4 2.0

Public Purposes 14 3 1.6

Other Codes 60 3 1.5

Road Allotment 108 2 1.2

Common Property Recreation 19 2 1.1

Common Property Landscaping 7 2 1.0

Industry 10 2 0.7

Total 1211 210 100

Source: Planning SA, unpublished data

SPAR ID: 2755

1970 - 1979

1980 - 1989

1990 - 2007

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 metres

Victor Harbor

Granite Island

Encounter Bay

McCracken

Hayborough

Port Elliot

Built before 1970

Cadastre

Data Source: Department for Transport,Energy and Infrastructure.

Table 3.7: Land division applications(awaiting approval) at October 2007

Map 3.3: Housing development from Victor Harbor to Port Elliot



COAST AND SEA

AtGlenelg,intheCityofHoldfastBaytherehasbeenashifttowardshigherdensityhousinginapartments.IntheolderwesternsuburbsofmetropolitanAdelaidethemajorityofhousingdevelopmenthasinvolvedthedemolitionofsinglehousesandtheirreplacementwithoneortwodwellingsperallotment.

Thetrendtowardslargersitecoverageoflandandconsequentlysmallergardens through infill development inoldercoastalsuburbsofAdelaidecontributestoincreasedstormwaterrunoff.Thisputsincreasedpressureonstormwaterinfrastructure,furtherwastesavaluableresourceandaddstopollutionofAdelaide’ssensitivecoastalenvironments.

InvestigationsaspartoftheMetropolitanAdelaideStormwaterManagementStudy(KelloggBrown&RootPtyLtd,2004)concludedthatmostmetropolitanAdelaidecouncilsdonothaveproblemswithstormwaterinfrastructurehowever,overalltheyallcontributetocapacityandenvironmentalissuesdownstream.

Thestategovernmentsetatargetforincreasedrainwaterandstormwaterusefromthe2002levelof2,000MLperannumto20,000MLperannumby 2025 (Waterproofing Adelaide, SA Government,2005).Thisgoalwassetwithidentified strategies such as water tanks fornewdwellingsandtheuseofnewandimprovedtechnologiessuchasaquiferrechargeandwaterrecycling.

Trends in Residential Marinas

Developmentofresidentialmarinascaninterferewithcoastalprocessessuchassanddriftandmoreimportantly,canexposepotentiallyacidsulfatesoilsthatwhen acidified, can adversely affect nearbyecosystems.Marinascanalsohavelocalisedenvironmentalimpactsassociatedwiththeiroperationthroughincidentssuchashydrocarbonspillsfromvesselsorre-fuellingfacilities,anti-foulingactivitiesandimproperdisposalofrubbishfromvesselsaswellastheassociatedresidentialdevelopment.Inadditiontotheimpactofthemarinasthemselvestherecanalsobeanimpactfrom increased boat traffic. For example, manyboatsfromtheHindmarshmarinatraveltonearbyconservationareas,includingRamsarlistedwetlands.

Marina Guidelines, a Marina Demand Strategy and a Marina Strategywerealldevelopedin1988toguideMarinadevelopmentwithintheGulfs.However,

thesedocumentsdonotprovideguidanceforoceancoastmarinassuchasthoserecentlydevelopedatCapeJaffaandCeduna.PlanningSAiscurrentlypreparingupdatedguidelines.

RecentproposalsformarinaberthsinSouthAustraliahavebeenmostlyassociatedwithresidentialdevelopmentincoastalareas.Howevertherehasbeenincreaseddemandforrecreationalboatingandthereforedemandformarinaberthsandmooringstoaccommodatelargerrecreationalboats.AsofJune2008therewere55,280registeredrecreationalvesselsinSouthAustralia,an8%increasesince2003.Ofthese,1,735weregreaterthan10metresinlength.Thatstatisticissignificant as recreational vessels more 7.5minlengthpotentiallyrequireacoastalmooring,howeverdatacollectedis only specific to those vessels greater than10minlength.

Generallythecostofbuildingmarinashasmeantthattheirdevelopmentwithoutassociatedresidentialallotmentsisnotfinancially attractive for developers. UnpublishedPlanningSAresearchestimatedthatin2005therewere1,629marinaberthsinSA,ofwhich30%werelocatedinmetropolitanAdelaide.

InrecentyearsthelargescalemarinaproposalshavemostlybeenlocatedoutsidemetropolitanAdelaide,withsomeexceptionslikeNewportQuaysinPortAdelaideandtheredevelopmentoftheexistingmarinafacilitiesatNorthHaven.

TherehavebeenseverallargemarinadevelopmentsrecentlyapprovedinSouthAustralia.Table3.8showsdetailsofmarinadevelopmentsinCeduna,CapeJaffaandPortAdelaide.

These developments include significant residentialcomponentsandhavebeenpromotedashavingimportantregionaleconomic flow on effects. In particular thescaleoftheCapeJaffaAnchorageMarina will significantly intensify the residentialareaofCapeJaffa.Atthetimeofapprovalin2005theCapeJaffaTownshipwasestimatedtohavecloseto30permanentresidentsandverylimitedcommunityservices.Alsosee Water Quality and Habitatsand Urban Form and Population chapters.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Change in area of potential coastal acid sulfate soils under development for human use

Coastalacidsulfatesoilsarefoundbeneathlargesectionsoftheoccupied

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

200120

0220

0320

0420

0520

06

Year Built

Nu

mb

er

Source: Planning SA, Year Built data for Dwellings

Figure 3.3: New dwellings built 500 metres

from the coastline 1996-2006


areasofAustralia’scoastline.Thesesoilsformedunderwaterlongago,whentheoceanlevelwasmuchhigher.Astheseareceded,thesoilsremainedandtodaycanbefoundunderlow-lyingcoastalfeaturessuchascoastalplains,wetlandsandmangroves.

Acidsulfatesoilscanbedisturbedbycoastaldevelopmentssuchasmarinasandhousing.

