Classification of library materialson Islam: a literature survey

Haroon IdreesIRI, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan, and

Berlin School of Library & Information Science, Humboldt University of Berlin,Berlin, Germany

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop understanding of the problems of classification, todiscover the classification practices of libraries with rich collections on Islam cited in the literature, tofind the gaps, and to determine the point from which to start work on further development.

Design/methodology/approach – Published and unpublished literature, both print and electronic,that is relevant to the problem was reviewed objectively in the compilation of this paper.

Findings – Standard classification systems lack proper space for materials on Islam for two reasons:less awareness on the part of devisers of the depth and variety of Islamic topics; and their bias and lackof interest in Islam. Different indigenous classification systems and expansions have been developed,using either the original notation or alternative notations. Some systems have been developed withoutfollowing any standards or logic. This study has revealed a need for empirical study of libraries withrich collections on Islam in order to gain a better understanding of the problem and find an optimalsolution.

Research limitations/implications – No empirical field data are included in this study. This is areview of the literature.

Originality/value – The author indicates the current situation of the problem and a potentialframework for its solution.

Keywords Islam, Classification schemes, Cataloguing, Libraries

Paper type Literature review

IntroductionClassification plays a significant role in the organisation, physical arrangement, accessto, and retrieval of library materials. Different standard classification systems havebeen developed for this purpose. Most of these systems have been developed byWestern authors. The authors of these systems were of such a background that theyprovided a sufficient place for the fields of Western knowledge in their schemes, butthese schemes lack adequate room for Eastern/Oriental fields of knowledge, languagesand literature. The class of religion is also among such grey areas where these systemscannot maintain a balance.

Libraries that have a considerable amount of literature/collections on Islam and itsrelated disciplines are facing problems of classifying and arranging these materials ina way that helps and supports library users effectively and efficiently. The reason forthis problem is the unavailability of a suitable, comprehensive classification system tocover all the aspects of Islamic literature. For example, the Dewey DecimalClassification (DDC), which is a widely used scheme in libraries throughout the world(Chan, 1981), has provided only one notation out of 1,000 for Islam (i.e. 297). Thisnotation has been provided with further extensions, but these are insufficient and

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

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Received July 2010Revised October 2010Accepted December 2010

OCLC Systems & Services:International digital libraryperspectivesVol. 27 No. 2, 2011pp. 124-145q Emerald Group Publishing Limited1065-075XDOI 10.1108/10650751111135427

inconvenient for libraries that have rich collections on Islam. It cannot be denied thatliterature is being produced very extensively on Islam and its different aspects.Moreover, many new disciplines and topics are emerging in Islamic studies (Idrees andMahmood, 2009). This has created a substantial classification problem for libraries thathave built extensive collections on Islam. The Library of the Islamic Research Institute,International Islamic University, Islamabad, which has a collection of 160,000 volumeson Islam, and is representative of such libraries, is mentioned by Idrees (2007). Aninstitution with a similar collection is the Indian Institute of Islamic Studies, New Delhi(Indian Institute of Islamic Studies, 1974, p. ii). This study aims to review the availablerelevant literature on the topic to draw an exact and accurate picture of the problemsbeing faced by libraries that have a reasonable number of collections on Islam, so thatpossible solutions to these problems can be addressed.

Objectives and methodsThis study was designed to serve the following objectives:

. to develop an understanding of the problems related to the classification ofmaterials being published on Islam;

. to review the literature that has been produced on the classification of Islamicmaterials;

. to determine the classification practices of libraries with rich collections on Islamcited in the literature; and

. to discover the gaps and determine where to work on further development.

Published and unpublished literature, both print and electronic, that is relevant to theproblem, was reviewed objectively in the compilation of this paper.

Review of the literatureLiterature being published on IslamMuslims have developed, saved, transmitted and preserved knowledge for thousandsof years, even in times when it was very difficult to produce multiple volumes. This hasalso steered Muslims towards establishing libraries. The library of Al-Sahib Ibn Ibadduring the fourth century of the Islamic calendar (tenth century AD) had a collection of6,200 books, of which a ten-volume catalogue was compiled. Al-Aziz Fatimid had acollection of 1.6 million books in his library (Dohaish, 1986). Reservoirs of knowledgewere created from the early history of the Muslims. The establishment of the worldfamous Darulhikma Library during the Abbasid caliph Mamoon ur Rasheed’s era,Khazainulqusoor during the Fatimid period with a collection of 1.6 million books, andHakam II’s library with a collection of 400,000 books in Spain are remarkableexamples. This trend of public and many private libraries can be seen throughoutIslamic history (Siddiqui, 1986, p. 36).

A steady publishing trend and the emergence of new topics in the Islamic studies’body of knowledge has been evidenced during recent times as well. When a search onAmazon for books available on Islam was made, it came up with the following results:

. 17,726 book titles were published from 2000 to date (Amazon, 2010a);

. 14,829 book titles were published from 2002 to date, which shows that there were2,897 titles published between 2001 and 2002 (Amazon, 2010b);

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. 11,314 book titles were published from 2004 to date, which shows that there were3,515 titles published between 2003 and 2004 (Amazon, 2010c);

. 7,953 book titles were published from 2006 to date, which shows that there were3,361 titles published between 2005 and 2006 (Amazon, 2010d);

. 3,903 book titles were published from 2008 to date, which shows that there were4,050 titles published between 2007 and 2008 (Amazon, 2010e); and

. 1,286 book titles were published from the year 2009 to date (Amazon, 2010f).

