Climate Change - Glossary of Terms

Climate Change:

A Glossary of Terms

2nd Edition, January 2000

International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association

Copyright ©IPIECA 2000

International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association2nd Floor, Monmouth House, 87–93 Westbourne Grove, London W2 4ULUnited Kingdom

PrefaceThis glossary of climate change terms was first printed in June1999. This version has been updated following the UNFCCCCOP-5. Some terms have been amended; the following terms oracronyms have been added:

ARD Activities—Afforestation, Reforestation, DeforestationArticles 4.8 & 4.9BudgetBudget periodBuenos Aires Plan of ActionCarbon IntensityCombined CycleCommitment PeriodForestFuel CellGrandfatheringKyoto LandsLULUCFRadiative ForcingReforestation

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Activities Implemented Jointly, or AIJ The pilot phase for joint implementation (JI), as definedin Article 4.2(a) of the FCCC, that allows for projectactivity among developed countries (and their compa-nies) and between developed and developing countries(and their companies). AIJ is intended to allow Parties togain experience in jointly implemented project activi-ties. There is no crediting for AIJ activity during thepilot phase. (See also ‘Joint Implementation’ and ‘CleanDevelopment Mechanism’). A decision remains to betaken on the future of AIJ projects and how they mayrelate to the Kyoto Mechanisms.

AdaptationThe adjustment of an organism or population to a newor altered environment. Also refers to conscious andunconscious decisions made by people to adjust tochanges, such as adaptation to potential climate change.

AdditionalityAccording to the Kyoto Protocol Articles on JointImplementation and the Clean Development Mechanism,emissions reduction units (ERUs) will be awarded toproject-based activities provided that the projectsachieve reductions that are ‘additional to those that other-wise would occur.’ The issue is subject to further clarifica-tion by Parties. Some now make the distinction betweenenvironmental additionality and economic/financialadditionality. Under financial additionality, in oneapproach projects will only earn credit if funds addi-tional to existing ODA and GEF commitments arespecifically committed to achieve the GHG reductions.In other approaches funding from any source, includingprivate investment, must be additional to funding forthe project in the absence of a mechanism for credits.With environmental additionality, credits are awarded

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Climate Change:a Glossary of Terms

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according to the level of GHG reductions or limitationsachieved.

Ad Hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate, or AGBMWorking group established by the first meeting of theConference of the Parties (COP-1) to develop a processaimed at strengthening developed countries’ commit-ments to greenhouse gas reductions in the post-2000period through the adoption of a protocol or other legalinstrument. The AGBM convened for the last time atCOP-3 in Kyoto.

AfforestationThe act or process of establishing a forest on land thathad not been forested in relatively recent history.

AIJSee ‘Actions Implemented Jointly’.

Alliance of Small Island States, (AOSIS)A group of developing countries which share commonobjectives on environmental and sustainable develop-ment matters. The group was formed during the SecondWorld Climate Conference in 1990 and comprise smallisland and low-lying coastal developing countries whichare particularly vulnerable to the adverse consequencesof climate change such as sea level rise, coral bleachingand the increased frequency and intensity of tropicalstorms (AOSIS’ own definition). The group includesmore than 35 states from the Atlantic, Caribbean,Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and Pacific.

Alternative EnergyEnergy derived from non-fossil fuel sources.

Anthropogenic EmissionsEmissions of greenhouse gases associated with humanactivities. These include burning of fossil fuels forenergy, deforestation and land-use changes.

Annex I CountriesAnnex I to the Climate Convention (UNFCCC) lists allthe countries in the Organization of EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD), plus countries

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with economies in transition, Central and EasternEurope (excluding the former Yugoslavia and Albania).By default the other countries are referred to as Non-Annex I countries. Under Article 4.2 (a&b) of theConvention, Annex I countries commit themselvesspecifically to the aim of returning individually or jointlyto their 1990 levels of GHG emissions by the year 2000.

Annex II CountriesAnnex II to the Climate Convention lists all countries inthe OECD. Under Article 4.2 (g) of the Convention,these countries are expected to provide financialresources to assist developing countries comply withtheir obligations such as preparing national reports.Annex II countries are also expected to promote thetransfer of environmentally sound technologies todeveloping countries.

Annex B CountriesAnnex B in the Kyoto Protocol lists those developedcountries that have agreed to a target for their green-house gas emissions, including those in the OECD,Central and Eastern Europe and the RussianFederation. Not quite the same as Annex I, which alsoincludes Turkey, and Belarus, while Annex B includesCroatia, Monaco, Liechtenstein and Slovenia.

AOSISSee ‘Alliance of Small Island States.’

ARD Activities Afforestation, Reforestation, Deforestation (See sepa-rate definitions). These are the three land-use changeand forestry activities that are included in Article 3.3 ofthe Kyoto Protocol. Net changes resulting from theseactivities are allowed to be used by the Parties in meet-ing their GHG obligations under the Protocol in thefirst commitment period (they are required in thesecond commitment period). They are often referred totogether as ARD. ARD Activities are the focus of Ch.4of the IPCC Special Report on LULUCF currently atthe draft stage.