Whenundisturbedandunderwaterthesesoilsarerelativelyharmless,butonceexposedtooxygenthroughdrainageorexcavationtheyproducesulfuricacidinlargevolumesresultinginsignificant environmental, economic and socialcosttocoastalcommunities.

Aswellastheimpactontheenvironmentsuchaspoorwaterqualityforsurroundingmarinehabitat,the decline or failure of fishery and aquacultureindustrieshasalsobeenattributedtoacidrunoff.

Inaddition,theecologicaldamagemaycompromisevaluabletouristresourcessuch as fishing grounds, swimming beachesandotherwatersportsareas.Aciddischargesmayalsodamagetownservicesandstructuresbyerodingpipes,foundations, drains, bridges and flood controls.

Development on Potential Acid Sulfate Soils and Actual Acid Sulfate Soils

SouthAustraliahasapproximately257,647 Ha of coastal land classified asPotentialAcidSulfateSoils(PASS)orActualAcidSulfateSoils(AASS).ThePASS/AASSareashavebeendeterminedbasedonvegetationanddonotincludethemajorityofmetropolitanAdelaideorcoastalareaswestofCeduna.

Of the zoned areas classified as PASS/AASS,morethan90%wasingovernmentownershipaseithernationalparkorcoastalreservein2007.

TherearelimitedopportunitiesfordevelopmentonPASS/AASSareasinSouthAustralia. A large proportion of identified PASS/AASSareasareprotected,such

astheCoorongNationalParkandLakeGeorgewithinBeachportConservationPark. There are also islands identified with PASS/AASSareasthatareunlikelytobedevelopedforhumanusebecauseoftheirsmallsizeandisolationfrommainlandSouthAustralia.Carefulconsiderationwillbeneedtobegiventoconditionsfordevelopmentshoulditbeproposedforthe identified acid sulfate soils at Gillman nearPortAdelaide.

Land Zoned for Development on Potential Acid Sulfate Soils

Where zoning exists on identified PASS/AASSareas,morethan80%waszonedaseitherbeingCoastalorhavinganEnvironmentalConstraint.Lessthan3% of the remaining classified areas wereinazonethatmightallowhousingdevelopmentorothermoreintensivestructuresontheland(Table3.9).Applicationofcontrolsoverthisremaininglandistheresponsibilityoftherelevantplanningauthority(generallylocalgovernment).

PlanningSA’sBetterDevelopmentPlansprojectincludesamoduleonhazardsthatprovidesdevelopmentcontrolmodelsforPASSandAASSlandandthesecanbeincorporatedintotheDevelopmentPlansofaffectedcouncils,ashasoccurredinWhyalla.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Fisheries effects on Non-target species

Non-targetspeciesarethoseunintentionallytaken or affected in a fishery when efforts aremadetoharvestthedesiredspecies.

InSouthAustralia,non-targetspeciesinclude birds, marine mammals, fish, sharks,crustaceansandmolluscs.Mostconcernfornon-targetspeciesisinrelationtoThreatened,EndangeredandProtectedSpecies(TEPS),suchasmarinemammals,sharks,seabirdsandsyngnathids(seahorse,seadragonsand pipefish). All wildlife, including TEPS,providesanintegralpartoftheecosystems that support fisheries.

Development & Year Approved Residential Recreational Commercial Estimated Allotments Marina Berths Marina Berths Population Increase

Ceduna Keys (2005) 500 100 50 Up to 2500

Cape Jaffa Anchorage Marina (2006) 400 40 45 Up to 2000

Newport Quays Port Adelaide (2005) 2000 635 nil Up to 4000

Source: Planning SA – approval documents and Environmental Impact Assessment reporting

Zoning Category Area (km²) % Total

Coastal 838 926 56.1

Environmental Constraint* 378 841 25.3

Rural 211 089 14.1

Industry 19 021 1.3

Excluded 12 993 0.9

Recreation 9323 0.6

Special Use 7412 0.5

Residential 3680 0.2

Mixed Uses 3631 0.2

Rural Living 3514 0.2

Watershed Protection 2426 0.2

Country Township 2413 0.2

Commercial 1330 0.1

Community facilities 1242 0.1

Deferred Urban 52 0.0

Total 1 495 892 100

Notes:*Combines Conservation and Environmental Constraint.Source: Planning SA zoning categories at 2007 and DEH

Table 3.8: Recently approved marina developments Table 3.9: Zoning on PASS / AASS areas in 2007



several deaths of dolphins. The fishery wassubsequentlyclosedforfourweekspendingthedevelopmentandimplementationofanindustrycodeofpracticetoaddressinteractionswithendangeredandprotectedspecies.PIRSAFisheriesconsidersthemitigationofinteractionsbetweentheSardineFisheryandTEPsasahighpriorityandare:

- researchingacousticpingerdevelopmenttodeterwildlife

- implementingaCodeofPractice

- dedicatingasetperiodofdays for compliance officer assessment of the fishery.

Prawn Fishery:Aproportionoflicensedprawn fishermen are permitted to take severalotherspeciesasby-product.Thesespeciesarenottargeted,butcaught incidentally during fishing operations,includingslipperlobster,calamari,octopus,scallop,andarrowsquid.

Considerabletechnologicaladvanceshavebeenmadeinthewaythecatchishandled.ThesepracticesareparticularlyadvancedintheSpencerGulf fishery, with the use of:

- crabbagstoexcludemega-faunabycatch,i.e.dolphins,whalesandseals

- hoppers for efficient sorting of thecatchandrapidreturnofbycatch

- graderstosorttheprawnsintomarketablesizecategories

- onboardfreezingfacilitiesthatenablefullprocessingon-boardandlimitunnecessaryeffectsonnon-targetspecies.

Marine Scalefish Fishery:PIRSAFisheriesisconductingariskassessmentofby-catchinthisFisherytoidentifyspeciesandactivitiesofconcern.Thisriskassessmentwillprioritisefuturemanagementeffortsonnon-targetspecies.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Illegal fishing activities via prosecutions

Illegal fishing places pressure on fish stocks as unregulated and unaccounted catch.

