Separation and Purification Technology 94 (2012) 154–159

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Separation and Purification Technology

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CO2 reduction for a low-carbon community: A city perspective in Taiwan

Wei-Ting Chen a, Chi-Min Shu b,⇑a Doctoral Program, Graduate School of Engineering Science and Technology, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology (NYUST), 123, University Rd., Sec. 3, Douliou,Yunlin 64002, Taiwan, ROCb Department of Safety, Health, and Environmental Engineering, NYUST, 123, University Rd., Sec. 3, Douliou, Yunlin 64002, Taiwan, ROC

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history:Available online 15 June 2011

Keywords:Climate changeGlobal environmental impactGHG reductionEnergy conservationCarbon emissions

1383-5866/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright � 2doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2011.06.004

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 5 534 2601; faxE-mail address: shucm@yuntech.edu.tw (C.-M. Shu

Climate change has had a global environmental impact, necessitating concerted efforts to mitigate thesubsequent damage. In the majority of such efforts, upper limits are set for greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-sions by utilities and industries, and exchangeable permits are made available to emitters in the form ofallocations based on past emissions, auctions, or a combination of both. In this complicated atmosphere,the environmental problems related to climate change have turned into a sensitive international politicaltopic that has been discussed at the United Nations General Assembly since 1988, and the threat of globalwarming has received increasing attention. In 1994, 150 countries made agreements under the UnitedNations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Since then, the United Nations (UN) hasheld a UNFCCC convention annually. Because Taiwan is not a signatory nation to the Kyoto Protocols,we may not be ‘‘legally’’ compelled to obey the regulations on carbon dioxide reduction. However, thetotal production of GHGs by our country represents one percent of that for the entire world, and withrespect to our responsibilities as members of the so-called ‘‘Global Village’’ and the restrictions of theinternational contract, it is truly wise to consider and develop measures for GHG reduction as soon aspossible. To coincide with the co-related missions of being a ‘‘Healthy City,’’ a ‘‘City of Continual Devel-opment’’, and the ‘‘Green Society City of Tainan,’’ the Tainan city government has created a set of idealinstitutional mission-statements called the ‘‘Healthy Continually Developing City’’ and has planned a ser-ies of GHG impetuses, which include pushing outreach activities on energy conservation and carbon diox-ide reduction, such as environmentally-friendly hotels, green energy stores, energy conserving temples,vegetarian restaurants and waste reduction. Because of activities such as using the four methods ofenergy conservation at department stores and applying energy-conserving light sources at Ta-Tien-Hou temple, carbon emissions have been reduced to 1,176,792 kg (56.1%) and 148,016 kg (96.0%), respec-tively, per year.

Crown Copyright � 2011 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction to climate change

Climate change is defined as a long-term shift or alteration in theclimate of a specific location, region, or the entire planet. The Earth’sclimate has varied widely in its geological past [1], so efforts to alle-viate perceived changes have received growing attention in recentyears. Moreover, carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) will benecessary to satisfy the energy demand without contributing toglobal warming in the forthcoming years while alternatives to fossilfuels are developed [2]. In the majority of such efforts, upper limitsare set for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by utilities and indus-tries, and exchangeable permits are made available to emitters inthe form of allocations based on past emissions, auctions, or acombination of both [3]. In this complicated atmosphere, the envi-ronmental problems related to climate change have turned into a

011 Published by Elsevier B.V. All

: +886 5 531 2069.).

sensitive international political issue that has been discussed atthe United Nations General Assembly since 1988. According tothe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there isincreasing evidence that the global climate is changing as a directresult of anthropogenic activities [4]. Measurements of surfacetemperature, primarily in overland regions, reveal an approxi-mately 0.6 �C warming of global temperatures over the past century[5]. Moreover, these anthropogenic activities have contributed torising surface temperatures all over the world, which has causedmany extreme climate phenomena, such as typhoons, high temper-atures, droughts and floods. Not only can these disasters seriouslyharm the ecosystem, but they can also have a huge impact on a soci-ety’s economy. Furthermore, these changes occur in rapid andwidespread ways, interfering with the ability of the ecosystem toadjust accordingly. One characteristic of global warming is that,in many locations around the globe, the difference between themaximum and minimum daily temperature is decreasing [6]. Theprobable consequences of climate change could be divided into