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Articles 4.8 and 4.9Adverse impacts of climate change, the impact ofmeasures taken to respond to climate change, andcompensation for these impacts is referred to in Articles4.8 and 4.9 of the Convention. This issue is alsoaddressed under Article 3.14 of the Kyoto Protocol. Inthe negotiations, discussion of these articles is of partic-ular concern to small island countries and those non-Annex I countries whose economies are highly depen-dent on fossil fuels.

Assigned AmountsUnder the Kyoto Protocol, the total amount of green-house gas emissions that each developed country hasagreed that its emissions will not exceed in the firstcommitment period (2008–12) is the assigned amount.This is calculated by multiplying its total greenhouse gasemissions in 1990 by 5 (for the five-year commitmentperiod) and then by the percentage it agreed to as listedin Annex B of the Protocol (e.g., 92 per cent for the EU;93 per cent for the USA).

AtmosphereThe envelope of gases surrounding the earth and boundto it by the earth’s gravitational attraction. The atmos-phere is divided into layers: the troposphere (fromground level to between 8–17km); the stratosphere (upto 50km); the mesosphere (50–90km); and the thermos-phere which forms the transition zone to outer space.There is relatively little mixing between layers.

BankingParties to the Kyoto Protocol may save excess emissionsallowances or credits from the first commitment periodfor use in subsequent commitment periods (post-2012).

BaselineA projected level of future emissions against which reduc-tions by project activities could be determined, or theemissions that would occur without policy intervention.

Berlin MandateDecision of the Parties reached at the first session of theConference of the Parties to the FCCC (COP-1) in


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1995 in Berlin. Governments agreed that the commit-ments in the Convention were inadequate, and furtheragreed to begin a negotiating process to prepare aprotocol or other legal instrument to strengthen thesecommitments in the post-2000 period.

BiofuelA fuel produced from dry organic matter or combustibleoils produced by plants. Examples of biofuel includealcohols (from fermented sugar), black liquor from thepaper manufacturing process, wood and soybean oil.

BiomassThe total dry organic matter or stored energy content ofliving organisms. Biomass can be used for fuel directlyby burning it (e.g., wood), indirectly by fermentation toan alcohol (e.g., sugar) or extraction of combustible oils(e.g., soybeans).

BorrowingThe Kyoto Protocol does not permit borrowing emis-sions credits or units from future commitment periods(i.e., from the periods after 2012) to satisfy obligationsin the first commitment period (2008–12). On the otherhand, carrying forward excess credits is allowed. (Seealso ‘Banking.’)

BTU TaxEnergy tax levied at a rate based on the BTU (BritishThermal Unit) energy content of a fuel.

BubbleArticle 4 of the Kyoto Protocol allows a group of countriesto meet their target listed in Annex B jointly by aggregat-ing their total emissions under one ‘bubble’ and sharingthe burden. The EU nations have agreed to aggregate andshare their emissions commitments under one bubble.

BudgetSee ‘Assigned Amount’.

Budget PeriodSee ‘Commitment Period’.


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Buenos Aires Plan of ActionThe Plan of Action agreed by governments at COP-4held in Buenos Aires (November, 1998). The Plan ofAction states the aim to resolve, by COP-6, a list ofoutstanding issues concerning the FCCC and the KyotoProtocol, principally on the Kyoto Mechanisms andcompliance. The development and transfer of technol-ogy, compensation for adverse effects (of climate changeitself and mitigation policies), and the status of projectsunder the Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) pilotprogramme are also included in the Plan of Action andrequire resolution by COP-6. It is sometimes referred toas the BAPA.

CapSee ‘Emissions Cap’

Capacity BuildingA process of constructive interaction between developingcountries and the private sector to help them develop thecapability and skills needed to achieve environmentallysound forms of economic development. The processmakes use of the private sector’s modern technologies andmanagement systems, in combination with a competentworkforce and appropriate laws and regulations.

Carbon CycleThe natural processes that govern the exchange of carbon(in the form of CO2, carbonates and organic compoundsetc.) among the atmosphere, ocean and terrestrialsystems. Major components include photosynthesis,respiration and decay between atmospheric and terres-trial systems (approximately 100 billion tonnes/year(gigatons)); thermodynamic invasion and evasionbetween the ocean and atmosphere, operation of thecarbon pump and mixing in the deep ocean (approx. 90billion tonnes/year). Deforestation and fossil fuel burningreleases approximately 7 gt into the atmosphere annually.The total carbon in the reservoirs is approximately2000 gt in land biota, soil and detritus, 750 gt in theatmosphere and 38,000 gt in the oceans. (Figures fromIPCC WGI Scientific Assessment 1990.) Over stilllonger periods geological processes of outgassing, volcan-ism, sedimentation and weathering are also important.


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Carbon Dioxide, or CO2A naturally occurring gas, it is also a by-product of burn-ing fossil fuels and biomass, as well as land-use changesand other industrial processes. It is the principal anthro-pogenic greenhouse gas that affects the earth’s tempera-ture. It is the reference gas against which other GHGsare indexed and therefore has a ‘Global WarmingPotential’ (see below) of 1. Carbon dioxide constitutesapproximately 0.036 per cent of the atmosphere. Themass ratio of carbon to carbon dioxide is 12:44.

Carbon Dioxide FertilizationEnhancement of plant growth or yield as a result of anincrease in the atmospheric concentration of CO2.