Dar Al-Kotob Al-Ilmiyah (2009) is a book publisher based in Beirut, Lebanon. Thispublisher has more than 4,400 running titles that are recently available, on more than100 main topics of Islam.

Brill (2010), a renowned publisher based in Leiden, The Netherlands, is currentlypublishing 29 journals on Islamic studies. They have published 50 book series, 175reference works, including the world-famous Encyclopaedia of Islam and Encyclopaediaof Quran, and 23 yearbooks on Islam. They currently have available 840 titles on Islamthat have been published since 2001.

Barnes & Noble (2010) is also an online bookseller. A search of books available onIslam at Barnes & Noble resulted in 12,212 titles.

This data demonstrates an extensive demand for, and supply of, books on Islam.

Classification of Islamic literatureThe compilers of classification schemes have all been from Western countries, with theexception of Ranganathan. These schemes were created with a given context in mind,and omissions of categories of information were discovered afterwards. Only onenotation in DDC at the third level – i.e. 1/1,000 – has been allocated for literature onIslam, which is insufficient. As a result of this shortcoming, expansions have beenmade in DDC and the notations originally given to Christianity, have also beenalternatively used for Islam (Riazuddin, 1993).

Qaisar (1974) mentioned the shortcomings of DDC that Asian libraries face. Heproposed some expansions and deviations in the notations specified for Islam. Thealterations suggested by Qaisar are shown in Table I. A reasonable amount ofexpansion has also been proposed. A summary of the classes proposed by Qaisar isgiven in Table II.

Class Original in DDC XVI Proposed

297.13 Oral traditions Science of Hadith297.2 Doctrines and dogmas Kalam297.211 Allah Tawhid297.3 Forms of worship Devotional and practical theology297.38 Religious rites and ceremonies Shifted to 297.31297.5 Morals, ideals, duties, fast, alms giving Used for morals and ideals, duties, fast and alms

giving shifted to the class of devotional andpractical theology, i.e. 297.3

297.6 Religious organisation and leaders Muslim movements

Source: Qaisar (1974)

Table I.Qaisar’s proposedalterations to DDC XVI

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Khurshid (1977), in his compilation Shafi Dewey Decimal Expansions for Islam: AnIntroduction, commented on the efforts made by Shafi for the expansion in DDC classesfor Islam. The summary of classes devised by Shafi (1962) was given in this sequence:

297 Islam: general topics

297.1 Quran

297.2 Hadith and the life of Prophet Muhammad (SAW)

297.3 Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)

297.4 Logic & Beliefs

297.5 Islamic sects

297.6 Worship

297.7 Islamic Morality

297.8 Sufism

297.9 Islamic history and geography

Further subclasses were also coined. These recommendations were sent forincorporation in the 18th edition of the DDC but were not added, although themisconception spread in the Indo-Pak subcontinent that the recommendations hadbeen included.

Sardar (1979), in his book Islam: Outline of a Classification Scheme, has devised aclassification scheme for Islam. The book has been composed to serve two objectives asmentioned by the author: “to encourage debate or discussion on the acute need forcontemporary classification schemes on Islam; and to present a model, albeit aprimitive one, for consideration and criticism”.

The author invented a scheme, which was divided into four main parts:

(1) pre-main class;

(2) main class;

Class no. Description Additions

297 Islam Nine subdivisions297.1 Sources of Islam 99 sub- and sub- of subclasses297.2 Kalam 18 sub- and sub- of subclasses297.3 Devotional and practical theology 14- sub and sub- of subclasses297.4 Sufism 20 sub- and sub- of subclasses297.5 Moral exhortations Three sub- and sub- of subclasses297.6 Muslim movements Five sub- and sub- of subclasses297.7 Activities inspired by religious motives 53 sub- and sub- of subclasses297.8 Sects 17 sub- and sub- of subclasses297.9 History of Islam and Muslim empires 30 sub- and sub- of subclasses

Source: Qaisar (1974)

Table II.Qaisar’s proposed classes

for Islam in DDC XVI

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(3) post-main class; and

(4) auxiliary schedules.

The author used capital letters for main classes and small letters for subclasses.Pre-main classes include the pre-Islamic religions, i.e. pre-Judaic religions, Judaism andChristianity. The main class includes 21 classes related to Islam and different relevantfields of knowledge. The post-main class includes the minority views (i.e. Shia’ism,Ismailis, Bahaism, Quadianism, etc.), contemporary philosophies (i.e. Secularism,Materialism, etc.) and common attributes that include the common terms and can besynthesised with other classes. The auxiliary schedules include:

. time;

. geographical subdivisions;

. languages; and

. bibliographic form division.

This is a good effort, but it has the limitations of not being comprehensive,user-friendly, or similar to recent practices.

Chishti (1978, pp. 510-55) went through the historical background of classification.The works of Farabi, Kawarzami Ikhwan-Al-Safa, Ibn Sena, Ibn Hazam, Ibn AbdulBirr, Raghib Asfahani, Ghazali, Ibn Al-Nadeem and Ibn Abi Al-Rabie were quoted. Inregard to Razi’s system, the author mentioned 60 main classes and many subclasses,developed by him. According to Chishti (1978), the theory and practice of classificationdeveloped historically as shown in Figure 1. The works of all these ancient scholarscan help and guide in the development of a comprehensive classification scheme forIslam.