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W.-T. Chen, C.-M. Shu / Separation and Purification Technology 94 (2012) 154–159 155

six areas: water resources and their management; ecosystems;food, fiber and forest resources; coastal and sea-neighboring re-gions; economy, habitation and society and health. These six areasare outlined briefly as follows:

1.1. Water resources and their management

The IPCC has indicated that the phenomenon regarding the ob-served and projected increases in temperature, sea level and pre-cipitation variability varied obviously, particularly in some areaswith projected decreases in water resources [7]. The probabilityof floods will increase because the overall global amount of liquidwater resources will have increased by 10–30% in tropical zones.Paradoxically, this change will actually cause drought in otherareas because the available water resources will have decreasedby 10–30%.

1.2. Ecosystems

The effects of global warming harm the ecosystems. Because ofthe rapid and enormous scope of climate changes, they may exceedvarious ecosystems’ ability to recovery from them, and it is pro-jected that 20–30% of animals and plants might inevitably becomeextinct as a direct result.

1.3. Food, fiber and forest resources

There is obviously a declining tendency in the harvest of cropsbecause of global warming, leading to poor nutrition and famine.Extreme weather because of floods has displaced people, settle-ments and agricultural crops. Climate change can affect not onlythe precipitation and temperature but also, consequently, localagricultural production [8]. Crops of food, fiber and tree resourceshave risen in temperate zone areas, but this trend will reversewhen the temperature change exceeds 3 �C.

1.4. Coastal and sea-neighboring regions

Coasts will encounter serious damage as a result of rises in sealevels, land erosion and human factors; indeed, undersea reefshave already suffered greatly because of coral ‘‘bleaching’’. Flood-ing may become a normal phenomenon, and the trend for extremeweather will increase. In addition, the problem of rising sea levelsincreasingly worsens, resulting in extreme climate changes thatcorrespondingly increase year by year.

1.5. Economy, habitation and society

Global warming has resulted in economic losses that are ulti-mately worse than any related ‘‘benefit’’ or ‘‘benefits,’’ especiallyin poor and developing countries.

1.6. Health

Lower temperatures in otherwise temperate zones as a result ofglobal warming are causing death rates in those areas to decline,and higher temperatures because of increasing concentrations ofozone also have resulted in the death rate increasing.

Based on the predictions the IPCC made in 1966, it was consid-ered necessary to decrease by half the total global carbon dioxideemission to bring it down to the concentration of atmospheric car-bon dioxide postulated for the period of the industrial revolution,which was 550 ppm. After the ratification of the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992,the concentration of global carbon dioxide has continued to in-crease year by year, and the reduction goal has never been met.

To solve this problem, United Nations (UN) members negotiatedanother treaty under the ‘‘Kyoto Protocols’’ in Kyoto, Japan, inDecember 1997. This treaty was meant to regulate the 38 signatorycountries and the European Union (EU) countries that signed theKyoto Protocol contract. The treaty regulates the emission of GHGsin individual and common ways with an interest in lessening theenvironmental effects of GHG. Alongside this contract, the ‘‘cleandevelopment mechanism (CDM)’’ is a method created under theKyoto Protocol to achieve cost-effective global reductions in theemission of GHG. Through application of the CDM, a cap and tradesystem was established that allows for emission reductionsachieved in developing countries to be counted against reductioncommitments made by Europe, Japan and Canada [9].

Taiwan is not part of the convention that created the Kyoto Pro-tocol and thus is not required to follow the regulations on carbondioxide reduction. However, the GHG production rate of our coun-try represents one percent of that for the entire world. If we con-sider the responsibilities of the members of our global villageand the restrictions of the related international contracts, it is bothresponsible and necessary to plan for and develop measures forGHG reduction as early as possible. A draft of GHG reduction mea-sures was legislated in May 2007; later, another draft of GHGreduction, which is employed in the office, was legislated to estab-lish a GHG examination system and a voluntary decrement man-agement mechanism. Energy conservation and carbon dioxidereduction have recently become regular activities. Accordingly,the Tainan city government now actively promotes these activitiesto its citizens, takes measures to clean and maintain the city’s envi-ronment, and works to build a low-carbon-impact community.