Carbon IntensityCarbon dioxide emissions per unit of energy oreconomic output.

Carbon SequestrationThe long-term storage of carbon or carbon dioxide inthe forests, soils, ocean, or underground in depleted oiland gas reservoirs, coal seams, and saline aquifers.Examples include: the separation and disposal of CO2from flue gases or processing fossil fuels to produce H2and carbon-rich fractions; and the direct removal ofCO2 from the atmosphere through land use change,afforestation, reforestation, ocean fertilization, and agri-cultural practices to enhance soil carbon.

Carbon SinksNatural or man-made systems that absorb carbon diox-ide from the atmosphere and store them. Trees, plants,and the oceans all absorb CO2 and, therefore, arecarbon sinks.

Carbon TaxA tax placed on carbon emissions. It is similar to a BTUtax, except that the tax rate is based on the fuel’s carboncontent.

CDMSee ‘Clean Development Mechanism’.


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Certified Emission Reduction Unit, or CERA CER represents a specified amount of greenhouse gasemissions reduction achieved through a CleanDevelopment Mechanism project.

CERSee ‘Certified Emission Reduction Unit’.

CFCsSee ‘Chlorofluorocarbons.’

CH4See ‘Methane.’

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)Greenhouse gases covered under the 1987 MontrealProtocol used for refrigeration, air conditioning, pack-aging, insulation, solvents or aerosol propellants.Because they are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere,CFCs mix into the upper atmosphere where, given suit-able conditions, they break down ozone. These gases arebeing replaced by other compounds includinghydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluoro-carbons (HFCs), which are greenhouse gases coveredunder the Kyoto Protocol.

Clean Development Mechanism, or CDMDefined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, CDMprojects undertaken in developing countries areintended to meet two objectives: (1) to address thesustainable development needs of the host country; and(2) to generate emissions credits that can be used tosatisfy commitments of Annex 1 Parties and thusincrease flexibility in where government Parties meettheir reduction commitments. Projects that limit orreduce greenhouse gas emissions can earn the investor(government or industry) credits if approved by theCDM Executive Board. A share of the proceeds fromthe project activities is to be used to cover administra-tion costs and to assist developing countries vulnerableto potential adverse impacts from climate change or thepolicies designed to mitigate against it.


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ClimateThe average trend of weather, including its variability ina geographical region. The averaging period is typicallyseveral decades.

Climate Change (UNFCCC definition)A change of climate which is attributed directly or indi-rectly to human activity that alters the composition ofthe global atmosphere and which is in addition tonatural climate variability over comparable time periods.

Climate ConventionSee ‘UN Framework Convention on Climate Change,’or UNFCCC.

Climate FeedbacksInteraction between greenhouse gases and importantclimate mechanisms, such as vegetation, water vapour,ice cover, clouds, and the ocean. Such interactions canincrease, decrease, or neutralize the warming producedby increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.

Climate ModelsLarge and complex computer programmes used tomathematically simulate global climate. They are basedon mathematical equations that seek to represent thephysical processes that govern the earth-atmospheresystem. (See ‘General Circulation Models’).

Climate SensitivityTheoretical change in earth’s average surface airtemperature for a given change in greenhouse gasconcentration or other forcing mechanism. Does notrefer to changes in any other climate properties.

Climate SystemThe totality of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphereand geosphere and their interactions.

Combined cycle Electricity generation where the waste heat of a gas-turbine generator is used to heat water in a boiler to drivea steam-turbine generator, thereby increasing efficiency.


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CogenerationThe use of waste heat from electricity generation, suchas exhaust from gas turbines, for either industrialpurposes or district heating.

Commitment PeriodIn order to allow Parties some flexibility in when theymeet their GHG emissions reduction obligations underthe Kyoto Protocol (i.e. emit their assigned amount),the reduction target is applied to a 5-year period, knownas the commitment period. The first commitmentperiod will be 2008–12. Terms governing the nature ofthe second and subsequent periods are subject to futurenegotiation. The Kyoto Protocol calls for negotiationsconcerning the second period to commence by 2005.

Conference of the Parties, or COPThe supreme body of the UNFCCC, comprised ofcountries that have ratified or acceded to theFramework Convention on Climate Change. The firstsession of the COP (COP-1) was held in Berlin in 1995,COP-2 Geneva 1996, COP-3 Kyoto 1997, and COP-4Buenos Aires. COP-5 will be held in Bonn. (See also‘COP/moP’ and ‘meeting of Parties’).

COP/moPThe Conference of Parties of the FCCC will serve as the‘moP’ (meeting of Parties, the supreme body of the KyotoProtocol) but only Parties to the Kyoto Protocol mayparticipate in deliberations and make decisions. Until theProtocol enters into force, the moP cannot meet.

CO2See ‘Carbon Dioxide.’

Credit for Early ActionSome governments have suggested giving credit foraction taken before 2008. The intent would be to stimu-late investment in GHG abatement projects in developedcountries in the years prior to 2008. Under the KyotoProtocol, Annex B governments cannot receive creditstowards their emissions obligations for actions aimed atreducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions prior to thefirst commitment period (2008–12), except under the


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Clean Development Mechanism (i.e. in developing coun-tries only). Governments may choose to give domesticcredits prior to the first commitment period.

