Closed loop Urbanism [Autosaved]

CLOSED LOOP

URBANISM

ONWUCHEKWA, OLUCHI VICTORIOUS

M.A ARCHITECTURE

I.D: 77165447

TECHNOLOGY FUTURES

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION-CLOSED LOOP URBANISM-KEY PRINCIPLES OF A CLOSED LOOP ENVIRONMENT-URBAN DIGESTIONRECYCLING THE COAST-COASTAL WATER BODIESOYSTER AS A MEANS OF PRESERVING THE COAST-OYSTER BEHAVIOUR-LIFE CYCLE OF AN OYSTERPRECEDENTS-MOSQUITO LAGOON-LOXAHATCHEE RIVER- SAPELO ISLAND-JEREMY CREEK, SOUTH CAROLINA-TIBWIN CREEK, SOUTH CAROLINA-PAMLICO SOUND, NORTH CAROLINAOYSTER APPLICATION IN FORMBY-SHIFTING SHORES – LIVING WITH A CHANGING COASTLINE-PROPOSED STRATEGYCONCLUSIONREFERENCES

CLOSED LOOP URBANISM

Theme: Oyster as a means of economy in the coastal area

Closing the loop generally means recycling, re-using and also turning “waste to wealth”. The important aspect of Urbanism is the human interaction with nature. Thenew urbanism is promoting a walkable, mixed-use neighbourhoods and transit oriented development, seeking to end sub urban sprawl and promoting theenvironment.

There has been a growing recognition within the scientific community of the need for a more holistic and coherent approach to understanding the complex links between the seas and oceans on one hand, and human health and well-being on the other. Extreme weather events such as coastal storms and flooding, and human exposure to marine-borne pathogens and chemical pollution, pose significant threats to human health.

Closed loop Urbanism extends the remit of “sustainable urbanism” and creates a stand alone system where all production and waste are not to be thrown away, but recirculated and continually used. Closed Loop Urban systems require minimal (or ideally no) resources to sustain their existence.

Key principles of a closed loop environment

Materials sourcing Manufacturing Distribution

Logistics

Sales &

Retail

Consumption & Usage

Product, Recycling & Materials recovery

Raw materials

Manufacturing process reuse

Logistics waste and auxiliary products & reuse

Waste from consumption

Product and by-product reuse

Urban Digestion

It is a type of model to facilitate the description and analysis of the flows of the materials and energy within cities, such as undertaken in a material flow analysis of a city.It provides researchers with a metaphorical framework to study the interactions of natural and human systems in specific regions.

Solar cells connect solar energy into electricity

Green roofs bind rainwater so that it evaporates

Solar panels heat water

All frontage and roofing materials are free from heavy metals

Car pools reduce private motor travel

Safe footpaths and bikeways

Street rainwater is treated locally and flows into the lake instead of to a treatment plant

Heat exchangers in water treatment

Recycling the Coast

The coastlines are endangered. At no time in the span of human civilization have we faced such extreme and global threats to our marine ecosystems. Pollution levels in coastalhabitats are reaching alarming levels. Heavy metal contamination is yielding some commercial fish stocks unsafe, and many species are exploited to the brink of collapse.

Many of these sites on undeveloped natural coast are now suffering the knock-on impacts of hard engineering further along the coast.

The defences are increasing and concentrating change to an internationally important sand dune formation and giving rise to problems for other coastal users. As sea levels rise and severe storms increase, it will become ever more difficult and expensive to build and maintain strong defences. They can also disfigure the coast and causeenvironmental harm by moving the problem to another location.

Sea level rise is likely to have a dramatic impact on low-lying coastal and intertidal habitats causing widespread flooding and accelerated coastal erosion. Ultimately, manycoastal ecosystems may be lost or irreversibly altered. Rising sea level pushes the high-water mark landward; however, many coastal habitats are prevented from migratinginland due to natural or man-made barriers.The loss of coastal ecosystems would have profound implications for neighbouring human communities. Coastal habitats, such as mangroves, provide many vital services.For instance, they act as nurseries for pelagic fish, are a source of food and fuel, and are barriers against tidal surges and flooding.

