1

CLASS: B.Ed. II

PAPER NAME: EDUCATION IN INDIA

Paper Code: B.Ed.- 307

Department: Education (B.Ed.)

--Dr. Nalini Misra

Assistant Professor

NOTE: The content below is directly taken from internet websites; the details of which

are mentioned in the references given in the end of this document; and the content is for

reading purpose only. This content is not the original work and is not for publication.

The name of the books (passed from Board of Studies) meant for reference and to be read are

already given alongwith the syllabus to the students.

UNIT I

Vedic Education

The Vedas, meaning knowledge in Sanskrit, are the oldest known Sanskrit scriptures. They are

a body of texts attributed to ancient sages or rishis. In the epic Mahabharata, their creation is

said to be the work of Brahma (the god of creation).

The Vedas were usually taught at gurukuls. Gurukul was a residential schooling system

popular in ancient India. At the gurukul, all were considered equal. The guru (teacher) and

shishya (students) lived in the same house or near each other. This relationship was considered

sacred and no fee was taken from the students. Students typically attended the gurukul from

age of 8 into their early twenties. At the end of their education, each student offered a

gurudakshina, a token or mark of respect to the teacher. It was usually money or a special task

that the teacher required. The gurukul was otherwise supported by public donations.

Before the British rule, gurukuls were the preferred form of education in India. During

colonial times, the British imported their centralized system of industrial-era education while

2

systematically de-emphasising Vedic education. However, lately this ancient form of

education is seeing renewed interest.

Relevance of Vedic Education in 21st Century

Dayananda Saraswati, the founder of Arya Samaj and Swami Shraddhanand, were the

pioneers of the modern gurukul system, who in 1886 founded now-widespread Dayanand

Anglo-Vedic Public Schools and Universities.

In 1948, Shastriji Maharaj Dharamjivan Das Swami followed suit and initiated first

Swaminarayan Gurukul in Rajkot in Gujarat. Recently, several gurukuls have opened up to

retrace the roots of Indian culture. This urge is being driven by the government, academics and

parents.

Simplicity of living, a strict schedule and respect for the teacher are principles emphasized at a

gurukul. Equality and independence is impressed upon the students by having all of them

clean and pick up after themselves. Spirituality is impressed upon the students through prayer,

yoga and meditation. In today’s competitive world, this can help children reduce stress and

anxiety. Vedic education is more than just an education system, it is a way of living. This

focus on all-round personality development is an attractive aspect of Vedic education.

Aims of Vedic Education

Vedic Education is not the same as religious education. Before the British arrival and decline

of Vedic Education, India was ruled by the Mughals (Muslims by religion). The system

existed and flourished even under their rule over 3 centuries. It points to the religious

neutrality of the system. The aspect of peer learning was even praised by the British Governor

of Bengal (comprised of modern day Bangladesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, and North East

India). According to historian and author, Mr. A.S. Altekar, the aims of Vedic education are as

under:

Personality Development

3

In Vedic education, one’s personality was developed through self realization and self respect.

The end goal was to build self awareness ie. knowing oneself intimately. Good judgement had

to be developed through practice. Daily tasks focused on physical, mental, and emotional

development. Students built their personalities in a multi dimensional manner.

Character Formation

Ancient Indians did not believe that intellect alone was important. Morality was equally

necessary. Learning divided from morality was considered useless. Vedic education helped

form character by encouraging a simple life. Students were Brahmachari (celibate) as long as

they were learning. Their lives ran according to a strict schedule. Pleasures, comforts and

luxuries were seen as unnecessary. Plain food, good behaviour and high ideals were

encouraged. The gurus did not only teach the students but watched over their moral behaviour

as well.

Performance of Civic and Social Duties

The students’ responsibility to society was made clear. In the gurukul, they all lived as equals,

and participated in all jobs. Their daily tasks involved cleaning and keeping their residence in

liveable conditions. Their duty to the world outside their walls was also of great importance.

They were made aware of the importance of being good spouses and parents. Their wealth

was not to be used for their own wants, but for the good of society. They were also taught to

honor the codes of whatever professions they may choose.

Practical Education

Vedic education was not based solely on learning out of books. Hands on training in

professions that interested the students was encouraged. They were taught the dignity of

manual labour and the value of having a vocational training. Vocations included weaving,

pottery and a number of other arts and professions.