Unreportedcatchcancreateequivocalestimatesofstockstatusandresultinunderstatedmanagementtargets.This

Currently, there is insufficient quantitative informationtodeterminetheimpactoffisheries on most non-target species. In 2007PIRSAFisheriesandSARDIAquaticSciencesimplementedaWildlifeInteraction Identification and Log Book. Itisnowcompulsoryforallcommercialfishers to carry a logbook and record anyinteractionswithwildlifeotherthanthetargetspecies.ThisisarequirementundertheEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999(EPBCAct1999).Speciesthatmustbereportedinclude:

• allspeciesofseabirds,andmarineandfreshwaterreptiles(turtles)

• allspeciesofsealsandsealions,andcetaceans(dolphinsandwhales)

• marine fish species (great white and whalesharks)

• all syngnathids (pipefish, sea horses andseadragons).

Thisinformationwillprovideanindicationof the effects of individual fisheries on the environmentandotherspeciesovertime.Informationregardingthenatureoftheinteraction,thelocationandthegearbeingusedwillhelpto:

• enhanceunderstandingofthenatureandextentofwildlifeinteractionsincommercial fishing activity

• developeffectivemeasuresandmanagementpoliciestoreduceoravoidinteractions

• ensurethatindustrymeetsthedatacollectionandreportingstandardsrequiredundertheEPBC Act 1999,throughincreasedreportingandvalidationoftheindustry-basedmonitoringprogram

• assistinimprovingtheperceptionsofthecommunityrelatingtothisissue.

Duetoalackofmonitoringsystemslikethose applied to commercial fishers, there isverylittleunderstandingofthelevelofimpact of the recreational fishing industry onnon-targetspecies.

Sardine Fishery:PurseSeinenetsusedintheSardineFisheryhavethepotentialtointeractwithnon-targetspecies,including other species of fish and dolphins. In South Australia, the fishery is closelymonitoredandassistedtoreducethelevelofby-catchandtheincidenceandseverityofinteractionswithwildlife.

Since 2005 the fishery has operated anindependentobserverprogramcovering 10% of all fishing activities. Initial resultsindicatedinteractions,including

COAST AND SEA

Silhouette of commercial fishing boats, Boston

Bay. Photo: Frank Dal Piva


mayultimatelyleadtodeclinesinspeciesstockorthehealthofecosystems.PIRSAFisheries officers undertake overt and covert activitiestouncoverandidentifyriskswithinthecommercial,recreational,traditionaland fish-processing sectors.

In2007-08,PIRSAFisheriescomplianceofficers carried out 1,634 commercial, 9,977noncommercialand65processorinspections(11,676intotal).Thisresultedintheissuingof331warningsand262expiationswith33prosecutions(Table3.10)(PIRSA,2008).

Backin2004-05,PIRSAFisheriescomplianceofficers carried out 1,627 commercial, 13,324noncommercialand190processorinspections(15,141intotal).Thisresultedin515warnings,313expiationsand191successfulprosecutions(PIRSA,2006).Changes in staffing levels, compliance targetsandIndustryCodesofPracticemake the pressure of illegal fishing difficult tocomparefromoneyeartoanother.

Of specific concern currently is the ongoing pressureofillegalpoachinginallstate-managed Abalone fisheries. Greater levelsofintelligencedriven,targetedinvestigationsontheillegaltakeofabalonehave produced significantly better results thaninthepreviousreportingperiod.Thismorefocusedactivityhasincludeddisruptionstrategiesonthesupplychainaswellasastrongfocusonbuyersoftheillegally caught fish. Recreational fishing offences in the Marine Scalefish and BlueCrabFisheriesremainconsiderablyhigherthancommercialsectoroffencesin the same fisheries. These sectors are of significant interest and concern to the state governmentforongoingmanagementofillegal fishing.

TheFishcarevolunteerprogramisoneofthemethodsusedbyPIRSAFisheriestomaximisevoluntarycompliancebyinforming fishers of the rules and increasing understandingofwhytheregulationsarenecessary.Thereareapproximately

80Fishcarevolunteersworkingassixregionalandtwometropolitanteams.Thesepeoplecontributeapproximately7,900hoursandcommunicatewith20,000recreational fishers annually. This program accountsforthedistributionofmorethan90%ofFisheriesprintedmaterialtothegeneralpublic.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Shipping ballast water discharges in SA waters

Commercialshippingisoneofthemostcommonlyknowncarriersofmarinepests.ThispressureindicatorwasdevelopedtoassesstheriskoftheintroductionofpestspeciesintoSouthAustralianwaters,throughshippingindustryballastwater.

DevelopmentoftheNationalSystemforthePreventionandManagementofMarinePestIncursions(theNationalSystem)includesthedevelopmentandregulationofballastwaterdischargestothemarineenvironment.WhentheNationalSystemisinplacein2010,thenumberofballastwaterdischargesinAustralianWaterswillberecordedandthedataretrievablethroughtheAustralianBallastWaterUnit(ABWU).

TheNationalSystem’smajorprojectinvolvesdevelopingnationallyconsistentlegislationtosupporttheBallastWaterManagementArrangements(BWMA).TheAustralianQuarantineandInspectionService(AQIS)andtheDepartmentofAgricultureForestryandFisheries(DAFF)willmanageinternationalballastwaterwhilethestatesandNorthernTerritoryaretodevelopmatchinglegislationforthemanagementofdomesticballastwater.

ThegoalistoratifytheInternationalMaritimeOrganisations’InternationalConventionfortheControlandManagementofShips’BallastWaterandSediments.