CSDSee ‘UN Commission on Sustainable Development’.

DeforestationThe removal of forest stands by cutting and burning toprovide land for agricultural purposes, residential orindustrial building sites, roads, etc., or by harvesting thetrees for building materials or fuel.

Demand-Side ManagementPolicies and programmes designed to reduce consumerdemand for electricity and other energy sources. It helpsto reduce the need for constructing new power facilities.

DesertificationThe progressive destruction or degradation of vegeta-tive cover, especially in arid or semi-arid regions border-ing existing deserts. Overgrazing of rangelands, large-scale cutting of forests and woodlands, drought, andburning of extensive areas and climate changes all serveto destroy or degrade the vegetation cover.

Early CreditingArticle 12 on the Clean Development Mechanism indi-cates that early crediting will be given for CDM projectsundertaken between 2000 and 2008. These credits canbe used to assist in achieving compliance in the firstcommitment period.

Earth Summit, or UN Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED)The Earth Summit was held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiroat which the climate treaty, or UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change, was signed by morethan 150 countries.

EcosystemThe interacting system of a biological community andits non-living environmental surroundings.


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El Niño/La Niña/ENSOAt irregular intervals, but on average about every fouryears, widespread warming of the east-central equatorialPacific sea surface temperature occurs. This warming,which typically lasts for about a year, is called an El Niñoevent. (The term has its origins in a seasonal Christmas-time phenomenon off the South American coast that isprolonged and amplified when the pan-Pacific eventoccurs.) El Niño can be regarded as the warm phase of amajor climate oscillation. During the cold phase, calledLa Niña, the equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature iscooler than normal. The sea surface temperatures areassociated with widespread atmospheric shifts in winds,rainfall etc. Southern Oscillation is the term for thechanges in tropical surface pressure that accompany theEl Niño/La Niña cycle. The events involve strong inter-action between the ocean and atmosphere, and the termENSO (El Niño/Southern Oscillation) is often used torefer to the phenomenon as a whole. In the Pacific regionthe ENSO cycle produces large coherent changes intropical ocean currents, temperature, trade winds, rain-fall patterns, etc. Through atmospheric teleconnections,ENSO also influences seasonal climate in many otherregions around the globe.

Emissions (UNFCCC Definition)The release of greenhouse gases and/or their precursorsinto the atmosphere over a specified area and periodof time.

Emissions CapA mandated restraint, in a scheduled timeframe, thatputs a ‘ceiling’ on the total amount of anthropogenicgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that can be releasedinto the atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol mandatescaps on the GHG emissions released by Annex B, ordeveloped, countries.

Emissions Reduction Unit, or ERUThe ERU represents a specified amount of greenhousegas emissions reductions achieved through a JointImplementation project or as the unit of trade in green-house gas emissions trading systems.


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Emissions TradingA market-based approach to achieving environmentalobjectives that allows those reducing greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions below what is required to use or tradethe excess reductions to offset emissions at anothersource inside or outside the country. In general, tradingcan occur at the domestic, international and intra-company levels. Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, allowsAnnex B countries to exchange emissions obligations.Negotiations will determine the extent to which firmsand others may be allowed to participate. Internationalemissions trading constitutes one of the KyotoMechanisms, designed to provide Annex B countriescost-effective flexibility in reducing emissions to achievetheir agreed commitments.

ERUSee ‘Emission Reduction Unit’.

FCCCSee ‘UN Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)’.

Flexibility MechanismsSee ‘Kyoto Mechanisms’.

ForestKey to the identification of Kyoto lands is a definition offorest that is consistent for all Parties. This definition iscritical to the accounting of sources and sinks under theKyoto Protocol (Articles 3.3 and 3.4). There are manydefinitions of forest, based on land use status, (adminis-trative/cultural records) or a minimum threshold ofcanopy cover and/or tree height. None however, werespecifically designed for carbon accounting as requiredunder the Protocol. This definition and the implicationsof using different definitions are addressed in detail inthe current draft of Ch.3 of the IPCC Special Report onLULUCF.

Fossil FuelsCarbon-based fuels, including coal, oil and natural gas.


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Fuel CellAn electrochemical device, like a battery, that combineshydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat andwater. The source of hydrogen can be either pure hydro-gen or a number of other fuels (such as methanol orother hydrocarbons) which are converted to hydrogen.

Fuel SwitchingSupplying energy services using different fuels. Oftenused to refer to actions that reduce CO2 emissions fromelectric utilities by switching from coal to natural gas.

GCMsSee ‘General Circulation Models’.

GEFSee ‘Global Environment Facility’.

General Circulation Models, or GCMsLarge and complex computer programmes that attemptto mathematically simulate global climate. They arebased on mathematical equations that seek to representthe physical processes that govern the earth-atmospheresystem. (See ‘Climate Models’).

GHGsSee ‘Greenhouse Gases’.

Global Environment Facility, or GEFA joint funding programme established by developedcountries to meet their obligations under various inter-national environmental treaties. GEF serves as theinterim financial mechanism for the UNFCCC, inparticular to cover the cost of reporting by non-Annex Icountries. It provides funds to complement traditionaldevelopment assistance by covering the additional or‘agreed incremental costs’ incurred, by non-Annex Icountries, when a national, regional or global develop-ment project also targets global environmental objec-tives such as those which address biodiversity.