Preservation and Spread of Culture

A large part of the vedas is dedicated to traditions, cultures and rituals. Preservation of the

literary and cultural traditions was necessary. Education was seen as the means to pass

traditions to the next generation. Hence, the students were taught that they owed three debts —

4

 to the gods, to the past gurus, and to their ancestors. The students learned to serve the gods,

which paid the first debt. The second was paid by learning the teachings of past intellectuals.

The third debt to the ancestors was paid by raising children and educating them. Thus, all the

traditions were preserved and passed on.

Achieving Enlightenment

While education was used to make students productive members of society, it had a spiritual

element to it. Prayers and rituals were performed both daily and at important milestones such

as birth, marriage, and death. This was done to teach each student the importance of the non-

physical world. The aim was to lay an equal emphasis on body and soul.

Learning Process

Eligibility and Admission

Eligibility was not based on gender in Vedic times. Men and women alike studied the Vedas.

There are records of several scholarly women and even women sages (rishikas). There is some

evidence that the Shudra caste (untouchables) was not allowed to study. While teachers were

usually of the Brahmin caste, students could be Brahmin, Kshatriya or Vaishya.

Students were eligible once they underwent the upanayana or sacred thread ceremony. The

child underwent this ceremony between the ages of 8 to 12. Studies usually went on for 12

years.

Curriculum

1. The Vedas — There are four Vedas — The Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and

the Atharvaveda. These are classified as Samhitas, or mantras and benedictions.

2. The Aranyakas and Brahmanas — the Aranyakas are the text on rituals, ceremonies and

sacrifices. The Brahmanas comment on those rituals.

3. Upanishads — These texts discuss meditation, philosophy and the spiritual world.

5

4. Vedangas — These consist of six areas of study: Phonetics, ritualistic knowledge,

grammar, exegetics (the science of interpretation), metrics and astronomy.

Methods of Teaching

1. Memorization — Learning the sacred texts by heart is an essential step in studying the

Vedas. Repetition and recitation by the teacher and students was important.

2. Introspection — This has three steps. The first is Sravana, which means listening to

texts recited by the teacher. This is how the student absorbs the teacher’s knowledge. The

second is Manana, which involves deliberation and reflection. The student what has been

taught and what they can learn from it. The third step is Nididhyasana, or meditation. This

is the step through which truth is realized and attained.

3. Critical Analysis — The students are taught to think critically and come to their own

conclusions. Students may even disagree with their teachers and bring them around to

their way of thinking.

4. Hands-on Learning — Learning by doing was encouraged, especially as many students

went into trades later. In areas such as medicine, observation and practice was necessary.

5. Seminars — Debates and discussions were held often. Students could discuss topics of

interest and put their views forward.

Higher Studies

While some students went to their trades or professions, many continued to learn. Institutions

known as Parishads were places of higher learning. Advanced students gathered there to learn

through discussion and discourse. Three Brahmins conducted these sessions. Eventually that

increased to 21 Brahmins learned in theology and philosophy. In today’s world, they would be

considered equal to colleges.

Scholars would continue learning through their life by attending Sammelans (gatherings).

These were discussions and competitions in which some of the most learned people in the

country participated. They were often presided over by kings, who invited the scholars.

6

Modern Efforts for Vedic Education

Private Efforts

People around India have taken on the effort to bring back the philosophies of Vedic

education. Privately funded gurukuls have sprung up around the country. They are often run

by religious trusts. They take in students on a residential basis. Spirituality and traditional

values are of importance in these institutes. The accommodation and food are usually simple

and basic, as they would be in Vedic times. Parents often pick these for children stressed by

the burden of the modern educational system.

Om Shantidhama’s Vedic Gurukul Hemachandra Sanskrit Pathshala, in Bangalore’s

Kanakpura district, is one of these. Started in 1997, it is run on donations and by charging fees

for professionals classes. Students pay no fee for boarding, food and books. This gurukul

combines Vedic education with modern day CBSE subjects to ensure the children get the best

of both worlds. The Vedas are recited as given in the ancient texts. The students are

encouraged to engage in yoga, meditation and physical activity.

Hemachandra Sanskrit Pathshala, another gurukul in Ahmedabad, was started by

philanthropist Uttambai Shah. It is run by a Jain trust. The campus has many features from

ancient times — cow dung plastered floors, organic food, and fresh milk from the cows that are

bred nearby. The only concession made for electricity. This gurukul stresses more on the

Vedic texts. Arts and sciences are taught according to methods outlined in the ancient texts.