Gapsexistinthecurrentmarinepestmonitoringsurveyasrecentportmonitoring

Compliance summary for major commercial and recreational fisheries (2007-08)

FisheryWarnings Expiations Prosecutions

Comm Rec Comm Rec Comm Rec

Prawn (all zones) 3 0 3 0 0 0

Rock Lobster, Northern Zone 3 8 5 14 0 0

Rock Lobster, Southern Zone 32 36 9 34 1 8

Abalone (all zones) 0 15 0 12 0 8

Marine Scalefish 25 138 7 109 10 5

Blue Crab 0 54 0 66 0 1

Lakes and Coorong 11 6 2 1 0 0

Total 74 257 26 236 11 22

Source: PIRSA, 2008

Table 3.10: Compliance summary for major commercial and recreational fisheries (2007-08)

Sunset at Boston Bay. Photo: Frank Dal Piva



COAST AND SEA

hasonlybeenconductedinthePortofAdelaide.Baselinemonitoringformarinepestshasnotbeenconductedforseveralyearsinotherportsnationally.

TheNationalIntroducedMarinePestCoordinationGroup(NIMPCG)managestheNationalSystememergencyandballastwaterexchangefortheshippingindustryandisevaluatingmarinepestsurveytypes.

Thecostsinvolvedinthesetwotypesofsurveyarevastlydifferentasarethebeneficiaries.

SouthAustraliamustenactlegislationtosupporttheBWMAandprovideongoingfundingandpersonneltosupporttheIntergovernmentalAgreementonMarinePests.FurtherinformationonmarinepestscurrentlyestablishedinSouthAustralianwaterscanbefoundintheIntroducedSpecieschapter.

Coastal and Offshore Exploration and Production

CoastalandoffshoreexplorationactivitiesoccurringinstateandCommonwealthwatersoffSouthAustralia,andonthecoastincludemineralandpetroleumexplorationandproduction.

The Mining Act, 1997regulatesmineralexplorationandproduction(excludingpetroleum)inSouthAustralianwaters.IncoastalwatersfromtheTerritorialSeaBaselineandthethreenauticalmilelimit,theSouthAustralianOffshoreMineralsAct,2000coversthoseactivities.

RegulationofmininginAustralianwatersbeyondthethreenauticalmilelimit,iscoveredbythe Commonwealth Offshore Minerals Act 1994. TheCommonwealthandstatesharetheadministrationofthisAct.

Offshoremininghasthepotentialtoalterpatternsofsedimentmovementandsignificantly affect ecological processes andassociatedbiodiversity,dependingonthenatureoftheoperations.Anyproposalsforminingactivitiesthatareconsidered likely to have a significant impactontheCommonwealthmarineenvironmentorothermattersofnational environmental significance are referredtotheFederalMinisterfortheEnvironment,Water,HeritageandtheArtsforassessmentandapprovalundertheEnvironmentProtectionandBiodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act).

Seismicsurveyshavethepotentialtohavephysicalandbehaviouralimpactsonwhales.Baleenwhalessuchashumpback,

blue and fin whales may be more affected byseismicoperationsthantoothedwhales,astheiracousticrangeisthoughttooperateinthesamefrequencyastheairgunpulsesusedinseismicexploration.

SeismicoperationsareregulatedbytheAustralianGovernment’sGuidelinesontheApplicationoftheEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act to Interactions between Offshore Seismic Operations and Larger Cetaceans (revisedin2005).

TherearenooffshoreexplorationlicencesintheBightBasin(Map3.4).FourexplorationlicenceshavebeenissuedfortheOtwayBasininCommonwealthwaters,followingtheawardingoftwonewpermitsinAugust2006.TwoapplicationsarependingforpetroleumexplorationlicencesinstatewaterscoveringpartsoftheSpencerandSt.VincentGulfs.

Therewasnooffshoreexplorationactivityin2007thatinvolvedacquisitionoftheexploration field. Expenditure of more than$30millionisplannedincurrentpermitworkprogramsintheOtwayBasinfrom200810,includingthepossibledrillingoftwodeep-waterpetroleumwells(PIRSA,2007).

Climate induced sea-level rise and other impacts

Sea-levelriseisvirtuallycertaintocausegreatercoastalinundation,erosion,lossofwetlands,andsalt-waterintrusionintofreshwaterresources,withimpactsoninfrastructure,coastalresourcesandexistingcoastalmanagementprograms.ModelsimulationsindicatethatthelossofwetlandsandmangrovesinSpencerGulfdue to sea-level rise is influenced largely by elevationandexposure.Mid-rangesea-levelriseprojectionsfor2005-25arelikelytoincreasethecostofsandreplenishmentontheAdelaidemetropolitancoastbyatleast$1millionperannum(Hennessyet al,2007,p520-521).

Otherpredictedimpactsonthemarineenvironmentfromadverseclimatechangeincludestormsurges,changestocurrentsand acidification. Further information onimpactsofclimatechangecanbefoundintheClimate Change chapter.RESPONSE INDICATOR: Changes in area

Coastal scene, Ceduna. Photo: Anita Harmer


Bordertown

Renmark

VictorHarbor

Port Pirie

Port Lincoln

Whyalla

Port Augusta

Ceduna

MountGambier

Wallaroo

Adelaide

SPAR ID: 2750

Data Source: Primary Industries and Resources SAand Department for Environment and Heritage.

Extractive Mineral Lease

Mineral Claim

Mineral Lease

Miscellaneous PurposeLicencePrivate Mine

Retention Lease

Mineral Claim Application

Miscellaneous PurposeLicence Application

Mineral Exploration Licence Application

Mineral Exploration Licence

Exploration Licence Application (SA)Petroleum Act, 2000Exploration Licence (Cwth) Petroleum(Submerged Lands) Act, 1967Exploraion Licence (SA)Petroleum Act, 2000Production Licence (SA)Petroleum Act, 2000

National Parksand ReservesWilderness Areas

Great Australian BightWhale SanctuaryGreat Australian Bight MarinePark - Commonwealth Waters

State Waters

Commonwealth Waters

Major road

0 50 100 150 200 250 km

of the marine environment subject to the prohibition or management of fisheries operations.