2. Methodology of CO2 reduction

2.1. To promote environmentally-friendly hotels and green energystores

The reality of climate change is now widely accepted, alongwith the likelihood that the cause is GHG emissions from humanactivities [10]. Analysis of the sources of these emissions showsthat, across the EU, at least 40% comes from buildings [11], witha statistically similar figure of 47% for the United Kingdom (UK)[12]. As a result, the Tainan city government is actively promotingenvironmentally-friendly hotels and green energy stores. Overallevaluations of the energy conservation potential in buildings havefound that there is a possible cost-effective potential savings of be-tween 20% and 30% [13,14]. The manager of the Shin Kong Mit-sukoshi department store in Tainan employed many measuresfor energy conservation based on market management ideas andhis corporation’s use of energy and illumination. These measuresare described below:

I. Conserve energy in the Shin Kong Mitsukoshi mall location.A. Schedule a suitable contracted capacity to reduce the cost of

electricity.B. Install a smart group control system to automatically main-

tain a consistent temperature for air conditioning.C. Increase power efficiency to 100%.D. Apply a high power efficiency system of electronic trans-

former lamps.E. Diminish pressure loss in exhaust pipes and integrate piping

systems.F. Install frequency conversion machines on air conditioning

in location-based theaters.G. Manage power supplies for underground parking garages

according to activities in the service district.

Table 1Power load of various equipment.

Equipmentcategory

Capacityrate (%)

Specification

Air conditioningunit

40 Cooling machines, air conditioners

Elevator 10 Elevator, escalatorFreezer 10 FreezerIllumination

equipment25 20% of essential illumination, 80% of main

illuminationWater supply

machines5 Fire fighting

Miscellaneous 10 Air pumps, exhaust devices, water pumps

156 W.-T. Chen, C.-M. Shu / Separation and Purification Technology 94 (2012) 154–159

H. Use electricity for pumping to a rooftop water reservoir dur-ing off-peak times.

I. Manage illumination equipment.J. Install a smart network to maintain a consistent tempera-

ture automatically in the cooling system.K. Change the illumination of light injectors along corridors.II. Application of the power load of the Shin Kong Mitsukoshi

mall.A. Main hours of electricity use: The shopping center business

hours are 11:00 am–10:00 pm, so electricity is generallyconsumed between 10:30 am–10:30 pm. The off-peak timefor electrical consumption is between Monday and Friday,and the peak time is on Saturdays, Sundays and holidays.Table 1 displays the facility’s power load.

B. Improvements: It is essential for a company to conserve energyduring times of economic depression, and energy manage-ment is one useful way to save costs related to electricity. Itis also important for a company to calculate its proper con-tracted capacity. Moreover, a company should coordinatethe supervision of advanced contracted capacity with thesupervision of the power load during peak and off-peak hoursto reach the ultimate goal of energy conservation by adjustingthe operations of power application. There are four improve-ments that the Shin Kong Mitsukoshi department store plansto implement with respect to energy conservation.

2.1.1. Method 1: Combine all air conditioning exhaust linesBefore improvement: There are two problems with current air

conditioning operations. First, there are 270 air conditioning unitsat the department store. Some of these units have insufficient ex-haust outlets. Second, the customer population more than doublesat peak times compared with off-peak times, so it can be difficult tospecify the ideal number of operational air conditioning units. En-ergy is definitely wasted when all air conditioning units are oper-ating at peak times, but there are also fluctuating temperatureswhen some units stop operating on weekdays.

The number of air conditioning units = 58.The power of an air conditioning unit while it operates per

day = 20 HP.Unit conversion: 1 HP = 746 W.Carbon dioxide emission for 1� of electricity = 0.64 (kg).

58� 20 ðHPÞ � 746 ðWÞ � 10 ðhrÞ � 20 ðdayÞ � 12 ðmonthÞ¼ 2076864000 ðWhÞ ¼ 2076864 ðkWhÞ¼ 2076864 degrees of electricity:

2076864� 0:64 ðkgÞ ¼ 1329193 ðkgÞ of CO2:

After improvement: Through investigation of air conditioningoperating conditions, it was found that there were 58 airconditioning units with exhaust pipes that could be combined to-

gether. In so doing, costs related to electrical usage can be reducedwhen half of the units stop operating on a normal weekday.