The gurukul offers no certification, though some students may get one from the National

Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). A similar setup has been started nearby for girls, by

another Jain trust.

Maharashtra’s Kaneri district and Jodhpur in Rajasthan also have gurukuls run by religious

trusts.

Government Efforts

As seen in the example above, gurukuls often do not offer certificates. This may result in

problems for students who want to enter the formal employment system. To this end, the

government has begun to make efforts for formal certification for such institutes.

7

As outlined here, Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Ved Vidya Pratishthan (MSRVVP), an

independent organization in Ujjain, was set up to promote Vedic education. Around 450

organizations of traditional learning are currently affiliated with it. Despite holding exams, it

does not have any formal authority. The Human Resources Development (HRD) Ministry

hopes to change that. Recognizing traditional education starts with setting up a school board.

The Ministry plans to do this by elevating the MSRVVP to a formal body. This body would

not only certify and support gurukuls, but also come up with new kinds of schools. These

schools may have Vedas and Sanskrit as majors and modern subjects as minors.

It is important to note that these plans are in the proposal stage as of 2017. Until these are

formalized, Vedic education does not have any government recognized form of certification.

Concluding Thoughts

The Vedic system of education may be ancient, but it can still be relevant in today’s world.

Unlike modern day education, it focuses on all-round development — physical, mental, and

emotional. You may decide that a gurukul isn’t an option for your child, but can still instil

these principles in them by supplementing their education with Vedic traditions.

While India might not return to Vedic education as the only form of education, it does

represent a desirable option for some Indians. Introducing these philosophies as part of

broader curriculum, or at home, or in extra-curriculars are viable alternatives. Enough has

been discussed about the problems ailing the Indian Education system. Maybe a healthy

balance of traditional Vedic system and modern education is a panacea that the Indian

education system needs.

8

Development of Education during the Buddhist Period in India

Buddhism came into existence in about 600 B.C. Buddhism and Jainism were offshoots of

Hinduism. As there was little change in their ideals of life, the concept of education also

suffered only a shift of emphasis.

There was no water tight compartment in the realm of thought separating Brahmanism,

Buddhism and Jainism. They all contributed harmoniously to the development of culture as a

whole and their contributions to education were inextricably mixed up. The creative vein of

the age was reflected in the field of education and culture.

As frontiers of knowledge became wide, pursuit of knowledge also assumed a more

systematic and organised method. The practice of Buddhist Education probably varied very

much in different countries and at different times. We get a valuable picture of Buddhist

education as it existed in India from the records left by certain Chinese Buddhist scholars,

who visited India in the fifth and seventh centuries of this era.

They had undertaken long, toilsome and dangerous journeys, only because the fame of the

Buddhist monasteries in India as places of learning had crossed the territorial jurisdiction of

India. Fa-hien, who was in India between A.D. 339 and A.D. 414, makes frequent references

to monasteries as seats of learning. Huen Tsiang who came to India during A.D. 629 to A.

645 referred to the popularity of Buddhism which was in a flourishing state. I-Tsing another

Chinese scholar who came to India and was in the country from A.D. 673 to 687 also

highlighted some of the brighter aspects of the prevalent system of education.

The main educational centers of Buddhism were Monasteries and Viharas. A network of such

centers of education was started during the period. The entire educational system was

9

controlled and supervised by the monks. There was provision for both religions as well as

secular types of education. Therefore, emphasis was laid on personal conduct rather than

external rites and ceremonies as in the Brahmanic system. Thus the aim of education was to

prepare for a good life, a moral life.

The whole discipline (Siksha) had three important aspects viz, morality contemplation and

wisdom. In Buddhist morality, there was infusion of practical needs with theoretical

knowledge and stress on ascetic life against worldly life. With the advent of Buddhisim the

demand for education among the people considerably increased. The relaxation of barriers of

caste in the sphere of religion and learning helped for the expansion of education.

But it was confined to the upper classes of the society and did not make any headway among

masses. As Buddhism became popular and attracted people, the demand for education

considerably increased. Be it as it may, Buddhisim broke the monopoly of any particular

section of the society pertaining to teaching and learning.

Aims of Education:

It is evident that during this period, the aims of education were similar to those of Vedic age.

Instead of emphasizing spiritual elevation, the stress was laid on the development of

personality which included physical, moral, mental and intellectual development; formation

of moral character, which included among other things, right conduct, integrity, morality,

piety, humility and good virtues.