PIRSAFisheriesusesaquaticreservesandseasonalandtemporaryclosuresasa fisheries management tool. Aquatic reserves are spatially defined areas ofoceanorestuarieswherenaturalpopulationsofmarinespeciesandhabitatsareprotected,eitherinpartorentirety,fromexploitationorharm.Typically,reservesareeithercreatedasstrictno-takeareas,wherenoextractionorharmofspeciesislegal,orwithmanagementcontrolsrestrictingactivitiesthatareincompatiblewiththeconservationobjectivesforparticularspeciesorhabitats(Ward et al.,2001).

WithinSouthAustralianstatewatersthereare16no-takeareas,59locationsinwhichsomerestrictionsapply(controlling

types of fishing, fishing gear or species), and five areas of seasonal or temporary restrictions.Theseareasconstitute0.03%,8.03%and5.15%ofstatewatersrespectively (Figure 3.4). (NB: These figures includetheCoorongregion,butdonottakeintoaccountinlandaquaticorRiverMurrayareas,nodotheyincorporateFisheriesManagementAreasusedtozone the state fisheries).

TheuseofaquaticreservesinSouthAustraliaisfacilitatedthroughtwoprinciplesoftheFisheries Management Act 2007:

• properconservationandmanagementmeasuresaretobeimplementedtoprotecttheaquaticresourcesofthestatefromover-exploitationandensurethatthoseresourcesarenotendangered;and

• aquatichabitatsaretobeprotectedandconserved,andaquaticecosystemsandgeneticdiversityaretobemaintainedandenhanced.

PIRSAFisherieswillcontinuetouseaquaticreservesasatooltomanage

Map 3.4: Offshore exploration sites and

mining tenements

Figure 3.4: Areas subject to prohibition or

fisheries restrictions in South Australian

coastal waters


What are we doingabout it?

Exclusion (no take)

Restrictions (some activitiesrestricted 12 months of year)

Seasonal/temporary(temporary or seasonal restrictions)

Unrestricted

86.79

0.038.03

5.15


thestate’smarineresourcesandmovetowardsachievingtheLiving Coast Strategy 2004 goalofintegratedmanagementandprotectionofSouthAustralia’sestuarine,coastalandmarineresources, based on sound scientific knowledgeofecosystemfunction.

The Marine Parks Act, 2007 wasproclaimedon22May2008.Thislegislationpavesthewayforarepresentativesystemofmarineparksinourstate’swaters.Thelegislationprovidescertaintyandsuretyabouttheprocessfordevelopingmarineparkswithmultipleopportunitiesforstakeholderandcommunityinvolvement.

TheGovernmentofSouthAustraliahascommittedtoestablishing19newmarineparksby2010,undertheSouth Australian Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (SARSMPA).

OtherstatesandtheCommonwealtharealsodevelopingsystemsformarineprotectedareasthatarerepresentativeofmarinelifeinotherpartsofAustralia.Collectively,thisnationwideeffortwillcontributetotheNational Representative System of Marine Protected Areas.

All19marineparksproposedforSouthAustraliawillbelocatedwithinthestate’swaters,generallywithinthreenauticalmilesofthecoastandincludingthegulfsandoffshoreislands.

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Comparison of area zoned as suitable for aquaculture development, maximum area available to lease within an aquaculture zone and area zoned to exclude aquaculture development and change between years

Thisnewresponseindicatorenablestrendsinaquaculturedevelopmenttoberecordedthroughtime.Figure3.5showstheareaavailableforleasing,theareazonedforaquacultureandtheareasexcludedfromaquacultureasatJuneofeachyearfrom2003to2007.Clearlytheareaavailableforleasingismuchsmallerthanthatzonedforaquacultureandexcludedfromit.

Theareazonedforaquacultureintegratesthreespatialindicators(Figure3.5);theareasuitablefordevelopment(‘Zoned’),theareaavailableforleasing(‘Tolease’)andtheareasexcludedfromdevelopment(‘Excluded’).

RESPONSE INDICATOR:

COAST AND SEA

Coast and marine policy and planning programs and initiatives

Marine Planning

On13July2006,theGovernmentofSouthAustraliaadoptedtheMarinePlanningFrameworkforSouthAustralia(theFramework)asawhole-of-governmentapproachtoguidethemanagementofcurrentandfutureactivitiesinamannerthatmaintainstheintegrityofourcoastal,marineandestuarineenvironments.TheaimoftheFrameworkistosustainactivitywhilerecognisingthecultural,recreationalandeconomicvaluesoftheseuniqueenvironments.

TheFrameworkprovidesforthedevelopmentofsixMarinePlansandassociatedPerformanceAssessmentSystems(PAS)coveringthestate’swaters.BasedontheprinciplesofESD,bothecosystem-basedandadaptivemanagement,theseMarinePlanswillestablishastrategicplanningframeworktoguidestateandlocalgovernmentplannersandnaturalresourcemanagersinthedevelopmentanduseofthemarineenvironment.

FundamentaltotheseMarinePlansisanecologically-basedzoningmodelthat defines areas according to marine, coastalandestuarinehabitatsandspecies identified as suitable indicators ofenvironmentalcondition.Eachzoneissupportedbygoals,objectivesandstrategiesforuseanddevelopmentinordertoprotecttheintegrityoftheseecosystems.

MarinePlanswillnotinisolationaddressthechallengeforecologicallysustainableuseofourmarineenvironment.Theywillcomplementand seek to influence outcomes related totheconservation,protectionandmanagementofthemarine,coastalandestuarineenvironmentsinthePlanningStrategyforSouthAustraliaandNaturalResourcesManagementPlans.

Inadditiontothemarineplanningframeworkdiscussedhere,regionalNaturalResourceManagementBoardswithcoastlinesalsoneedtoconsidercoastalandmarineissueswithintheirplans.TheAdelaideandMountLoftyRangesNRMBoardsetupaCoast,EstuarineandMarineAdvisoryCommitteeinAugust2006toadviseonspecific issues affecting its coastal and marineassets.