Recycling the Coast

Coastal water bodies

Tidal creeks are very essential for early life stages of residents and also visitors (fishes and sea birds). They acts as guards to the coastal health. As water level rises and fallswith the tides, the tidal creek combines salt water from the estuary with storm water runoff from the land.Habitats around the creeks like:• Marshes• Oysters• Open sand flats• Channels

Huntington beach state park salt marsh

Tidal creek is a productive ecosystem at the interface between terrestrial and marine habitats and they also intertwine with salt marshes which are important for conduits forenergy and material exchange and acts as a necessity for providing vital resources for coastal communities.

Sapelo sand marsh in Georgia

Recycling the Coast

OYSTER AS A MEANS OF PRESERVING THE COAST

Oysters as a means of preserving the coast

Oysters are sessile molluscs, which means they have two(2) calcareous shells that protect the soft body mass of the oyster and have an elastic ligament that controls theopening of the shell. Oysters are filter feeders, drawing water in over their gills through the beating of cilia. Suspended plankton and particles are trapped in the mucus of agill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested, and expelled as feces or pseudofeces. Oysters feed most actively at temperatures above10°C (50°F). An oyster can filter up to 5 litres of water per hour.

Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigasequipped with activity electrodes to follow their daily behaviour 24/7

Oyster reefs form when densely packed individual oysters grow upward and outward creating a complex hard surface along the coastline. The reefs are a three-dimensional habitat, located in intertidal or subtidal zones.

Recycling the Coast

Oyster Behaviour

In terms of nutrient cycling, oysters are effective filter feeders and can have large effects on the water columns in which they occur. Oysters consume nitrogen-containingcompounds (nitrates and ammonia), phosphates, plankton, detritus, bacteria, and dissolved organic matter, removing them from the water. What is not used for animal growthis then expelled as solid waste pellets, which eventually decompose into the atmosphere as nitrogen. Oyster reefs therefore can significantly improve water quality and clarity.

Oyster reef at about mid-tide off fishing pier

Oysters influence:• Nutrient cycling• Water filtration• Habitat structure• Food web dynamics• Controlling erosion (oyster reefs are natural

breakwaters that protect shorelines).

Bags of oyster cultch used in oyster restorationThe Whaleback shell Midden in Maine contains the shells from oyster harvested for food dating

Oyster

Oyster

Oyster Behaviour (Life cycle of an oyster)

Oyster reef development occurs in four(4) stages: initial colonization, clustering phase, accretionary phase and maturation. The initial colonization occurs with the settlementand growth of an oyster spat (larval baby oyster) and small, scattered clusters on a suitable substrate with a sufficient flow of water. The clustering phase occurs when moreoyster larvae settle and attach to both dead and live oyster shells.

Each small colony comprises three to seven(7) generations of oysters, although the majority dies from overcrowding and suffocation. In the accretionary stage, the smallclusters increase in size and form a mass oyster cluster with growth occurring horizontally and vertically. Development of the oyster reef continues with the accumulation oflive and dead oysters shells within the water level of the intertidal zone. An oyster reef reaches senescence, or maturation, when it can no longer develop vertically.

Oyster Behaviour

Additionally the hard structure of the oyster reef stabilizes sediments to help improve water quality as well as provide shoreline protection.

South Carolina Aquarium SCORE reef building project, Charleston SC reef bags. Individuals placing bags filled with oyster shells along the shoreline.

Oyster reefs along the coastline. Effects of simulated harvesting evaluating the impacts and recovery of intertidal fishery practices, project followed recovery for 2 or 3 years.

Oyster

Volunteers help to deploy oyster bags in Salt marsh

Harvesting adult oysters interrupts this cycle by removing shell from the system. Replanting oyster shell is an important way of ensuring that suitable habitat is available forfuture generations of oysters. Complete the cycle by recycling!To properly manage the oyster beds and maintain these important oyster habitats, citizens and businesses must continually recycle the oyster shell that is removed from thestate's oyster beds.

Photo of recruitment of oyster shells (cultch) as part of SC restoration work

A natural bed of very healthy intertidal oyster clusters at larva stage

Oyster reefs along the coastline.

Oyster Shell Recycling

Oyster shells provide a scaffold for spat (young oysters) to settle on and grow. They can be placed on the sea bottom in areas with a natural supply of spat from existing oysters. In many areas there is not enough existing material for the spat to settle on.