Global WarmingThe view that the earth’s temperature is being increased,in part, due to emissions of greenhouse gases associated


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with human activities, such as burning fossil fuels,biomass burning, cement manufacture, cow and sheeprearing, deforestation and other land-use changes.

Global Warming Potential, or GWPA time dependent index used to compare the radiativeforcing, on a mass basis, of an impulse of a specificgreenhouse gas relative to that of CO2. Gases includedin the Kyoto Protocol are weighted in the first commit-ment period according to their GWP over a 100-yeartime horizon as published in the 1995 SecondAssessment Report of the IPCC. In that report,methane, for example has a radiative forcing that wasestimated to be about 21 times greater than that ofCO2, thus it has a GWP of 21.

GrandfatheringA method used to allocate emissions credits to compa-nies or other legal entities based on their emissionslevels at a certain point in the past (such as 1990).Those companies which have reduced their emissionssince that point in the past (through efficiency gains orshutting down operations for example) will be rewardedunder this process of allocation. Companies establishedafter the baseline date (and therefore having zero emis-sions at that time) would not receive any emissionscredits if this method of allocation is used alone.Alternative emissions credit allocation methods includeauctioning which would be similar to emissions taxa-tion, and free allocation based on negotiation.

Greenhouse EffectThe trapping of heat by naturally occurring heat-retaining atmospheric gases (water vapour, carbondioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and ozone) that keepsthe earth about 30° C (60° F) warmer than if thesegases did not exist.

Greenhouse Gases, or GHGsGases in the earth’s atmosphere that absorb and re-emitinfra-red radiation. These gases occur through bothnatural and human-influenced processes. The majorGHG is water vapour. Other GHGs include carbondioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone and CFCs.


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Group of 77 and China (G77/China)Originally 77, now more than 130 developing countriesthat act as a major negotiating bloc. The G77 and Chinaare also referred to as non-Annex I countries in thecontext of the UNFCCC.

GWPSee ‘Global Warming Potential’.

HFCsSee ‘Hydrofluorocarbons’.

Heat-Island EffectLocalized warming produced in cities due to the densityof infrastructure, such as pavement, buildings and roadsthat retain heat. This effect can influence readingsobtained from nearby weather stations.

Hot AirA few countries, notably Russia and the Ukraine, haveemissions allocations under the Kyoto Protocol thatappear to be well in excess of their anticipated emis-sions (as a result of economic downturn). The poten-tially excess allocation is referred to as hot air. Underthe Kyoto Protocol it could be traded with otherParties.

Hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCsAmong the six greenhouse gases to be curbed under theKyoto Protocol. They are produced commercially as asubstitute for Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). HFCslargely are used in refrigeration and semi-conductormanufacturing. Their Global Warming Potentials rangefrom 1,300 to 11,700 times that of CO2, depending onthe HFC. See ‘Global Warming Potential’.

IEASee ‘International Energy Agency’.

IGOSee ‘Intergovernmental Organization’.

Impact ModelsComputer programmes used to estimate the impact of


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a specific climate change on natural, social oreconomic systems.

Intergovernmental Organization, or IGOOrganizations constituted of governments. Examplesinclude the World Bank, the Organization of EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD), theInternational Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). TheConvention allows accreditation of these IGOs toattend the negotiating sessions.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,or IPCCPanel established in 1988, by governments under theauspices of the World Meteorological Organization andthe UN Environment Programme. It prepares assess-ments, reports and guidelines on the science of climatechange, its potential environmental, economic and socialimpacts, technological developments, possible nationaland international responses to climate change and cross-cutting issues. It provides advice to the UNFCCC’sConference of the Parties. It is currently organized into3 Working Groups which address: I) Science; II)Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; and III)Mitigation; there is also a Working Group to addressGHG Inventories.

International Energy Agency, or IEAParis-based organization formed in 1973 by the majoroil-consuming nations to manage future oil supplyshortfalls.

Joint Implementation, or JIJointly implemented projects that limit or reduce emissionsor enhance sinks are permitted among developed coun-tries under Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol. JI activity isalso permitted in Article 4.2(a) of the FCCC, between allParties. As defined in the Kyoto Protocol JI would allowdeveloped countries, or companies from those countries,to cooperate on projects to reduce greenhouse gas emis-sions and share the emissions reduction units (ERUs). AsJI occurs between Annex B countries (who have emissionscaps), no new emissions units are generated (unlike thecase with projects under the Clean Development


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Mechanism). JI can be viewed as an investment for ERUsswap. See also ‘Activities Implemented Jointly’.

Kyoto LandsThe Kyoto Protocol describes land use, land use changeand forestry activities that require or allow the net GHGemissions from sinks to be accounted for by Parties inmeeting their emission reduction commitments. Thelands on which these activities take place are designatedas Kyoto lands (as defined in the IPCC draft report onLULUCF).

Kyoto Mechanisms(formerly known as Flexibility Mechanisms)Procedures that allow Annex 1 Parties to meet theircommitments under the Kyoto Protocol based onactions outside their own borders. As potentially market-based mechanisms they have the potential to reduce theeconomic impacts of greenhouse gas emission-reductionrequirements. They include Joint Implementation (Article6), the Clean Development Mechanisms (Article 12) andEmissions Trading (Article 17).