Fisheries

FisheriesManagementAct2007In2007thestategovernmentadoptedanewFisheries Management Act 2007. Replacingthe Fisheries Act 1982,thisAct is a significant advancement in the use,managementandprotectionofSouthAustralia’smarineresources.TheFisheries Management Act 2007:

• Includesnewoffencesandheavierpenalties;

• Gives Fisheries Officers powers tosearchapersonsuspectedofhidingevidenceofanoffence;

• EstablishesanewFisheriesCouncilofmembersfromcommercial,recreational and indigenous fishing toadvisetheMinister;

• Providesforamoreecosystem-basedapproachtomanagingfisheries with conservation objectives,risk-basedassessmentsofpotentialimpactsontheecosystemandtoolstoprotectfish habitats, including the precau-tionaryprinciple;and

• Provides for specific possession limits of fish species, above which apersonwillhavecommittedanoffence.

Under this Act, the state’s fisheries areco-managed.Representa-tivesfromgovernment,industryandthecommunityformtheFisheriesCouncil,whichprovidesadvicetotheMinisteronthemanagementoffisheries, whether for commercial or recreationaluse,orfortraditionalfishing purposes by Indigenous communities.Integratingprinciplesof ESD into fisheries management ensuresabalancebetweenresourceuse,developmentandprotection.Protectionfromover-exploitationistheprimaryprincipleofthelegislation,whichstatesthat:

• Aquatichabitatsaretobeprotectedandconserved,andaquaticecosystemsandgeneticdiversityaretobemaintainedandenhanced.

• Theparticipationofusersoftheaquaticresourcesofthestate,andthecommunitymoregenerally,inthe management of fisheries is to beencouraged.


Fisheries Management Act 2007: Thisnew fisheries legislation commenced operationinSeptember2007.

Fisheries Status Report 2006: PIRSAreleasedthisinauguralreportin2006tobringtogetherallavailableinformationconcerning key fish stocks managed by thestategovernmentasafactualinformationsourceforallmajorstakeholdersandthewidercommunity.Thesereportswillbecompletedannuallyand classify all state-managed fish stocks as overfished, fully fished, environmentally limitedoruncertain.

Net Buyback Scheme: Inresponsetoincreasing concerns over garfish stocks thestategovernmentcommittedfundingto a voluntary buyback of net fishing licencesandendorsements.Morethan$10.8millionwaspaidouttolicenceholdersresultinginthepermanentremovalofmorethan50%ofthetotalnetendorsements in the fishery. The statewide annual net fishing effort has declined by 40%sincethebuyback.Thiswillhelptoensurethesustainabilityofthemarineresourcessothattheremainingoperatorsareabletoconducttheiroperationsinaneconomicallyviablemanner.

Fisheries Management Plans:FisheryManagementPlansstipulate,identifyandplanforresearchandmanagementaspects of the relevant fishery. These plans include recreational fishing activitiesandarecontinuallyupdated.RecentlydevelopedplanscovertheBeach-CastSeagrassandMarineAlgaeFishery,GiantCrabFisheries,CharterBoatFisheryandtheSardine(Pilchard)Fishery.PlansestablishedundertheFisheries Management Act 2007 willbestatutorydocumentsthatwillextendtheperiod and tenure of commercial fishing licencesfromthecurrentone-yearperiodtoperiodsofuptoadecade.

Fisheries Management Papers: Annual fisheries assessment reports areproducedforPIRSAandrelevantfisheries management groups by SARDI AquaticSciences.Thesedocumentsbringtogetheravailablebiologicalandeconomicinformationoneachcommercial fishery and report on performanceindicatorsdetailedinFisheryManagementPlans.Fisheriespolicyreportsalsoguidedecisionmakingfor the management of fisheries. Recent papersincludeRelease of Cultured or Translocated Aquatic Organisms (Stock

Enhancement) in South Australia, Review of Trout Stocking in South Australia and Restructured River Fishery: Guidelines for Licensing and Management.

Recreational Fishing Survey: Astatewidesurvey of recreational fishing is currently beingconductedbyPIRSAandfollowsthesamemethodsasnationalsurveys(including2000-01)toensureinformationcanbecomparedovertime.Resultsareanticipatedbymid-2009andwillprovidevaluableinformationaboutnon-commercial fishing activity and fish species thus enabling accurate managementdecisionstobemaderegarding recreational fishing.

National Guidelines for the Ecologically Sustainable Management of Fisheries: South Australia’s export fisheries have beenindependentlyassessedbytheCommonwealthDepartmentofEnvironment,Water,HeritageandtheArtsagainsttheGuidelinesforecologicalsustainable management of fisheries, undertheEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, 1999. Thepurposeoftheseassessmentsistoensure that fisheries are managed in an ecologicallysustainableway.

ResearchandDevelopment:ManagementdecisionsforSouthAustralia’s fisheries are based on research anddevelopment.Forexample,RealTimeManagementsystemsforthePrawnFisheryhavebeenimplementedthatidentifyshort-termdeclinesinpopulationabundanceandadjustharveststrategiesaccordingly.SARDIiscurrentlyundertakingaprojectfundedbytheFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentCorporationhatisfocusedonunderstandingthespatialscaleofvariationinabalonebiologyanditsimplicationsforeffectivemanagementof these fisheries. Research priorities have been reviewed and identified for the RockLobster,BlueCrab,GiantCrab,Marine Scalefish, and Inland Waters Fisheries.Apartnershipprogram,MarineInnovationSAhasbeendevelopedtodrivefuturedevelopmentofmarinescienceandseafooddevelopmentthroughknowledgeandinnovation,whileintegratingandexpandingSouthAustralia’smarineresearchcapabilities,technologytransferandeducationandtrainingpathways.TheAdelaide Coastal Waters Study wascompletedin2008andprovidesindepthanalysisofnegativeprocessesaffectingtheAdelaidemetropolitancoastalresources.Thisstudy