Oyster shells

Oyster mats are created

Oyster bar

Reef growth

Sucked oyster shells reclaimed for use in oyster reef restoration project

Recycled oysters are placed back into bay waters to replenish and restore reefs

Harvested oysters sold to restaurants

After the oysters are eaten the shells are discarded

• Separate shell from trash. Shell mixed with trash is not suitable for recycling. Provide separate containers for shell.

• Keep the shells in a porous container to reduce odours.• Bring the shells to a shell recycling center.• DO NOT put live oysters in waters. Placing imported oysters in our

waters can create public health problems and may harm local oysters or other animals.

• DO NOT put freshly shucked shell in waters. To avoid contamination, shell should be dried for 6 months.

Recycling steps

Oyster Shell Recycling

Precedents

Mosquito Lagoon, Florida

Mosquito Lagoon is located in the northern part ofthe Indian River Lagoon system and the Atlantic intercostalwaterway. It is a popular site in the Indian River lagoon,located in one of North America’s most diverse estuaries.The Mosquito Lagoon Park is a campground with cabinrentals located in Oak Hill, Florida in Volusia County on thebanks of the Mosquito Lagoon. We are a fairly new and stillgrowing small community with waterfront spaces on thebank of the beautiful Mosquito Lagoon. This area of Floridais known for some of the best fishing in Florida.

Precedents

Mosquito Lagoon, FloridaThreats:

• Reduced water quality due to manmade hydrologic changes, non-point source pollution, loss and fragmentation of habitats, overuse/overharvest of resources, and the threat of invasive exotic species.

• Stormwater runoff problems are compounded in urbanized areas. • The boat wakes are dislocate the live oysters from their reefs, in which they

stumble against themselves and die eventually forming barren islands of oyster shells.

• Invasive exotic species occur in all portions of the lagoon watershed, from upland habitats to wetlands to aquatic habitats within the lagoon to adjacent coastal habitats. Exotics compete with and often crowd out native species, greatly reducing ecosystem biodiversity and function.

Precedents

Precedents


Strategies

• Use of oyster mats to restore dead reefs, position within shallow waters of the lagoon.

• These mats form a huge welcome mat and welcome free floating larvae and produces backbones of new, healthy reefs.

Creating oyster mat, tying up 36 oyster shells which they are carefully pre-drilled with a hole

A floating backhoe, donated by partners, helps prepare a restoration site. The machine has eliminated the need for tedious, back-breaking hand-raking – moving the project ahead by years.

Precedents


Processing

Key Benefits: • Water filtration• Provide food and nurseries for other aquatic animals• Stabilizes the eroding shorelines

Weighed and connected together, in which the oyster mats provide a stable foundation for oyster larvae that has been spawned and fertilized.

Volunteers spend the day among the knee-deep waters of the lagoon, placing oyster mats into the prepared site.

The mats allow new reefs to form within 18 months.

Precedents

Loxahatchee River, Florida

Precedents

Loxahatchee river is a 7.6 mile river near the southeast coast of Florida.• It has a tidal influence that begins below Trapper Nelson’s cabin.• The river is particularly narrow for most of the area above Trapper

Nelson’s cabin• There are many low branches and overhangs• The currents can be strong depending on water levels

Open water: Below Trapper Nelson’s cabin the river widens considerably. Contact with motor boats is possible and high winds are more likely closer to the state park boat ramp.

Wildlife: American alligator, osprey, white-tailed deer, great blue heron, mullet, brown water snake, cottonmouth snake, yellow-bellied slider.

Precedents


Threats: • Oyster reefs have been declined due to lack of hard surfaces where larvae

can attach. Long assumed to improve water clarity and benefit other species of aquatic life.

• Large freshwater releases reduce salinities in the estuary to levels that harm estuarine and marine flora and fauna with oyster and seagrasses being among the most notable.

Comparison of storm-related flood control releases from S-46 at Loxahatchee River, Florida.

Salinity

Subsequent assessment of oyster communities indicated severe impacts to oyster reefs in the Southwest Fork and moderate impacts to oysters in upstream reaches of the Northwest Fork.