Besides, religious education was given top priority and efforts were made to achieve

Salvation or Nirvana through religious education. There was also provision for imparting

worldly and practical knowledge along with religious education.

Educational Organisation:

During this period education was institutionalized and the doors of education were open to

all. In different parts of the country monasteries sprung up for diffusing education-religious,

academic and practical. In consideration of their accessibility the sites of the monasteries

were selected as centers of learning.

The arrangement of boarding and lodging being excellent in the monasteries, many persons

from wealthy, cultured and respectable families, were attracted towards education. The

10

demand for education considerably developed in the upper class of the society. But it had no

significant impact the masses.

Besides the monasteries, there were the Vedic schools and Secular schools. The rules of

administering both the Vedic and Buddhist institutions were of a similar nature. In the Vedic

age, the educational institutions were isolated and independent. The education depended upon

the system of individual schools and a succession of ideal teachers and disciples. But during

the period under review there was a confederation of such schools in large monastic

institutions comprising a number of teachers and students.

The Buddhist educational system got further stability as a result of elaborate residential and

other arrangements. Mr. F.E. Keay remarked, “The Brahmanical solitude of hermitages in the

woods as an aid to the spiritual life came to be substituted by the social atmosphere of the

Sangha humming with activities of several hundreds of monks in residences near busy haunts

of men. Serenity, joy and energetic striving were the characteristics of this atmosphere.

But the Hindu residential system at the house of the preceptor was free from the artificialities

of a boarding school or residential university and in this respect it was superior to Buddhist

residential system in the monasteries. It was this artificiality of the system that ultimately led

to the decline of the Buddhist monasteries.

Admission:

The conditions of admission to the Sangha, or Community of Bhikhus were very simple. Like

the Vedic educational system, the ceremony of initiation formed an essential part of Buddhist

education. The first act of admission was called the ‘Pabbajja’ or the preparatory ordination

for education. After this ordination, at the age of eight the boy would enter the monastery as a

‘Shramana’Before admission to the order, the boy had to take oath of ‘Three Refuges’.

Buddham Sharanam Gachchhami, (I take refuge with the Buddha), Dhararam Sharanam

Gachchhami (I take refuge with the religion) and Sangham Sharanam Gachhami (I take

refuge with the order). As far as possible caste distinction was not coming in the way of

admission. According to Buddha, the different castes became one after being admitted to the

order, just like the rivers by merging into the ocean became one with it.

The boy had to live in the monastery under the guidance of his preceptor and the disciplinary

regulations of monastery were applicable to him. Certain restrictions were imposed on him in

11

the monastery. A Shramana was strictly forbidden to commit violence, speak untruth, take

intoxicants, etc. Without the consent of the parents a boy was not considered eligible for

admission. The ceremony for full admission was called the ‘Upasampada’. This final

ordination could not be performed before the age of twenty years. Generally after

‘Upasampada’ the Shramana was enjoying the status of a monk and regarded as a fully

fledged membership of the order.

The ‘Upasampada’ was performed in the form of a function in the presence of all the monks

of the order. On that occasion the novice was choosing his preceptor ‘Upadhya’. If any monk

wanted to withdraw himself from the ‘Sangha’. He had to make a declaration confessing the

reasons of his withdrawal. Besides, a monk under the circumstances of breaking the solemn

pledge or falling a victim to worldly temptations was liable to be expelled from the Holy

order. A ‘Bhikshu’ could not accept the office of preceptor till he had himself been a

‘Bhikshu’ could not accept the office of preceptor till he had himself been a ‘Bhikshu’ at least

for ten years and was learned and competent.

During this period pupils, lived in the monasteries or viharas either as Shramanas or fully

fledged monks. Though viharas and monasteries were established in different parts of the

country yet they were organised together to form links of well organised viharas. In those

monasteries the pupils and the ‘Upadhyay’ were living together. The Buddhist Viharas were

the educational centers used not only for religious learning but also as the centers for secular

arts and crafts. As there was no dearth of accommodation in these monasteries, there were

separate chambers and halls wells equipped and well decorated for different purposes.

Curriculum:

Since the chief-ideal of Buddhist education was the attainment of Nirvana or Salvation,

education was thoroughly saturated with religion and it was spiritual in essence. Though the

study of religion predominated the entire society yet one should not infer the conclusion that

there was no provision for practical and technical education. In this period India had marked

a high water level of development in Literature, Philosophy, Arts, Commerce, Agriculture

and the Methods of warfare.