Kyoto ProtocolThe Protocol, drafted during the Berlin Mandateprocess, that, on entry into force, would require coun-tries listed in its Annex B (developed nations) to meetdifferentiated reduction targets for their greenhouse gasemissions relative to 1990 levels by 2008–12. It wasadopted by all Parties to the Climate Convention inKyoto, Japan, in December 1997.

LULUCFLand Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry—see ‘ARDActivities’ and ‘Kyoto lands’.

Methane, or CH4One of the six greenhouse gases to be included underthe Kyoto Protocol, it has a relatively short atmosphericlifetime of 10± 2 years. Primary sources of methane arelandfills, coal mines, paddy fields, natural gas systemsand livestock. The SAR (1995) estimate of the GlobalWarming Potential of methane is 21, over a 100-yeartime horizon. See ‘Global Warming Potential’.


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Methane RecoveryMethod by which methane emissions, from for examplecoal mines or waste sites, are captured and then re-usedeither through cost-effective management methods orthrough power generation.

meeting of the Parties (to the Kyoto Protocol)or moPSupreme body of the Kyoto Protocol, which can onlyconvene after the Protocol enters into force. Only themoP can make amendments to the Protocol.

Montreal ProtocolInternational agreement under the UN which enteredinto force in January 1989 to phase out the use of ozone-depleting compounds such as CFCs, methyl chloro-form, carbon tetrachloride and many others.

National Action PlansPlans submitted to the Conference of the Parties(COP) by all Parties outlining the steps that they haveadopted to limit their anthropogenic GHG emissions.Countries must submit these plans as a condition ofparticipating in the UN Framework Convention onClimate Change and, subsequently, must communicatetheir progress to the COP regularly. The NationalAction Plans form part of the NationalCommunications which include the national inventoryof greenhouse gas (GHG) sources and sinks.

NGOSee ‘Non-Governmental Organization’.

Nitrous Oxide, or N2OOne of the six greenhouse gases to be curbed under theProtocol, it is generated by burning fossil fuels and themanufacture of fertilizer. It has a Global WarmingPotential of 310 over a 100-year time horizon. See‘Global Warming Potential’.

Non-Annex I PartiesThe countries that have ratified or acceded to theUNFCCC that are not included in Annex I of theConvention.


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Non-Annex B PartiesThe countries that are not included in the Annex B listof developed nations in the Kyoto Protocol.

Non-Governmental Organization/Observer,or NGOsNGOs can include registered non-profit organizationsand associations from business and industry, environ-mental groups, cities and municipalities, academics,social and activist organizations. Under the UN, NGOsmust be accredited to observe its activities and, to do so,they must meet certain qualifications. IPIECA is thepetroleum industry’s only accredited NGO to the UN.

No RegretsActions which result in greenhouse gas limitations andabatement, and which also make good environmentaland economic sense in their own right.

OzoneOzone (O3) is a greenhouse gas. In the troposphere, orlower part of the atmosphere, O3 can be a constituent ofsmogs. It is created naturally and also by reactions in theatmosphere involving gases resulting from human activ-ities, including NOx, or nitrogen oxides, from motorvehicles and power plants. The Montreal Protocol seeksto control chemicals which destroy ozone in the stratos-phere (upper part of the atmosphere) where ozoneabsorbs ultra-violet radiation.

PAMsSee ‘Policies and Measures’.

Perfluorocarbons, or PFCsAmong the six greenhouse gases to be abated under theProtocol. They are a by-product of aluminum smeltingand uranium enrichment. They also are the replacementfor CFCs in manufacturing semiconductors. The GlobalWarming Potential of PFCs are 6,500–9,200 over a 100-year time horizon. See ‘Global Warming Potential’.

PFCsSee ‘Perfluorocarbons’.


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Policies and Measures, or PAMsIn UNFCCC parlance, policies are actions that can betaken and/or mandated by a government—often inconjunction with business and industry within its owncountry, as well as with other countries—to acceleratethe application and use of successful measures to curbgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Measures are tech-nologies, processes and practices used to implementpolicies, which, if employed, would reduce GHG emis-sions below anticipated future levels. Examples mightinclude carbon or other energy taxes, standardized fuelefficiency standards for automobiles, etc. ‘Common andcoordinated’ or ‘harmonized’ policies would refer tothose adopted jointly by Parties. (This could be byregion, such as the EU, or by countries comprising agiven classification, for example, all Annex I nations.)

Precautionary PrincipleFrom the UN Framework Convention on ClimateChange (Article 3): Parties should take precautionarymeasures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes ofclimate change and mitigate its adverse effects. Where thereare threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scien-tific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponingsuch measures taking into account that policies and measuresto deal with climate change should be cost-effective so as toensure global benefits at the lowest possible cost.

‘Primary Market’ & ‘Secondary Market’ Trading In commodities and financial exchanges, buyers andsellers who trade directly with each other constitute the‘primary market,’ while buying and selling through theexchange facilities represent the ‘secondary market.’