Labhu Ram (n.d.) compiled a classification scheme for the oriental languagescollections on Islam in the Central Library of Punjab University, Lahore. In thisscheme, “Ar” for Arabic, “P” for Persian and “U” for Urdu collections are used asnotation prefixes, respectively. These letters are followed by another alphabet, andthen roman numerals are used in the notation. Twenty-two topics were been includedin the scheme. This scheme is still being used in the Central Library of PunjabUniversity. Shafi’s expansions to the DDC are used by the library for the classificationof collections on Islam in Western languages.

Bajwa (1969) wrote a Master’s thesis titled “A select study of classification systemsdevised by Muslim scholars”. In his study, he included the contributions made by

Figure 1.Development ofclassification

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ancient Muslim scholars in the field of the classification of knowledge. In this historicalresearch, the following works were introduced: Al-Farabi, Ibn Al-Nadeem, IbnKhuldun and Tashkubrizada. A comparison of these four schemes was also included ina tabular format. The author declared this work to be the partial story of theclassification schemes devised by Muslim scholars.

Hina Khan (1999) compiled a Master’s dissertation entitled “Treatment of Pakistanitopics in Dewey decimal classification scheme”. The author analysed the coverage ofPakistani topics, including Islam in the class of religion. The author compared thechanges and additions made in different indigenous expansions in different editions ofthe DDC. A brief comparison of first-level subclasses of Islam in the expansions ofNaqvi, Qaisar, Shafi and TEBROC was also included in the study. The Khan (1999)suggested a comprehensive study on the topic by a committee of working librarians,LIS faculty, and Islamic studies scholars.

Adam Gacek (2008), Head of the Islamic Studies Library at McGill University, inreference to the classification system developed by Professor Smith, the founding headof the Institute, told the authors in a personal communication:

The Smith classification system was developed by Prof. Smith, the first founder of theInstitute. The system has not been used since 1982. It was an in-house system which no otherlibrary used. It was abandoned in favor of the Library of Congress Classification. Thisclassification was never published. All books classified originally in Smith classification havebeen reclassified to LC.

Talking of the structure of the Smith classification system Mr Gacek said:

It is entirely on Islam (in its broad sense) and is divided into four main classes:A. Reference worksB. Extra-Islamic subjectsC. Classical Islam (until about 1800 AD)M. Modern Islamic world (from about 1800 AD)

Class A is subdivided by other letters of the Roman alphabet, classes B and C by Arabicnumerals, and class M by both letters and numerals.

It seems that the founder of the Institute found the in-practice classification systems ofthat time (during the decade of 1960) insufficient and unsuitable for their library. Later,this scheme was replaced with the Library of Congress Classification.

King Abdul Aziz University’s (1977) Dean of Library Affairs Dr Abbas S. Tashkandisupervised a project of translation and expansions of the DDC for classifying theUniversity library materials. This project translated the DDC into Arabic, andamended and expanded the classes of Arabic language, Arabic literature, Islam,Islamic philosophy, Islamic history and the history of Saudi Arabia. The changes madeto the class of religion, 200, was the core of this project. The amendments made in thisclass can be seen in Table III.

Hassan (1973) translated Dewey Decimal Classification classes into Urdu withadditions in the areas of language, law and especially Islamic religion. A total of 113Islamic topics along with standard subdivisions were included in the list. Crossreferences were also given in the system. An index was included. Interestingly, some ofthe additions in the schedule regarding Islam are missing in the index.

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Dr Shaniti (1960) of Egypt also worked on the DDC, translated the abridged editionof the DDC into Arabic and expanded the Islamic topics using DDC classes 210-260 forIslam, while 270-290 were specified for Christianity and other religions of the world.

The Cataloguing and Arabic Processing Department of the International IslamicUniversity of Malaysia (n.d.) has also developed an expansion scheme in LCC to coverthe areas of Islamic Law. Notations BP140-158 were used for this purpose, where morethan 380 areas and subareas of Islamic Law were covered.

Usmani (1982), in an editorial that was published in Pakistan Library Bulletin,addressed the issue of a classification system for Islamic literature in detail. He hasreferred to the classification used in the ancient libraries of Ashurbanipal. Later, whenthe press was invented and knowledge was spread at mass level, a need for formalclassification systems was felt and systems such as DDC and LCC were initiated.Despite their suitability and convenience in classifying library materials adequately,there are shortcomings in these systems, the most important of which is insufficientspace for Islamic literature. In the face of these problems, different schemes andexpansions have been developed. Among these are the works of Sardar, Shaniti,TEBROC, Indian Institute of Islamic Studies, King Abdul Aziz University, Shafi,Sabzwari and Ibrahim. None of these was conducted at a national level, or was theresult of any coordinated effort. A standard classification system for Islam is sorelyneeded. It will play a role in coordination among libraries and improving services toscholars and library users. An important question that must be raised is: who shouldtake the initiative and coordinate to achieve this goal? The following are options thatmay help to answer this question:

. the Islamic Council of Europe;

. Organization of Islamic Conference

. the Muslim Students Association of United States and Canada; and/or

. the Islamic Documentation & Information Centre, Karachi.