Benefits:Number of air conditioning units = 29.

29� 20 ðHPÞ � 746 ðWÞ � 10 ðhrÞ � 20 ðdayÞ � 12 ðmonthÞ¼ 10384322000 ðWhÞ ¼ 10384322 ðkWhÞ¼ 10384322 degrees of electricity:

10384322� 0:64 ðkgÞ ¼ 664597 ðkgÞ of CO2:

In summary, by applying this improvement, the carbon dioxidereduction would be 664,597 kg in 1 year.

2.1.2. Method 2: Underground parking garage supplies power accordingto the activities in the service district

Before improvement: The parking garage, from the third to sixthfloors underground, is used for parking on normal weekdays, butday-to-day differences in the number of customers may wastepower.

The number of electrical lamp units in the garage = 5333.The power used by a single lamp while it operates for one

day = 40 (W).

5333� 40 ðWÞ � 11 ðhrÞ � 20 ðdayÞ � 12 ðmonthÞ¼ 563164800 ðWhÞ ¼ 563165 ðkWhÞ¼ 563165 degrees of electricity:

563165� 0:64 ðkgÞ ¼ 360426 ðkgÞ of CO2:

Suggested improvement: Opening the underground parking gar-age sequentially, starting from the third floor, and then openingsubsequent levels as each one fills up.

Benefits:Number of lamps in the garage from the fourth to sixth

floors = 4000.

4000� 40 ðWÞ � 11 ðhrÞ � 20 ðdayÞ � 12 ðmonthÞ¼ 422400000 ðWhÞ ¼ 422400 ðkWhÞ¼ 422400 degrees of electricity:

422400� 0:64 ðkgÞ ¼ 279336 ðkgÞ of CO2:

In summary, the potential carbon dioxide reduction would be270,336 kg in 1 year.

2.1.3. Method 3: Use electricity to pump water into a rooftop reservoirtank during off-peak hours

Before improvement:a. The control system of the water reservoir operates all day,

and it pumps while the water level inside the tank is at alow level.

b. The cooling water tank releases water automatically oncethe emission of the tank is at a high level.

The number of water pumps = 2.Power requirement for a single water pump while it operates

over the course of 1 day = 50 (HP).

2� 50 ðHPÞ � 2 ðhrÞ � 746 ðWÞ � 20 ðdayÞ � 12 ðmonthÞ¼ 35808000 ðWhÞ ¼ 35808 ðkWhÞ¼ 35808 degrees of electricity:

35808� 0:64 ðkgÞ ¼ 22917 ðkgÞ of CO2:

154,176

6,160

148,016

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

160,000

180,000

Car

bon

em

issi

on (k

g)

Pre-implementation Post-implementation Reduction

Implementation

Fig. 1. Carbon emission change between pre-implementation and post-implementation.

Table 3Improved conditions at Ta-Tien-Hou temple.

Ta-Tien-Hou temple

Beforeimplementation

Afterimplementation

Improvement

Number ofbulbs

5500 5500 0

Operatingconditions

240,900 kWh year�1 9636 kWh year�1 231,264 kWh year�1

Electrical cost 26,345 USD year�1 1053.9 USD year�1 25,294.5 USD year�1

Emission ofCO2

154,176 kg year�1 6160 kg year�1 148,016 kg year�1

All types of lamps are replaced by LED bulbs.Operating conditions:5500 � 43.8 degrees = 240,900 degrees = 240,900 kW year�1.Electrical cost:5500 � 4.79 USD = 26,345 USD year�1.The emission of CO2:5500 � 43.8 degree � 0.64 (kg) = 154,176 (kg) of CO2.

W.-T. Chen, C.-M. Shu / Separation and Purification Technology 94 (2012) 154–159 157

Suggested improvement:a. Set the time of water storage operations and pump to the

water reservoir during off-peak times, such as night.b. The cooling system sets up the release time at night and also

releases cooling water to regulate the quantity of water inthe tank during off-peak hours.