Typical salinity envelope for the Oyster Reef site at river mile 4.1 in the Northwest Fork of the Loxahatchee River, Florida. Dashed and solids lines are the lower and upper bounds of the envelope shown as the cummulative distribution plot of the daily minimum and maximum salinity recorded by a datasonde at 15 min

Precedents


Oyster Recruitment Monitoring 2007 - 2013

Precedents


Strategy: • Use of concrete reef balls as a substrate used in the river. They typically

attract fish as soon as they placed in water.• Creating oyster habitat by placing mesh bags full of oyster shells

underneath their docks.

Concrete reef balls which were substrate used in the river. They attract fishes once placed in water.

Volunteers create oyster habitat by placing mesh bags full of oyster shells underneath their docks.

An experiment using light sensors such as these is now being used to scientifically determine how extensively oyster reefs affect water clarity.

Key Benefits: • These experiments are being used to look at how oysters provide ecosystem

services by clearing water as they feed on microscopic plants.• Improves water quality and providing essential fish habitat.

Precedents

Locations of oyster beds


Sapelo Island, Georgia

Precedents

Sapelo Island is a state-protected barrier island located in McIntoshCounty, Georgia. The island is only accessible by airplane or boat, with theprimary ferry coming from the Sapelo Island Visitors Center in McIntoshCounty, Georgia, a seven mile (11 km), trip. The 16,500-acre island isGeorgia's fourth largest and, excepting the 434-acre African Americancommunity of Hog Hammock, is entirely state owned and managed.

Precedents


Threats: • Due to the high energy wave activity, rise in sea levels and incompatible

development leave coastal lands vulnerable to erosion and loss of habitat. Hardened structures have been used on the shorelines but instead they reflect wave action into the water causing more damage.

• A tangle of salt marsh and sand reachable only by boat, holds the largest community of people who identify themselves as saltwater Geechees.

1

2

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Strategy: Using two(2) distinct methods, the Conservancy is helping to create oyster reefs along the tidal creeks as a sustainable, natural alternative to harden the shorelines.

Precedents


Use of layered mesh bags containing about 8,000 bushels of oyster shells as a technique for attracting oyster larvae to attach and form reefs.

Oyster reefs stabilizing the soil

Precedents

Key Benefits: • Minimizes erosion• Absorbs impact of boat activity• Enhances habitats for residents and visitors (fishes,

seabirds and invertebrates)• Improves water quality• Increase of salt marshes

Chained-like steel baskets containing rocks are being used at another test site to determine which is best material used for attracting larvae and supporting reef growth.

Bagging the recycled oyster shells to plant native vegetation behind the sites to stabilize the soil and enhance the habitat.


Precedents

Jeremy Creek, South Carolina

Jeremy creek is located in McClellanville, South Carolina. Piloting a larger boat is a crapshoot at lower tides in Breach Inlet, Jeremy Creek and the channel through Cape Romain. McClellanville is a small fishing town in Charleston County.McClellanville has a total area of 2.4 square miles (6.1 km2), of which 2.2 square miles (5.8 km2) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.3 km2), or 5.02%, is water. Jeremy Creek, a tidal inlet, runs through the center of the town, and the town limits extend south to the Intercoastal waterway, adjacent to Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge.

Precedents


Thursday 3 December

2:42 AM ESTLast Quarter

7:04 AM EST Sunrise

7:40 AM EST 0.30 m (0.99 feet) Low Tide

12:46 PM EST Moonset

2:08 PM EST 1.47 m (4.82 feet) High Tide

5:10 PM EST Sunset

8:13 PM EST 0.27 m (0.88 feet) Low Tide

Friday 4 December

12:48 AM EST Moonrise

2:51 AM EST 1.40 m (4.59 feet) High Tide

7:05 AM EST Sunrise


1:19 PM EST Moonset


5:10 PM EST Sunset


Saturday 5 December

1:41 AM EST Moonrise

3:43 AM EST 1.43 m (4.70 feet) High Tide

7:05 AM EST Sunrise


1:50 PM EST Moonset


5:10 PM EST Sunset


MCCLELLANVILLE, JEREMY CREEK TIDE TABLE:

Precedents


Threats• Oyster reefs are in severe decline along the Atlantic seaboard due to overharvesting of

oysters, boat activity, habitat loss and pollution. • Rise in sea-level is also causing increase in erosion along South Carolina’s beaches and

marshes.

The sea level rise stands to make things much in the Canal City, and a global warming awareness group is using data from new papers and a unique approach to help spread awareness of the risks tied with sea level rise.