Sabzwari (1982), in his article “Universal Islamic classification” introducing DDC, UDCand LCC, adjudged the minimal coverage of Islam in these systems to be one of the coreproblems of libraries in the Islamic world. In response to this problem, indigenousschemes and expansions in standard schemes have been devised and used in thelibraries of the Muslim world. There is no uniformity or harmony among indigenousschemes. At present it is difficult to have a universal standard classification system forIslam. In these circumstances, all the expansions made in standard classification

Notation Class description

210 Islam220 Quran and Quranic Sciences230 Hadith240 Tawhid250 Islamic Jurisprudence260 Sufism270, 280 Christianity290 Other religions

Table III.King Abdul AzizUniversity expansion inreligion

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systems or locally developed systems should be pooled together in one place andreviewed. Further work should be done to develop a universal Islamic classificationsystem. Any of the standard classification systems, preferably DDC, may be taken as abasis for this purpose. An Islamic Research Centre for Library and InformationSciences (IRC/LIS) established by OIC or any developed Islamic country is proposed inthe paper. This centre would design and perform such activities that will support thedevelopment of a universal Islamic classification system.

The Islamic Research Institute (n.d.) has developed its own scheme. It was devisedby the Librarian, Abdul Quddus Hashmi, who was an Islamic Studies scholar, and nota qualified library professional. Coverage of 152 subjects was provided in this scheme.A list of subjects followed by Arabic numeral serial numbers was made, and everybook on a particular subject that arrives in the library is given the next serial numberof the subject. For example, if there are ten titles on Quranic studies, their classificationnumber would be Ulumul Quran 1, Ulumul Quran 2, and so on according to theirchronological appearance in the library.

Quaid-e-Azam Library (n.d.) in Lahore developed a scheme for Islam, localliterature, and Pakistan, etc. This scheme is in fact an expansion with some alterationsin the structure of the 19th edition of the DDC. They used the notations 220-280 andseven classes for Islam, originally specified for Christianity. They expanded thescheme in a detailed way. The main problem with this scheme is absence of a revisionpolicy or practice. No effort has been made to get any feedback, nor has an effort beenmade to market this scheme to attract other libraries to use it. It is also noteworthy thatno contact was made with the DDC for the incorporation of this expansion. Thisscheme can help in the development of a comprehensive scheme for Islam. The mainclasses of religion in this scheme are shown in Table IV.

Soltani (1995) presented a paper at the 61st IFLA General Conference in August1995 on translations and expansions of classification systems in Arab countries andIran. He concluded that the translations and/or expansions were made of either theDDC or the Library of Congress Classification (LCC). There had been no problem in thefields of science, technology, and social sciences. So, the systems suited the materials ofthese disciplines without any difficulty. The problem areas were the classes oflanguages, history, and religion, etc., of the individual countries. The shortcomings andinadequacies of these classes could be seen by the example of LCC’s class of historywhere two letters (classes), E and F had been allocated to American history, which wasonly 300 years old, whereas D had been specified for history of all other countries of theworld. DS was used for the histories of Asian countries China, India, Japan and Iran,

Notation Class description

220 Islam, general topics230 Quran & Quranic Studies240 Hadith250 Jurisprudence260 Islamic theology and beliefs270 Sufism280 Miscellaneous topics290 Other and comparative religions

Table IV.Scheme devised by

Quaid-e-Azam Library

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which had long histories. The translations of Dewey’s classification system were madein many of the countries. These countries also made alterations or expansions in theirspecific required fields. DDC was widely used in Arab countries, and works on itsexpansion were started in the second half of the twentieth century. Expansions forlanguage and literature were devised first, followed by expansions made for the classof religion. The Christianity numbers were alternatively used for Islam in theseexpansions. Abd al-Karim al-Amin developed an expansion in 1963 in Iraq, whileMahmud al-Shaniti of Egypt did the similar. The translation and expansion of theDDC’s abridged edition in Kuwait has also been mentioned, using numbers 210-219 forIslam. Although expansions for different sections of the DDC started very early withits initiation in Iran, the official expansion was started in the 1960s with theestablishment of the Tehran Book Processing Centre (TEBROC), which published itsexpansion of Iranian languages in 1971 and of Islam in 1975. This revision andexpansion was not initiated, but only after remarkable research work and consultationwith the scholars of other Islamic countries and the formation of a committee from allthe Islamic countries, which agreed on the expansion scheme. Prior to publication, theexpansion was sent to the Library of Congress and the publisher of the DDC (ForestPress) for inclusion in their schemes, but these efforts were not successful and wereturned down. The next editions did not incorporate anything from these expansions.The first expansion work in LCC was published in 1979 after sustained researchcovering two years. Dr Taheri made the revisions based on the literary warrant ofCollege of Theology’s collection in the city of Mash’had. Libraries and classifiers ofEgypt with collections on Islam were also consulted in this work. An English versionof this work was also prepared and sent to LOC, who declined to adopt the revisions;however, they said they would use these expansions as a guide. The second revisedPersian edition was expected to be published in 1995. Mr Kamran Fani had beenworking on expansions in Islamic philosophy and his work was also expected to bepublished in 1995.

The Indian Institute of Islamic Studies (1974) also devised a scheme for materials onIslam. When the Institute was formed, an extensive library collection on Islam wasbuilt, yet none of the standard classification systems was found to be convenient forthe proper organisation of library materials. A survey was conducted to find apotential solution to the problem. Consequently, a classification system based on UDCwas developed. Mr S.M.H. Qaisar and Mr S.A.H. Abidi, having backgrounds in libraryscience and Islamic studies respectively, made a combined effort to develop thissystem. Hundreds of topics and aspects of Islamic knowledge and literature werecovered in this scheme. A mixed notation was used in the scheme. “IS” (standing forIslam) was used as a prefix in the notation. The first summary of the scheme can beseen in Table V.