Benefits:Number of water pumps = 2.

2� 50 ðHPÞ � 1 ðhrÞ � 746 ðWÞ � 20 ðdayÞ � 12 ðmonthÞ¼ 17904000 ðWhÞ ¼ 17904 ðkWhÞ¼ 17904 degrees of electricity:

17904� 0:64 ðkgÞ ¼ 11459 ðkgÞof CO2:

In summary, the carbon dioxide reduction would be 11,459 kgfor 1 year.

2.1.4. Method 4: Change lighting units in corridorsBefore improvement: The corridor lighting units are halogen

bulbs rated at 12 volts (V) and 50 watts (W). In addition, similarunits are often employed in commodity demonstrations and dis-plays. Turning on the light in the corridor wastes electricity be-cause there is no commodity displayed there.

Number of halogen bulbs = 5000.

5000� 50 ðWÞ � 10 ðhrÞ � 20 ðdayÞ � 12 ðmonthÞ¼ 600000000 ðWhÞ ¼ 600000 ðkWhÞ¼ 600000 degrees of electricity:

600000� 0:64 ðkgÞ ¼ 384000 ðkgÞ of CO2:

Suggested improvement: After an investigation of the businessfield’s altitude and brightness, it was found that a significantamount of energy was wasted because of the high inefficiency ofthe lighting units in the corridor. Approximately 60% of the energyneeds of lighting units can be conserved if units rated at 20 W areused instead.

Benefits:Number of halogen bulbs = 5000.

5000� 30 ðWÞ � 10 ðhrÞ � 20 ðdayÞ � 12 ðmonthÞ¼ 360000000 ðWhÞ ¼ 360000 ðkWhÞ¼ 360000 degrees of electricity:

360000� 0:64 ðkgÞ ¼ 230400 ðkgÞ of CO2:

In summary, the carbon dioxide reduction would be 230,400 kgover 1 year.

Table 2 and Fig. 1 depict various methods of energy conserva-tion and modes of CO2 emission.

2.2. Promotion of energy conservation temples

Tainan city is famous for its historical temples, and comparedwith other counties and cities in Taiwan, the number of templeswithin the city is relatively high. Because the various lightingsystems at these temples are continuously lit, they consume a

Table 2Specification of reduction values for various methods of energy conservation.

Method 1

Benefit (emission reduction) 664,597 (kg)

considerable amount of electricity. Replacing the various types oflamps with light emitting diode (LED) bulbs will not only improvesafety but will also decrease the electrical costs and reduce carbondioxide emission. Electric lamps may be categorized by energy con-sumption, price, power factor, output luminous flux and efficiency[15]. The average lifetime of a filament lamp is 42 days, which isapproximately nine bulbs per year (365�42 = 9⁄⁄). The cost of eachbulb is 0.09 USD, making an overall average cost of 0.84 USD forbulb replacement in 1 year per bulb outlet. The power efficiencyof each bulb is 5 W when operated 24 h a day. Under such condi-tions, the average measured operating time of a bulb is 8760 h in1 year, the power output for a bulb is 43.8 degrees per year, andthe cost of 1� of electricity is 0.11 NT dollars, so the total electricaland equipment costs is 4.79 and 5.63 NT dollars, respectively. Theresults are shown in Table 3 and Fig. 1.

2.3. Promotion of vegetarian restaurants

It is well known that livestock, including cattle, buffalos, sheep,goats, camels, horses, pigs and poultry, contribute to GHGemissions. According to a report published by the United NationsFood and Agriculture Organization in 2006, the livestock sector

Method 2 Method 3 Method 4

270,336 (kg) 11,459 (kg) 230,400 (kg)