0

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Year as at 30 June

To leaseZonedExculded

Source: PIRSA Aquaculture, 2007

25,679

55,984

2,665

30,922 35,309

52,760 57,397

192,878

5,118

212,505

4,944

168,018

4,248

110,173

3,390

Figure 3.5: Comparison of area zoned as suitable

for aquaculture development, maximum area

available to lease within aquaculture zone and

area zoned to exclude aquaculture

Port Lincoln Wharf. Photo: Joel Davison



COAST AND SEA

Fishery Category Date Key Recommendations to PIRSA Fisheries

Abalone Exempt from export permit 2004 Pursue a collaborative national process to advance biological requirements of Part 13A for 5 years parameters and reference points, build on existing stock

assessment models and environmental indicators, and developstrategies to quantify and reduce illegal activities

Beach-cast Seagrass Exempt from export permit 2004 Formally implement performance indicators to minimiseMarine Algae requirements of Part 13A for 5 years commercial operators impacts on coastal vegetation, fauna

and beach surfaces, and identify a timeframe for reporting a trigger breach and implementing management

Blue Crab Exempt from export permit 2004 Build on minimising bycatch, particularly for Marine Scalefish requirements of Part 13A for 5 years Fishery licences with Blue Crab quota, and develop a timeline

for responding to performance measure breaches

Giant Crab Approved Wildlife Trade 2007 Finalise and implement SA Giant Crab Fishery Management PlanOperation for 3 years by mid 2009, and build on collaboration with other jurisdictions to

enhance stock assessment methods and research

Lakes and Coorong Approved Wildlife Trade 2005 Build on biological and environmental data to develop more Operation for 3 years robust sustainable yield estimates, develop harvest reference

points for bony bream, improve bycatch information collection,and conduct an ecological risk assessment of impacts of fisheryon the listed ecological character and values of The Coorong,Lakes Alexandrina and Albert Wetland Ramsar site

Marine Scalefish Approved Wildlife Trade 2005 Refine sustainable yield estimates for target species to determine Operation for 3 years biological trigger points, build on identifying localised depletion

processes over small scales, and conduct risk analysis forbyproduct species, particularly sharks, tommy ruff and snook

Pilchard Exempt from export permit 2004 Finalise a timeframe for management responses to performancerequirements of Part 13A for 5 years measure breaches, develop a system for monitoring and

reporting interactions with threatened, endangered andprotected species, or ecosystems, and implement mitigationmeasures

Prawn Exempt from export permit 2004 Build on bycatch monitoring and identify long term trends, requirements of Part 13A for 5 years review performance indicators and performance measures to

ensure they are efficient in detecting significant changes in stock status, and continue bycatch, and threatened, endangered and protected species reporting and mitigation measures

Rock Lobster Exempt from export permit 2003 Build on existing community and jurisdictional relationships torequirements of Part 13A for 5 years address research priorities and illegal activities, conduct

qualitative risk assessments and structured reporting of fisheryinteractions with threatened, endangered and protectedspecies, and develop escape gaps to minimise fishery impactson bycatch species

Scallop and Turbo Approved Wildlife Trade 2007 Complete Management Plan for the Miscellaneous Dive Fishery,Operation for 3 years implement system to validate commercial logbook reporting of

catch, and develop research strategy to improve information on biology and ecology

Sea Urchin Approved Wildlife Trade 2005 Implement logbook reporting of catch to advance knowledgeOperation for 3 years of biology and ecology, and record recreational and

indigenous catch, to develop progressively finer scale management arrangements

Specimen Shell Exempt from export permit 2004 Implement recording of specimen shell status (alive/dead) in requirements of Part 13A for 5 years logbook returns, and advance estimates of recreational harvest

Note: Recommendations made at date of assessment

Source: Department of the Environment and Water Resources, 2007

Table 3.11: Department of Environment and Water Resources key recommendations for Ecologically Sustainable Management of

South Australia’s fisheries (now Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts)


isdiscussedfurtherintheWaterQualityandHabitatschapterofthisreport.

Aquaculture

PIRSAAquacultureincreaseditscapacitytoregulatetheindustryfollowingtheintroductionoftheAquaculture Regulations, 2005. Thislegislationdetailsmandatory,annualenvironmentalmonitoringprogramsforbothmarineandland-basedaquacultureinSouthAustralia.

Therearemandatoryrequirementsforaquaculturelicenseestosubmitstrategiesforminimisingstockescapesandavoidingadverseinteractionwithseabirdsorlargemarinevertebratessuchaswhales,seals,dolphinsandsharks.Similarly,licenseesmustnotifyPIRSAAquacultureofescapedstockordamagethatmayleadtoescape,aswellasentanglementofanyprotectedspecies.Failuretocomplywiththeseregulationscanleadtoamaximumpenaltyof$5,000.

Coastal Development

The Living Coast Strategy for South AustraliawasreleasedbythestategovernmentinJuly2004.Thisstrategysetsoutitsenvironmentalpolicyforthesustainablemanagementofthestate’scoastal,estuarineandmarineenvironments.

ThestategovernmentendorsedAdelaide’s Living Beaches: A Strategy for 2005–2025inNovember2005.ProducedbyDEHonbehalfoftheCoastProtectionBoard,itinitiatedareviewofthemanagementofsanderosiononAdelaide’smetropolitanbeachesforgreatereffectivenessandprovidesalongertermstrategyforaddressingissuesandopportunities.

PlanningSAisupdatingthe Coastal Marina Strategy and Guidelines. Thisistoreplace20yearoldMarinaGuidelines,MarinaDemandStudyandMarinaStrategyandhelpstateandlocalgovernmentsandtheprivatesector,todecideonmarinalocationsandthetypesoffacilitiesandservicestheyrequire,plusadviseonwaystoassistintheirsuccess.

TheEyrePeninsulaLocalGovernmentAssociationhaspreparedaCoastalDevelopmentStrategytoguidethefuturedevelopmentoftheEyrePeninsulacoastline.Thestrategysetsaframeworkfornewcoastalplanningpoliciesand

zoningtobeimplementedinLocalAreaDevelopmentPlans.TheDistrictCouncilof Ceduna is the first to implement this newpolicythroughtheDevelopmentPlanAmendmentprocess.Thisincludes:

• Newzoningthatrecognisessensitivecoastalfeaturesandhazards;and

• Policiestoprotectdevelopmentfromcoastalhazards.