Usmani (1973) and Qudsi (1969) revealed that Shafi played a vital and leading rolein developing an appropriate classification system for Islam, covering all gaps in thestandard DDC system. He had a similar experience before the partition of India in 1947as the convener of the Indian Library Association’s committee for the same type ofwork. He continued this work when he arrived in Pakistan and devised expansions forDDC. He had a thorough knowledge of all the Islamic disciplines, in addition to aknowledge of library science. Shafi’s expansions were presented for approval at thePakistan Library Association (PLA) Conference in Dhaka in 1963. The proposed

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expansions were abandoned due to demands from some participants for more time toreview them. According to Fatima (1981), the central library of Karachi Universityused Shafi expansions for their collection on Islam.

Riazuddin (2002), in his book Classification of Islamic literature, gives a detailedintroduction of DDC, demarks its limitations regarding Islamic literature, and suggestsextensions in the DDC notation specified for Islam (i.e. 297). As this was only anextension to one number, its scope is very limited and problems like lengthy notationsand congestion are present in these extensions.

Gondal (n.d.) devised a classification scheme for Islam, which is used by thelibraries of Mosques Department of Punjab University, Quran Academy, Lahore, andpartially in the Punjab University Central Library. The structure of the scheme isshown in Table VI.

Eraqi (1985) authored a book entitled Dewey Decimal Classification: Eslam, which isin fact an expansion of the DDC 18th edition’s class for Islam (i.e. 297). The Tehran

Notation Class description

IS 2 ReligionIS 21 Islamic philosophyIS 22 Islam, its origin and sourceIS 23 Fiqh (Islamic law)IS 24 Ilm kalam and aqaidIS 25 Islamic mysticism (Sufism) and philosophyIS 26 Activities inspired by religious motivesIS 27 Muslim customs and folklore and related subjectsIS 28 Heresies and sectsIS 29 History of Islam and auxiliary sciences

Table V.Scheme devised by the

Indian Institute of IslamicStudies (IIIS)

Notation Class description

210 Islam & Islamic studies210.1-9 Standard subdivisions211 Philosophy & ideologies212 Islam & religions of the world213 Islamic morality214 Islam & other topics215 Sacred days, places, worships and shrines216 Islamic movements217 Propagation & spreading Islam218 Islamic literature219 Islamic biographies220 Quran & Quranic studies230 Hadith & Hadith studies240 Jurisprudence & studies250 Islamic government (Islamic organisations)260 Beliefs & sects270 Christianity280 Other religions

Table VI.Scheme devised by

Gondal (n.d.)

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Book Processing Centre (1975) also devised an expansion, which is in fact similar tothat of Eraqi, except that it is in English whereas Eraqi’s is in Persian. Standardsubdivisions were provided with every class. The expansion can be seen in Table VII.Coverage of almost 2,000 topics and subtopics was given in the proposed expansion.This is a good effort and has been adopted by many Iranian libraries, but has twolimitations:

(1) it is in Persian, and is known and understood by a limited number of people; and

(2) the notation is sometimes very lengthy due to expansion in only one basenumber.

The numbers from 270 to 289 are assigned to Christianity. Other religions are assignedthe class 290. This is a good effort and can help libraries, but the observations on thearrangement and illogical order of the subjects demonstrated some shortcomings. Forexample, the history and different periods are given in 210, The Religion of Islam.Topics regarding prophets, different creatures, leadership, and sects are given underthe main class 240, Tawhid (the Oneness of Allah), the Principles of the Religion.

Sabzwari (2007) stated that the popular library classification scheme known as DDCwas being used in the majority of Pakistani libraries. The author mentioned thatEastern, Asian, and Islamic subjects lacked proper coverage in this scheme. Thiscaused a number of problems for Eastern libraries. Efforts were made by differentpeople to make expansions to the DDC, including very importantly the efforts of Shafi.These efforts had not been fruitful and expansions had not been included in the DDC.This is why Sabzwari (2007) felt the need to make the necessary alterations to thestructure of the DDC notations and used them for Eastern libraries. In the secondvolume of the book, he included a classification scheme for Islam altering the DDCclasses 210-260, which were originally designated for Christianity. This scheme isbased on the 18th edition of the DDC. The numbers were allotted to different Islamictopics as per the following schedule:

210 The Religion of Islam.

220 Quran-e-Karim and Quranic Sciences.

230 Hadith Sharif.

Notation Class Description

297 Islam297.01-09 Subdivisions297.1 Qur’an297.2 Hadith297.3 Fiqh & Usul (Islamic law)297.4 Philosophy & beliefs297.5 Islamic sects & religions297.6 Islamic ethics297.7 Manners & customs297.8 Sufism and mysticism297.9 Islamic History and geography

Table VII.Expansions devised byEraqi (1985)

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240 Tawhid (the Oneness of Allah), the Principles of the Religion.