158 W.-T. Chen, C.-M. Shu / Separation and Purification Technology 94 (2012) 154–159

generates an enormous amount of GHG emissions (using CO2 as ameasurement), at 7 billion tons, which represents 18% of the an-nual worldwide GHG emissions [16]. This amount obviously qual-ifies livestock for scrutiny with respect to methods of addressingclimate change. In contrast, our analysis shows that livestock andtheir byproducts actually account for at least 32 billion tons ofCO2 per year [17]. Previous literature on the link between climatechange and livestock production presents evidence that climatecan affect livestock both directly and indirectly. Direct effects im-pinge on animal growth, animal products and reproduction. Indi-rect effects influence the quantity and quality of feedstuffs, suchas pasture, forage, grain and the distribution of livestock diseasesand parasites [18]. In various livestock holdings, the most seriousGHG emissions are caused by cattle breeding. According to aninvestigation by the National Food Administration of Sweden,there is a discharge of approximately 15–25 kg of GHGs for eachfarmer producing 1 kg of beef, 5 kg of pork, or 2 kg of chicken. Fromthese numbers, we can clearly see that beef production is a sourceof relatively high carbon emission.

In Table 4 [19], it is easy to distinguish the differences in carbonemissions between the listed foods. As mentioned above, the car-bon emissions of chicken and beef are quite different, not to men-tion the differences in carbon emissions between vegetables andmeat. Compared with various culinary dishes, the carbon emissionresults are also vastly different. In addition, the difference of car-bon emission between producing a vegetable roll and producinga beef roll is 1809 kg per 100 g (2257 � 448 = 1809), so we canextrapolate that eating vegetables and fruit not only is good forhealth but is also an environmentally friendly approach to living.

Table 4Different carbon emissions resulting from the production of various foods [19].

Classification Food CO2 emission(kg 100 g�1)

Meat Beef 3991.3Pork 2484.9Chicken 359.7

Fish Regional fishes 98.2Imported fishes 969.4

Vegetable Seasonal vegetables 66.0Seasonal fruits 69.3Greenhouse vegetables 620.4

Chinesecuisine

Fried vegetables 305.0

Fried chicken 608.0

Lunch Sandwich 1132.0Beef sandwich 2839.0Vegetable roll 448.0Pork roll 740.0Beef roll 2257.0Cheese burger and French fries 2948.0

1,329,193

360,426

22,917

384,000

664,597

270,336

11,459

230,400

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1 2 3 4

Pre-implementation Post-implementaion

Method

Car

bon

em

issi

on (k

g)

Fig. 2. Various methods of carbon emission control.

For this reason, the Tainan city government promotes vegetarianrestaurants and healthy vegetable meals to reduce carbonemissions.

3. Results of three policies of CO2 reduction

Table 2 and Fig. 2 show the results of CO2 reduction through thepromotion of environmentally-friendly hotels and green energystores: the total CO2 emission can be reduced by up to507,393 kg in 1 year. The manager of Shin Kong Mitsukoshi depart-ment store plans to implement such measures on energy conserva-tion not only to save greatly on the cost of electricity but also todrastically reduce CO2 impact.

Table 3 and Fig. 1 display the results of improved conditions atTa-Tien-Hou temple: there is a total reduction in CO2 emission of148,016 kg over a one-year period. It is now a common trend tochange to energy-saving lamps at temples because the benefitsand the efficiency of LED lamps are greater than those of filamentlamps. Table 4 presents differences in carbon emission for variousfoods. This table illustrates that if we, as a society, decrease live-stock production and change our diet, CO2 emissions can be signif-icantly reduced.

4. Conclusions

In the last two decades of the 20th century, greenhouse-effectglobal warming became important enough politically to attractstudies of public opinion. There was, as a result, a wider range ofviews than ever on what ‘‘anthropogenic climate change’’ trulymeant [20]. Because climate change issues have received and con-tinue to receive growing attention, Taiwan government has initi-ated legislation related to greenhouse gas reduction. Thislegislation would require local governments to take individualresponsibility for their climate impact [21]. In addition, currenttrends in energy supply and use are economically, environmen-tally, and socially unsustainable. Without decisive action, energy-related CO2 emissions will more than double by 2050 [22].Therefore, to reduce CO2 emissions, implement policies, andpromote the concept of Continually Developing Green Energy Cityin Tainan, the Tainan city government has implemented severalmethods to address these problems. In summary, the experiencesin this city have proven that local governments can achieve greatsuccess in carbon reduction.

Acknowledgement

The study was supported by the Li-Jing Environmental Technol-ogy Corporation, which conducted the project regarding energyconservation and the improvement of indoor air quality in Tainancity.

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