The main subjects of Buddhist education were Spinning, Weaving, Printing of the cloth,

Tailoring, Accountancy, Painting, Ayurveda, Surgery etc. The Primary grade education

aimed at teaching 3 Rs. (Reading, Writing, Arithmetic). But the higher education comprising

12

teaching in Religion, Philosophy, Medicine, Military Science, etc. for choosing different

subjects. Caste distinction was not a bar.

Besides these subjects, different arts and crafts also formed an essential part of the

curriculum. The following arts were taught ill different institutions—Elephant lores, Magic

charms, Spells, Hunting, Spell for understanding the cries of all the creatures. Archery, the

arts of Prognostication, Sarpa Vidya, Medicine etc. Students could specialise in any of these

arts. Taxila was the center of education in these Arts and Sciences. Both theoretical as well as

practical aspects of education were equally emphasised.

It is evident from the written account of Chinese traveler, Fa- Hien, that the Brahmanical

system of education was also popular in the fifth century A.D. The knowledge of Sanskrit

was indispensable for higher education. So Fa-Hien had to remain at Pataliputra for three

years for acquiring adequate knowledge in Sanskrit. As all the important Buddhist works

have been written in Pali, the Pali and other regional languages were also popular during the

period. However, there was a harmonious combination of both seculars and spiritual aspects

of education.

Hiuen-Tsang, another Chinese traveller has quoted the ‘example of Nalanda, pertaining to

higher education, where Buddhist Philosophy, the literature, the Yoga and other spiritual

sciences were taught. The institution at Vikramashila earned name and fame for imparting

teaching in Logic (Tarka Shastra) and Jurisprudence (Nyaya Shastra).

As mentioned earlier, the Buddhist system had not ignored occupational and technical aspects

of education. The monks in the monasteries were at liberty to acquire proficiency in various

arts and craft. Jivaka, a great physician and surgeon of that age, acquired considerable

knowledge and skill in the operation of brain and intestines. Similarly Charak, rightly known

as the Father of Ayurveda, was a product of this age. The center of medical science was

Taxila, which attracted students from far and near.

Besides Ayurveda, the masses were trained in many useful crafts, arts architecture and in

such occupations as agriculture, commerce, cottage industry, animal husbandry etc. in the

same way as the people of the vedic period received facilities of training in these occupations.

Methods of Teaching:

13

During the period the art of writing had considerably developed, but it had not reached the

masses as regards its practical use. Therefore, the method of instruction was mainly oral as it

was during the vedic age. The pupils used to learn the content of different subject matter by

rote. As the both preceptors and the pupils were residing in the monasteries, the preceptor had

recourse to direct method in teaching.

A preceptor used to suggest a lesson to the pupil’s and the pupil was learning the lesson by

heart. After ascertaining the pupil s comprehension of a particular lesson the preceptor

proceeded with further lesson. Thinking, meditation and self-study were duly emphasised.

In viharas and monastic schools Hetu Vidya or Inductive method of logic was adopted and

through this method the intellect of the pupils was trained. Discussions, talks and

argumentations were also organised periodically on different religious and philosophical

subjects. In order to train the pupils in the art of debating from the very beginning of their

academic career, there was provision for occasional discussion among the followers of

different religions.

For the intellectual benefit of the pupils sometimes outstanding celebrities and authorities on

religion and philosophy were invited to deliver talks on different topics. Besides, stimulating

environment was provided for widening the mental horizon of the pupils and for developing

clarity of vision for solving intricate problems of life. In order to give a realistic and practical

shape to what the pupils had learnt at the monastic schools, the pupils used to undertake the

journey from one place to another at the end of their academic career.

In addition to this, Buddhist Period debates and periodical gatherings were organised. Monks

from different monasteries were participating in the discussions and delivering speeches on

philosophical and religious topics. Pupils were also encouraged to participate in these

meetings for increasing their knowledge appreciably.

In regard to technical education in secular science, arts and crafts, the teaching method was

identical with that of Brahmanical education. Pupils were given education through both

theoretical and practical methods. After completion of the theoretical study the pupils were

serving a term of apprenticeship under some expert artisans for picking up practical

knowledge and skill in arts and crafts.

14

Pupil-Preceptor Relations:

The pupil and preceptor relation in the Buddhist system of education was the same as during

the Vedic period. In this monastic system of education, the pupil after his admission was

placing himself under the supervision and guidance of a preceptor. The main ideas of this

connection of teacher and pupil were taken over from Brahmanic education, like the

Vedic system the pupil was going to bed later than his preceptor and was getting up earlier.