250 Islamic Jurisprudence.

260 Sufism.

Khan (2004) has mentioned the insufficiency of the classes designated to Islam by DDC,as literature is being produced widely throughout the world. It is mentioned by Khan(2004) that the second most important source of Islamic studies after the Qur’an is thesirah of the Prophet, which includes the sayings, personal and family life,socio-political, economic and other initiatives, charters and activities andcompanions of the Prophet Muhammad. Literature on the sirah is being producedextensively by Muslim and non-Muslim scholars throughout the world. Keeping theimportance of the subject in view, Khan (2004) suggested expansions to the notation inthe 21st edition of the DDC specified for the life of the Prophet, i.e. 297.63. The proposedexpansions are as follows:

297.63 Muhammad (PBUH) the Prophet, d. 632.

297.6301-09 Standard subdivision.

297.63016 Bibliographies.

297.6303 Dictionaries/Encyclopaedias.

297.6305 Serials.

297.6307 Study and teaching.

297.63091 Geography of Sirah.

297.631 Period prior to call to Prophethood.

297.632 Period at Makkah.

297.633 Period at Medina.

297.634 Comprehensive works focusing on various aspects of the lifeof Muhammad (PUBH): social, political, economic,educational, etc.

297.635 Character/Personality.

297.636 Proofs of Prophethood.

297.64 Muhammad (PUBH)’s Family and Companions.

297.646 Sahabah (Companions).

(Note: The same use of capitalization and bold font is observed as is used in Khan,2004).

According to Sadiq (2006), Islam, being the second largest religion in terms ofnumbers of followers, has produced a vast amount of literature. Evidence of this is thelarge collections on Islam in some American and European libraries, which alsoindicates the bulkiness of collections on Islam in Muslim countries. Karachi University,in response to the classification problems of Islamic collections, formed a committee to

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develop expansions for Islam and other areas lacking in the DDC. This committeedeveloped an expansion scheme without changing the original organisation of theDDC, which has been used in some Pakistani libraries. Mahmood Shaniti also devisedan expansion in DDC, but he used the numbers 210-260 for Islam. TEBROC in Iran andKing Abdul Aziz University in Saudi Arabia also devised expansions for the DDC forthe classification of materials on Islam. The Indian Institute of Islamic Studies alsodeveloped a scheme for Islam based on UDC. Ziauddin Sardar and Ghaniul AkramSabzwari also developed a scheme. Sabzwari made expansions to the DDC using theChristianity numbers for Islam, while Sardar developed his own scheme for Islam. Hisscheme comprises the following main portions:

. pre-main class;

. main class;

. post-main class; and

. auxiliary tables.

Sadiq suggested the formation of a “Library Research Group” by OIC or by anydeveloped Muslim country, which could work towards the development of a UniversalIslamic Classification Scheme.

Expansions in the most widely used classification system in the Indo-Paksubcontinent have been made since the second decade of the twentieth century.Pre-partition expansions include Asa Don Dickinson’s expansion, made in 1916.Dickinson was a first-hand pupil of Dewey and worked as a librarian and trainer in thePunjab University Library. The Indian Library Association formed a committee underthe chairmanship of Molvi Shafi, which presented an expansion in 1935. In 1940, SajjadRizvi quoted an expansion made by the librarian of Jamia Usmania, YousufuddinAhmad. After the creation of Pakistan, Shafi presented an expansion for the DDC in hisbook, Intazam-e-Kutub Khana, published in 1949. A committee was formed by theLibrary and Information Science Department of Karachi University. This committee,also chaired by Shafi, developed and presented an expansion in 1962 (Rizwi, 1940,pp. 91-116; Rizwi, 1996).

Altaf Shaukkat (1970) wrote a two-volume book, Nizam-e-kutub khana (LibraryAdministration). The first volume consists of a theoretical discussion, and the secondvolume (pp. 26-36) gives an expansion of the DDC number 297 for Islam, which isalmost similar to Shafi’s expansion.

Rizwi (1975) conducted research and wrote a report as the partial fulfilment of aMaster’s degree. The problem, as stated by the author, was the extensive writings andcollections in libraries on Islam and improper classification schemes to classify them.Colon classification, Bliss classification, DDC and LCC were reviewed and found to beinsufficient for the purpose. The author devised a schedule of Islamic topics, withoutthe provision of any notation. This schedule is based on Shafi’s expansion with someamendments and additions.

The classification scheme coined by Rehman et al. (2003) also included materialsbeing published on Islam. An effort was made to cover many aspects of Islam, but theorder, concepts, and format are in many places illogical, confusing, and irrational. Thescheme of Rehman et al. (2003) would confuse library users rather than guiding them.

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For instance, notation 200 was specified for Religion, B-200 for Buddhism, I-200 forIslam, and again B-200 for Islam: religion of abundance blessing.

Aabdi (1999) compiled a concise Arabic translation of DDC’s 21st edition and madesome amendment expansions in the classes of Arabic language, literature, geographyand history and the religion of Islam. A summary of the amendments that he made tothe religion class is very similar that made by King Abdul Aziz University in 1977.Aabdi (1999) used the six classes (i.e. 210-260) from the third summary of DDC forIslam rather than Christianity, and used 270 and 280 for Christianity. Table VIIIpresents the main classes of his expansions for Islam and other religions. Aabdi (1999)included almost 200 topics and subtopics in his expanded translation of the scheme. Itcovers almost all the important main topics of Islam. Hierarchy and enumeration maybe questioned and differ as developed by Aabdi, but it is a useful scheme for thelibraries with moderate collections on Islam. The question of homogeneity andcontradictions of the organisation of the materials will of course remain in the librariesusing this system, with the same nature of the libraries using the original DDC or theother expansions of the DDC because in the original schema, these notations werespecified for Christianity.