Precedents


Strategy• The Conservancy aided to restore oyster reefs in the Cape Romaine National Wildlife

Refuge with 24 oyster castles, structures made with interlocking blocks composed of concrete, limestone, shells and silica.

• The castles were strategically placed in locations where oyster reef growth would help slow erosion.

Oyster castles were used along Jeremy Island after proving effective on the Virginia coast.

24 oyster castles, each made with 13 interlocking blocks, were placed along the shoreline of Jeremy Island

Oyster castles, made of 30-pound blocks of shell, limestone and cement, provide a surface for oyster larvae to attach and form reefs

Close-up of reef growth after 6 months following the launch of the project

Precedents

Cycle of flow

Key Benefits• Slow erosion and protects the shorelines• Enhance habitats for oysters, fishes, crabs and other marine lives• Filters impurities from coastal waters.

Tibwin Creek, South Carolina

Precedents

Tibwin Creek is a stream located just 6.5 miles from Awendaw, inCharleston County, in the state of South Carolina, United States. Thedistrict encompasses 105 contributing buildings in the town ofMcClellanville. They include residential, commercial, religious andeducational building dating between about 1860 to 1935.Architectural styles include: Carpenter Gothic, Queen Anne, andItalianate. Notable buildings include the King Brothers Store,McClellanville Public School, New Wappetaw Presbyterian Church,Bank of McClellanville, McClellanville Methodist Episcopal Church,and a number of dwellings originally built as summer homes by St.James Santee and Georgetown planters.

Tibwin Plantation

Precedents

Threats: • The driving forces behind the decline of oyster reefs include destructive fishing practices,

coastal over-development and effects from upstream activities such as altered river flows, dams, poorly managed agriculture and decline of water quality.

• The Nature Conservancy released the first-ever comprehensive global report on the state of shellfish at the International Marine Conservation Congress in Washington, DC. The report concludes that oyster reefs are the most severely impacted marine habitat on the planet.

Tibwin Creek, South Carolina

Precedents

Key Benefits: • Improves water quality• Absorbs impact of storm surges• Provides habitats for residents and visitors (fishes, seabirds

and invertebrates)• Slows erosion from rise in sea-level

Volunteers help to fill and install mesh bags of recycled oyster shells along the restoration site The Conservancy has helped to establish 25sqm of reef in Tibwin

Creek using mesh bags of oysters, a technique that has proven successful.

Strategy: • Creating an oyster reef in Tibwin Creek using mesh bags of oyster shells layered on untreated wood pallets. • The new reef covers 25sqm, connecting 2 existing natural reefs.

Pamlico Sound, North Carolina

Precedents

Pamlico Sound in North Carolina in the US is the largest lagoon along the North AmericanEast coast, extending 129 km (80 mi) long and 24 to 48 km (15 to 20 miles) wide. It ispart of a large, interconnected network of lagoon estuaries that includes AlbemarleSound, Currituck Sound, Croatan Sound, Pamlico Sound, Bogue Sound, Core Sound,and Roanoke Sound.

Precedents

Threats: • Overharvesting, decline of water quality, disease and habitat loss has reduced the

distribution of oysters in past history.• Every time it rains around the Albemarle-Pamlico watershed, water erodes the land.

The precious soil which washes away into streams is called sediment. Sediments are carried downstream and may eventually enter the Sounds, where they settle out of the water and cover the bottom.

• Wetlands, one of the most important types of habitat, are threatened all around the Albemarle-Pamlico watershed. They are filled in for development, drained for agriculture, or dredged for marinas. Pollution has degraded water quality in the Sounds and their rivers, resulting in declines of important SAX and scallops.

Pamlico Sound, North Carolina

Precedents

Strategy: Using lime stone marl (basket-ball sized fossil rock) distributed via barge, 64.5 acres of 3-dimensional reefs were constructed.

Key Benefits: • Broodstock for adjacent natural reefs• Developing increase in flexibility to diseases• Enhance habitat for oysters, fish and other marine animals• Improving the water quality

Crane dumps fossil rock into state protected waters in Pamlico sound, providing a surface for oyster larvae to attach and grow.

Along with the marl, netted bags of recycled oyster shells were placed in Pamlico Sound to help grow more reefs.