QELROs, or Quantified Emissions Limitationsand Reductions ObjectivesThe greenhouse gas emissions reduction commitmentsmade by developed countries listed in Annex B of theProtocol. (See also ‘Targets and Timetables’.)

Radiative ForcingA change in the balance between incoming solar radia-tion and outgoing infra-red and short-wave radiation.Without any radiative forcing, solar radiation absorbed


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by the earth would continue to be approximately equalto the infra-red radiation emitted from the earth. Theaddition of greenhouse gases absorbs an increased frac-tion of the infra-red radiation in the atmosphere, reradi-ating it and creating a warming influence.

ReforestationThe act or process of re-establishing a forest on landthat had been deforested in relatively recent history.

RenewablesEnergy sources that are constantly renewed by naturalprocess. These include non-carbon technologies such assolar energy, hydropower and wind as well as technolo-gies based on biomass. Life cycle analyses are requiredto assess the extent to which such biomass based tech-nologies may limit net carbon emissions.

ReservoirA component or components of the climate systemwhere a greenhouse gas or a precursor of a greenhousegas is stored (UNFCCC definition). The oceans, soilsand forests are all carbon reservoirs.

Rio SummitSee ‘UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment.’

SARSee ‘Second Assessment Report’.

SBISee ‘Subsidiary Body for Implementation’.

SBSTASee ‘Subsidiary Body for Science and TechnologicalAdvice’.

SF6See ‘Sulphur Hexafluoride’.

Second Assessment Report, or SARPublished by the IPCC in 1995 the SAR provided acomprehensive overview of the state of knowledge on


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climate change at that time. It contains the widely citedstatement ‘the balance of evidence suggests that there is adiscernible human influence on global climate’. TheIPCC’s Third Assessment Report is expected to befinalised in 2001.

Secretariat of the UN Framework Conventionon Climate ChangeUnited Nations administrative and clerical staff assignedthe responsibility of conducting the affairs of theUNFCCC. In 1996 the Secretariat moved fromGeneva, Switzerland, to Bonn, Germany.

Sinks (UNFCCC Definition)Any process or activity or mechanism which removes agreenhouse gas or a precursor from the atmosphere.

Source (UNFCCC Definition)Any process or activity which releases a greenhouse gasor a precursor from the atmosphere.

SO2 TradingSee ‘Sulphur Dioxide Trading’.

Subsidiary Body for Implementation or SBIAs established as a permanent standing body of the UNFramework Convention on Climate Change, the SBIdevelops recommendations to assist the Conference ofthe Parties in assessing and reviewing the implementa-tion of the Climate Convention.

Subsidiary Body for Scientific andTechnological Advice, or SBSTAEstablished as a permanent standing body of theUNFCCC, SBSTA serves as the link between thepolicy-oriented needs of the COP and the scientific,technical and technological assessments and informa-tion provided by various external groups, such as theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Sulphur Dioxide (or SO2) TradingTo mitigate the US acid rain problem in a cost-efficientmanner, the US government, under its Clean Air Act,mandated an SO2 emissions trading programme. This


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trading system is often cited as the model for an inter-national Emissions Trading Programme proposed underthe Kyoto Protocol to curb the world’s anthropogenicgreenhouse gas emissions.

Sulphur Hexafluoride, or SF6One of the six greenhouse gases to be curbed under theKyoto Protocol. It is largely used in heavy industry toinsulate high-voltage equipment and to assist in themanufacturing of cable-cooling systems. Its GlobalWarming Potential is 23,900 times that of CO2. See‘Global Warming Potential’.

SupplementarityThe Kyoto Protocol states that Emissions Trading andJoint Implementation activities are to be supplemental todomestic actions (e.g., energy taxes, fuel efficiency stan-dards, etc.) taken by developed countries to reduce theirgreenhouse gas emissions. Under some proposed defin-itions of supplementarity, e.g., a concrete ceiling onlevel of use, developed countries could be restricted intheir use of the Kyoto Mechanisms to achieve theirreductions targets. This is a subject for further negotia-tion and clarification by the Parties.

TARSee ‘Third Assessment Report’.

Targets and Timetables (See also ‘QELROS’)A target is the reduction of a specific percentage ofgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (e.g., 6 per cent, 7per cent) from a base year (e.g., ‘below 1990 levels’) tobe achieved by a set date, or timetable (e.g., 2008–12).For example, under the Kyoto Protocol’s formula, theEU has agreed to reduce its GHG emissions to 8 percent below 1990 levels by the 2008–12 commitmentperiod. These targets and timetables are, in effect, acap on the total amount of GHG emissions that can beemitted by a country or region in a given time period.

Technology CooperationA process of constructive interaction with local, nationaland international partners to select and apply appropri-ate technology systems to achieve economic develop-

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ment. It includes both ‘hard’ (equipment and technol-ogy) and ‘soft’ technology (software, management assis-tance, training).

Trace GasA minor constituent of the atmosphere. The mostimportant trace gases contributing to the greenhouseeffect are carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrousoxide, ammonia, nitric acid, ethylene, sulphur dioxide,nitric oxide, CFCs, HFCs HCFCs, SF6, methyl chlo-ride, carbon monoxide and carbon tetrachloride.