According to Idrees and Mahmood (2010) DDC is the only standard classificationsystem that is being used in Pakistani libraries with rich collections on Islam. Thesame is the case with other Muslim countries, as mentioned by Sabzwari (1982).Keeping this fact in mind, a brief comparison between indigenous expansions andDDC, along with a picture of historical developments in different editions of DDCregarding Islam, is presented in Figure 2. Figure 2, which has been adapted from Idreesand Mahmood (2010), shows that in the early editions of DDC (Dewey, 1951) until the16th edition (Dewey, 1958), only one notation was given for Islam without any of itsfurther extensions. It is also notable that the given heading was “Mohammedanism”until the 15th edition, rather than “Islam”. In the later editions, the heading of “Islam”was adopted and further extensions, standard subdivisions, and number buildinginstructions were included. In the 21st (Dewey, 1996) and 22nd (Dewey, 2003) editions,some radical expansions within notation 297 were provided, which made the notationtoo lengthy. The local expansions, which were mainly developed decades before the21st and 22nd editions of the DDC, still provide for more options and place formaterials on Islam.

Notation Class description

200 Religions210 The Islamic Religion220 Quranic Studies230 Hadith Studies240 Islamic Principles, Tawhid [Oneness of God], Sects250 Islamic Jurisprudence260 Sufism270, 280 Christianity290 Other religions

Table VIII.Expansions devised by

Aabdi (1999)

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Figure 2.A brief comparison ofDDC and indigenousexpansions for thetreatment of Islam

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Criticisms of classification schemesMany authors have criticised current classification schemes over their shortcomingsregarding Eastern and Oriental topics and their Western bias. Dickinson (1916,pp. 29-35), while serving at the Punjab University Library, mentioned the challenges inthe prevailing classification schemes in his book. The Punjab Library Primerdemonstrated that no classification system was complete and comprehensive. Further,stating the shortcomings of DDC, Dickinson mentioned a need for expansion in thefields of Asian knowledge, including Eastern religions, in the scheme.

Rizwi (1975) reviewed four popular schemes (CC, BC, DDC, and LCC) and found allthe schemes to be inconvenient and insufficient for the classification of collections onIslam. Ranganathan’s CC was found to be non-explanatory, and it did not even includethe Quran in the sacred religious books. BC was found to have incomplete entries. Itsorder was also incorrect from a Muslim’s perspective of Islamic knowledge. DDC wasfound to miss very important Islamic topics, like Islamic jurisprudence, the fourschools of thought, and the organization of Hadith knowledge. Sufism also needed to beexpanded. The author found LCC to be comparatively better than the other threeschemes. Still, its arrangement was found to be improper and some topics had beenrepeated, like Muslim worship.

Khurshid (1980) presented a conference paper on developments in the fields ofcataloguing and classification in Pakistan. He mentioned the unsuitability andinsufficiency of notations in the renowned classification schemes. He mentioned theefforts of the Indian Library Association in the earliest expansion for DDC numbers,which created no result. He appreciated the efforts made by the Indian Institute ofIslamic Studies (IIIS) for the expansion of UDC. Khurshid (1980) also mentioned theefforts of the Tehran Book Processing Centre. The best effort was made by Shafi, butall these efforts could not create positive results.

Joan S. Mitchell (2003), Editor in-Chief of DDC, has admitted the presence ofChristian bias and an improper place for Islam in the DDC, while quoting the followingin a paper that was presented in 69th IFLA General Conference and Council, held inBerlin in August 2003:

In DDC 22, we have completed the two-edition plan that was initiated in DDC 21 (Dewey,1996) to reduce Christian bias in the 200 Religion schedule. In DDC 21, we movedcomprehensive works on Christianity from 200 to 230, and relocated the standardsubdivisions for Christianity from 201-209 to specific numbers in 230-270. We integrated thestandard subdivisions of comparative religion with those for religion in general in 200.1-.9.We also revised and expanded the schedules for two major religions, 296 Judaism and 297Islam.

According to Chan (1981), Anglo-American bias can be seen very clearly in DDC in theclasses of language, literature, geography, history, and especially in religion. LCC alsocontains national bias in emphasis and terminology, and is based on the Library ofCongress’s literary warrant. Cutter’s EC is also not user friendly and only a dozenspecial and small public libraries were using it. It uses class B for philosophy andreligion, BR for other religions, and the whole C class for the Christian and Jewishreligions.

Elazar (2000) and Broughton (2000) criticised the DDC, UDC, and LC of Christianbias in their papers presented at the 66th IFLA Conference in Jerusalem. Broughton(2000), discussing such problems in UDC, stated:

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A major difficulty in constructing a classification for religious literature is that of avoidingbias (whether real or apparent) toward some specific religion or denomination.

He states further:

Bias occurs, or is perceived to occur, in three main areas:

. an illogical order, or distribution of notation, that causes one system to appear asdominant

. use of vocabulary that has a strong flavor of one system or is special to that system

. inadequate provision of detail other than for the “favored” religion.

Sabzwari (1981) mentioned the biased treatment of Asian topics in DDC, providingmore space to Western faiths (i.e. Christianity) than all other faiths and philosophies.He said: “They should be little broad minded and unprejudiced in treatment of allfaiths.”