OYSTER APPLICATION IN FORMBY

Future considerations for UK Closed Loop Urban projects

Shifting Shores – living with a changing coastline

Fast-forward to this past winter and a succession of violent storms and extremetides saw the erosion and flooding thinking this could happen over the next 5 to 15years occurring overnight. Increasingly, ‘defence’ as the only response looksimplausible. Instead we must adapt and take the longer view.Future forecasts say climate change will lead to sea level rise and increasedstorminess which will, in turn accelerate the scale and pace of coastal change.

Application of Oyster technique in Formby

Formby Coast

The Sefton coast is the largest dune area in England. It extends over 35.5km and comprises soft and granular estuary deposits of sand, silt, clay and peat. The dune

coast extends for 17km in length, and between a few hundred metres and 4km in width. Erosion/accretion pattern along the Sefton coast is very similar both with and

without storm clustering effect. However, the morphological changes in the ridge-runnel system are more pronounced when storms occur in isolation, especially when

beach gradient is gentler.

At Formby the mobile dunes are migrating landwards in response to coastal erosion. Beaches, intertidal habitats and dune systems can provide a natural and cost-

effective means of flood defence.

Formby coastal changes-timeline and future changes

1906 1945 2005

2045 2105

The dunes most seaward extent occurs at Formby Point just to the north of the River Alt discharge

Erosion in Formby


Formby is faced with the challenge of erosion along the shoreline from the influence of the wind, water and human activity, the shoreline is constantly changing. For

example, extensive erosion at Formby Point during the eighteenth century was reversed in the mid-nineteenth century, when it gained 300m around its whole arc.

Storm

event

Hs (m) Tp (s) Wave Dir. (°) Wind

Speed(m/s)

Water

level(m)

Storm

power(m2/h)

Max. WL

during storm

D1 4.6 9.3 281 20 5.0 266 5.1

D2 2.8 8.1 276 14 1.3 110 3.6

D3 3.8 7.7 264 15 0.5 185 3.2

J1 2.6 6.7 276 15 4.2 15 4.4

J2 2.9 7.5 287 15 2.4 52 2.8

J3 3.7 7.6 287 17 2.4 83 2.6

J4 3.0 7.6 281 14 2.7 82 2.8

Storm events that occurred in December (D1, D2, D3) and January (J1, J2, J3, J4), stormduration, temporal storm spacing, and characteristics at peak storm wave height andstorm power index.


Storm impacts


Wind directions

Storm impacts

• Creating artificial tidal creeks along the coast and thereby creating other marine habitats• Creating oyster mats and placing them in the creeks and also along the coast to grow oyster reefs


Proposed Strategy

Creek Section

Marshlands are terraced for tourists to have a beautiful view of the tidal creek and the oysters

Oyster processing

F R M Y B

Conclusion

In order to maintain a stable shoreline, harvesting of oysters in Formby coast should be at moderate.

RECYCLING oyster shellsREDUCING the effects of erosion and overharvesting of oystersREUSING oyster shells

Key Benefits: • It hardens the shoreline• Minimizes the effects of erosion and flooding• Enhance habitat for oysters, fish and other marine animals• Improving the water quality • Enables creation of oyster industry

http://www.oyster-restoration.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/CoenLuckRestMonitoring.pdf

http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/habitats/oceanscoasts/oyster-reef-restoration-southern-solutions-for-a-global-problem.xml

http://www.dnr.sc.gov/marine/pub/seascience/oyster.html

http://science.unctv.org/content/secrets-tidal-creeks

http://chesapeakebay.noaa.gov/oysters/oyster-reefs

http://score.dnr.sc.gov/deep.php?subject=6&topic=1

http://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

http://www.nature.org/science-in-action/science-features/oyster-reef-interactive-graphic.xml

http://sagecoast.org/docs/sci_eng/LivingShorelinesAlongtheGeorgiaCoastweb.pdf

http://www.massoyster.org/shell_recycling.html

http://www.intechopen.com/books/climate-change-research-and-technology-for-adaptation-and-mitigation/what-is-green-urbanism-holistic-principles-to-transform-cities-for-sustainability

http://www.fau.edu/hboi/meh/IRL.Fact.Sheet.

https://www.dep.state.fl.us/gwt/guide/designated_paddle/Lox_guide.

References

https://www.loxahatcheeriver.org/pdf/2014%20SSR%20Loxahatchee.pdf

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