Third Assessment Report, or TARThe third in a series of Assessment Reports preparedby the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changewhich review the existing scientific literature on thesubject. Due to be finalized in 2001, it will containthree main sections: Science; Impacts, Adaptation andVulnerability; and Mitigation. It will also include a 50-80 page Synthesis Report, which will draw upon thethree main sections and other IPCC Special Reportsto answer a number of policy-relevant scientific andtechnical questions (asked by UNFCCC SBSTA andrefined by the IPCC Plenary). Each of the three mainsections and the Synthesis Report will have a shortSummary for Policy Makers. The information in theTAR will be considered by governments duringUNFCCC negotiations.

Umbrella GroupA set of largely non-European developed countries whooccasionally act as a negotiating bloc on specific issues.

UNCEDSee ‘Earth Summit’.

UNCTADSee ‘UN Conference on Trade and Development’.

UNDPSee ‘UN Development Programme’.

UNEPSee ‘UN Environment Programme.’


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UN Conference on Trade and Development, or UNCTADEstablished in 1964 by the UN General Assembly,UNCTAD is the principal organ of the UN GeneralAssembly in the field of trade and development. Its maingoals are to maximize trade, investment and develop-ment opportunities of developing countries. UNCTADpursues its goals through research, policy analysis, IGOdeliberations, technical cooperation and interactionwith the business sector. UNCTAD has had a long-standing programme that is examining internationalemissions trading. Since 1991 it has produced publica-tions on key parameters such as cost-efficiency, equity,monitoring certification and enforcement, and legal andinstitutional aspects.

UN Commission on Sustainable Development,or CSDThe Commission also oversees the implementation ofAgenda 21, the action plan adopted at the Rio Summitwhich is a blueprint for environmentally sustainabledevelopment for the 21st century. The CSD consists ofrepresentatives from more than 50 nations. It also moni-tors progress made by governments and UN agencies inreaching their commitments to the UNFCCC.

UN Development Programme, or UNDPThe purpose of UNDP is to assist countries (particu-larly those with a low per capita income) to achievesustainable development. UNDP focuses on povertyelimination, environmental regeneration, job creationand the advancement of women. It also assists inpromoting sound governance and market development.Its work is achieved with a core budget of aboutUS$800M used to fund projects in developing coun-tries. UNDP is a managing partner of the GlobalEnvironment Facility, along with UNEP and theWorld Bank.

UN Environment Programme, or UNEPThe UN agency, established in 1972, to coordinate theenvironmental activities of the UN. It aims to help rein-force and integrate the large number of separate envi-ronmental efforts by intergovernmental, non-govern-


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mental, national and regional bodies. UNEP hasfostered the development of the UNFCCC and theConvention on Biological Diversity.

UN Framework Convention on ClimateChange, or UNFCCCA treaty signed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio deJaneiro by more than 150 countries. Its ultimate objec-tive is the ‘stabilization of greenhouse gas concentra-tions in the atmosphere at a level that would preventdangerous anthropogenic [human-induced] interfer-ence with the climate system’. While no legally bindinglevel of emissions is set, the treaty states an aim byAnnex I countries to return these emissions to 1990levels by the year 2000. The treaty took effect in March1994 upon the ratification of more than 50 countries; atotal of some 160 nations have now ratified. In March1995, the UNFCCC held the first session of theConference of the Parties (COP) the supreme body ofthe Convention in Berlin. Its Secretariat is based inBonn, Germany. In the biennium 2000–01, its approvedbudget and staffing level are approximately US$12Mannually with approximately 80 personnel.


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Additional terms (Record below any new definitions established sincethe publication of this Glossary.)


AcknowledgementsThis Glossary of Climate Change Terms has beenprepared by the International Petroleum IndustryEnvironmental Conservation Association (IPIECA).

The base text was prepared by Jonathan Grant(IPIECA). Valuable comments on drafts have beenreceived from:

Lenny Bernstein (Mobil)Michel Boeuf (IPIECA)Brian Flannery (Exxon) Lois Johnston (Texaco)Clem Malin (Texaco) Horacio Peluffo (UNFCCC)Bob ReinsteinSimon Worthington (BP Amoco)

IPIECAA Glossary of Climate Change Terms

Updated January 2000

DisclaimerWhilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy ofthe information contained in this publication, neitherIPIECA nor any of its members will assume liability for anyuse made thereof.

This publication is printed on chlorine-free paper manufacturedfrom recycled waste, sawmill residues, forest thinnings and fibrefrom sustainable forests.

International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association

2nd Floor, Monnouth House87–93 Westbourne GroveLondon W2 4UL, United Kingdom

Tel: +44 (0)20 7221 2026Fax: +44 (0)20 7229 4948E-mail: [email protected]: www.ipieca.org

The International Petroleum Industry EnvironmentalConservation Association (IPIECA) was founded in 1974following the establishment of the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) at the StockholmConference of the United Nations in 1972. IPIECA is thepetroleum industry’s principal channel of communicationwith the United Nations.

IPIECA is involved in global and internationalenvironmental and health issues related to thepetroleum industry, including global climate change, oilspill response, urban air quality management, emergingissues, biodiversity and Agenda 21.

IPIECA’s programme takes full account of internationaldevelopments in these global issues, including thosedevelopments within the United Nations and withinintergovernmental institutions and industry groups.

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