DDC Editor-in-Chief Mitchell (2005) published a paper on the OCLC website. It was,in fact, the report of a survey conducted regarding the class of religion. The surveyrespondents revealed their dissatisfaction by demanding changes in the currentstructure of DDC’s class of religion. One recommendation was:

The 200’s are dominated, made up nearly exclusively, by Christianity, to the point that everysingle other religion is crammed into the 290’s. I feel that, despite not really wishing toreclassify all the books my library has on religion, that the 200’s really needs to bereorganized. Scale back on the numbers devoted to Christianity to allow more numbers toother religions.

Another respondent stated the views as quoted in the following lines:

Greetings. I am an up and coming Information Scientist. I am overjoyed that this topic isbeing addressed. If only the Dewey’s religion section were more topically proportionate, itwould approach a perfect system.

Morgan (1996) criticized DDC for being very unsuitable for special libraries onreligious collections other than Christianity. He quoted the schemes of Sardar for Islamand Elazar & Elazar for Judaic literature. He commented on the DDC’s approach asfollows:

I wonder whether DDC can continue to meet the needs of expanding knowledge and changingworldviews.

Ibrahim (1982) raised four objections to DDC. The fourth of his objections wasregarding the class of religion. According to the author, Dewey’s bias in this class isvery powerful. A wide range of seven classes has been dedicated to Christianity andonly one class has been given to the remaining religions of the world.

Usmani (1982), commenting on the devisers of the DDC and the LCC, pointed outthat they were either unaware of the range of literature being produced on Islam at amass level, or they had no interest in it. That is why they gave the least importance andplace to this discipline.

According to Khan (1963, pp. 107-8), Dewey could not provide proper numbers forEastern languages, literature and religions, which has created an inadequate state of

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existence for these libraries. As a result, Eastern library administrators have madeexpansions individually.

Eraqi (1985) quoted different efforts made in different quarters, including the IndianInstitute of Islamic Studies (IIIS) and efforts in Iran and Arab countries. These effortswere the effect of an insufficient place for Islamic materials in the DDC and otherrenowned schemes. Eraqi (1985) mentioned the biases of and lesser awareness of Islamby compilers that caused these inconveniences.

Soltani (1995) criticised standard classification systems like DDC and LCC becauseof their bias, lesser coverage of Islamic topics, and non-cooperation with efforts thatwere made to bridge the gaps in these systems.

Rehman et al. (2003) have criticised DDC, saying:

[. . .] classification numbers due to horrifying length, complication and tediousness, becomedinosaurs. This state of affairs gives a clear impression that the digital system is sufferingfrom unmanageable confusion. At this disappointing stage, any effort of overhauling andredressing it cannot be useful. This system, due to tremendous confusion, has become a devilshop. It will be ridiculous to expect any good from it (p. A-1).

Sadiq (2006) mentioned the limitations and the inherent Western influence of thestandard classification schemes, which made them unsuitable for libraries withEastern collections. DDC has an Anglo-American bias in the classes of history &geography, literature and religion. It does not provide sufficient place for materials onIslam. UDC has been found to be suitable for special libraries, but it does not suitacademic and public libraries and libraries that have rich collections on Islam.

ConclusionThe review of the literature on this topic shows that there is a dissatisfaction andunrest regarding the classification of Islamic literature, not only in the Indiansubcontinent and Muslim countries, but also in other countries. People understand thatthe standard classification systems lack proper space for materials on Islam for tworeasons:

(1) lesser awareness on the part of devisers of the depth and variety of Islamictopics, subjects, or disciplines; and

(2) their bias towards and interest in Christianity and less or even no interest inIslam.

This literature also reveals that other religions of the world (e.g. Judaism) have also notbeen provided a sufficient place. Different people have conducted studies and madeefforts to contact the standard classification systems, especially DDC, which is used ina majority of Pakistani libraries, to get more placement for Islam. These efforts havenot produced positive effects. The failure of such efforts has resulted in thedevelopment of different indigenous classification systems. These indigenous systemsfor Islam are mainly based on DDC expansions. These expansions are in two forms:

(1) using the same notation of 297; and

(2) alternatively using the notations of Christianity for Islam, sometimes 210-260,sometimes 210-280, and sometimes using any class of ten numbers.

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Some institutions have developed their own independent systems without any basis orbackground in any of the standard classification systems or logics. This study has alsorevealed the need for a further study of libraries having rich collections in Islam for thedevelopment of a better understanding of their problems, their practices, andperceptions regarding an optimal solution to the problem. The proposed study shouldreveal whether such libraries with rich Islamic collections are functioning properlywith existing classification schemes, whether they need amendments and expansionsin these schemes, or whether they need an independent and comprehensiveclassification scheme for Islam.

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Further reading

Idrees, H. (2010), A Review of Library Classification Schemes on Islam: A Pakistani Perspective,VDM Publishing, Saarbrucken.

McGill University and Weryho, J.W. (1979), “Smith Islamic classification in use at McGillUniversity Islamic Studies Library, Montreal”, McGill University Islamic Studies Library,Montreal.

About the authorHaroon Idrees received his Master’s in Library and Information Science from the University ofthe Punjab, Lahore, and is currently pursuing a PhD at Humboldt University of Berlin. His areasof interest include library automation, technical services, LIS marketing, ICTs in LIS, academiclibraries and biographies. He has also served as a Librarian and LIS faculty in Pakistan, and iscurrently on study leave from IRI, International Islamic University, Islamabad. Haroon Idreescan be contacted at: h.haroonidrees@gmail.com

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