TherestoftheEyrePeninsularegionwillfollowthislead.

The Yorke Peninsula Regional Land Use FrameworkwasapprovedinDecember2007andisaformalpartofthePlanningStrategyforSouthAustralia.Theframework identifies the different roles andfunctionsforvariouspartsoftheregion,andtacklesissuessuchastheinterfacebetweenindustry,residentialareasandvaluableenvironmentalassets;requirementsforhousingforthelabourforce(includinglocation);andtheroleandfunctionoftownships.

Dolphin. Photo: Tim Lubcke.



What more should we be doing?

References

COAST AND SEA

TheEnvironmentProtectionAuthorityrecommendsthefollowing:

R3.2 Move towards managing commercial and recreational fisheries on a full cost-recoverybasis.

R3.3 IncorporatemutuallysupportivesustainablemanagementprinciplesforthecoastalzoneintoNaturalResourceManagementPlans,CouncilDevelopmentPlans,andMarineParkPlans.

AustralianBureauofStatistics,Censusdatafrom1971-2006

The South-West Marine Bioregional Plan: Bioregional Profile(2007).DepartmentoftheEnvironmentandWaterResources,AustralianGovernmentCanberra.ISBN9780642553652.pp.211.

Bryars,S.An Inventory of Important Coastal Fisheries Habitats in South Australia (2003).NHTProjectno.99069.PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Carrick,NAandOstendorf,B.Modelling prawn movement and spatial dynamics in the Spencer Gulf and West Coast Prawn Fisheries (2005).FinalreportFRDC1999/142.FisheriesResearchandDevelopmentCorporation,Canberra.

Unpublished data on Development Applications referred to the Coast Protection Board (DATE).CoastProtectionBoard(SA),Adelaide

South Australian Inventory of Acid Sulfate Soil Risk (Atlas),(2003)CSIRO,Australia

Currie,DR,Sorokin,SJandWard,TM.Survey of recreational rock lobster fishing in South Australia during 2004/05.ReporttoPIRSAFisheries(2006).SARDIAquaticSciencesPublication,AdelaideRD04/0228-2.

On Deck newsletter issue 5, June 2006–recreationalboatingstatistics(2006),DepartmentforTransport,EnergyandInfrastructure,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development, (1992)DepartmentofEnvironmentandWaterResources,CommonwealthofAustralia,Canberra

State of the Environment Report 2006, DepartmentoftheEnvironmentandWaterResources,CommonwealthofAustralia,Canberra

Fact Sheet 78: The Precautionary Principle. DepartmentforWater,LandandBiodiversityConservation,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

The Economic Impact of Aquaculture on the South Australian State and Regional Economies, 2005/06 (2007).EconSearch,PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSouthAustraliaAquaculture,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Water Proofing Adelaide: A thirst for change 2005 – 2025,(2005).GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

HonKarleneMaywaldMP.$4.7mVirginia pipeline extension boosts recycling capacity,(6September2007).

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan targets

ForfurtherdetailonSouthAustralia’s Strategic Planvisitwww.stateplan.sa.gov.au

Dunes, Coorong. Photo: Jade Davison

R3.2 R3.3

Growing Prosperity T1.1, T1.11, T1.14, T1.15 T1.11, T1.15

Improving Wellbeing

Attaining Sustainability T3.4 T3.4

Fostering Creativity and Innovation

Building Communities

Expanding Opportunities


GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Various datasets on zoning, land use and year built data for dwellings and research for the Coastal Marina Strategy and Guidelines.PlanningSA,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Yorke Peninsula Regional Land Use Framework,(2007).PlanningSA,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Building Advisory Notice 09/06 Mandatory plumbed rainwater tanks for Class 1 building (2006).PlanningSA,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Ward,TJ,Heinemann,DandEvans,N(2001).The Role of Marine Reserves as Fisheries Management Tools: A review of concepts, evidence and international experience. BureauofRuralSciences,Australia.

Australian Fisheries Management Authority www.afma.gov.au

Marine Innovation SA www.misa.net.au

PIRSA Aquaculture www.pir.sa.gov.au/aquaculture

PIRSA Fisheries www.pir.sa.gov.au

SARDI Aquatic Sciences www.sardi.sa.gov.au/aquatic/index.html

Further information

MediaRelease,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Hemming,S,Trevorrow,TandRigney,M.Ngarrindjeri culture and the closure of the Murray Mouth. The Murray Mouth: exploring the implications of closure or restricted flow (2002).Murray-DarlingBasinCommission,Canberra.

Hennessy,K,Fitzharris,B,Bates,B,Harvey,N,Hughes,L,Howden,M,Salinger,J,andWarwick,R,Australia and New Zealand Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (2007),CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,UK(pp507-540)

Henry,GWandLyle,JM(Eds).The National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey. FRDC Project No. 99/158. NSW Fisheries Final Report Series, 48(2003).GovernmentofNewSouthWales

Jones,GKandDoonan,A.2000/01National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey: South Australian regional information(2005).SouthAustralianFisheriesManagementSeriesPaperNo.46

Metropolitan Adelaide Stormwater Management Study(2004).KelloggBrown&RootPtyLtd,Adelaide

Knight,MA,Doonan,AMandTsolos,A. South Australian Wild Fisheries Information and Statistics Report (2007).SARDIAquaticSciencesPublicationNo.F2007/000571-1,PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSA,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Peel,J.The Precautionary Principle in Practice (2005).FederationPress,Sydney.

SouthAustralianFisheries Resources: Current Status and Recent Trends 2006(2006).SouthAustralianFisheriesManagementSeriesPaperNo.49.PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSA,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Various data sets on permits and general information from the PIRSA website(2007).PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSA,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Prescott,J,Ferguson,G,Maynard,D,Slegers,S,Lorkin,MandMcGarvey,R.South Australian southern and northern zone rock lobster(1997).SouthAustralianFisheriesAssessmentSeries,97/1.PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSA,

Mangroves, St Kilda. Photo: Steven Mudge.


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