Early in the morning the pupil had to give water, clay, teeth cleanser, etc. to his preceptor.

The pupil was sweeping and cleaning the room and was also going for begging with his

preceptor. But the pupil was always keeping a distance while following the preceptor.

The preceptor also had certain responsibilities towards his pupils. He had to treat the pupil as

his own son and also helped him at the time of distress. But the most sacred and noble duty of

the preceptor was to impart intellectual and spiritual education of a higher order to his pupils.

The preceptor was an ideal before his pupils as he possessed excellent moral character, self-

possession and spiritualism.

It is quite evident from the writings of Huen- Tsang that in the Vihars like Nalanda, there

were profound scholars who put forth a living example before the pupils. Thus the pupil

preceptor relationship was pious, cordial and intimate. The preceptor was held in high esteem

and greatly respected. The only difference between the pupil and the preceptor was merely

spiritual superiority of the latter to the former.

However, Buddhist education influenced the general mass of the people, at least those who

adhered to Buddhism, and provided opportunities for popular instruction. Even then, this

system of education was not altogether immune from defects. So much it was dominated by

religions that arts and crafts, in the last phase of it, came to be looked down upon by the

members of higher classes and ultimately they gave them up completely.

In comparison to Vedic age the ratio of mass education decreased considerably. Due lo

certain lapses and laxity of central organisation the ‘Samgha’ (order) which was regarded as

the veritable forte of Buddhist religion, ultimately proved to be the sole cause of its downfall.

As this system of education was founded on the principles of nonviolence and renunciation of

the world, the military art and science could not make satisfactory progress. In the garb of

democracy arbitrariness prevailed.

15

According to Buddhist religion the world is full of sorrows and sufferings. Therefore, the sole

aim of life was considered to be the attainment of salvation (Nirvana) by renouncing the

world. This aim of life reflected in the aim of education and it naturally resulted in

artificiality.

The meaning of the ‘struggle of life’ was confined lo mere metaphysical speculation. As a

result the all round progress and development of life received a serious blow. But in course of

time certain drawbacks and weaknesses crept into the system. Democratic principles were

abused and the monks and nuns fell victim to moral turpitude and corruption.

At length, the foreigners invaded the country. With her poor military skill and organisation

she failed to meet the challenges of the foreigners and the pace of downfall accelerated.

Buddhism had considerable influence upon Indian philosophic thought and religious ideals.

But on the educational side it is difficult to estimate the amount of its influence. It goes

without saying that Buddhism have done something to extend amongst the people of India the

desire and also stimulated a demand for some popular education.

As a natural consequence, Buddhism along with the system of education declined gradually

in India, and the Brahmanic system of education came into ascendancy anew through the

efforts of the religious thinkers and philosophers such as Shankaracharya, Madhavacharya

etc.

Financing of Education:

Financing of education during this period became systematised and stabilised. The casual

manner of assisting educational institutions, as in the previous period could not hold good.

The random gifts and occasional charities were inadequate to meet the daily requirements of

the viharas and monasteries.

The sources of revenue to education continued to be almost the same as in vedic period. But

in order to ensure a continuous flow of resources to the educational institutions, some of the

sources became stable and fixed. During the period, the state shouldered greater

responsibility for maintenance of these temple of learning and education enjoyed royal

patronage.

16

Emperor Ashoka helped for the expansion of education by establishing many monasteries,

nunneries and edicts throughout his empire. Due to his endeavour live hundred monasteries

were built in Kashmir alone. King Kanishka of Kushana dynasty was a great patron of

scholars. The eminent Buddhist scholars Nagarjuna, Asvaghosha, Vasumitra and the

celebrated physician Charaka enjoyed his patronage.

The Gupta rulers Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II were great patrons of famous

scholars. To mention a few Vasubandhu, Harisena and Kalidasa flourished during Gupta

period. Harsha’s exemplary munificence to the cause of learning influenced and inspired

other kings to open their treasuries to accelerate the progress of education and learning.

The state patronage was extended to education in the following ways:

1. Granting lands and pensions to teachers and learned men;

2. Appointing learned men as officers in the state service;

3. Granting scholarship to students:

4. Subsidising students to start life;

5. Relaxing laws of limitation in favour of students; and

6. Exempting students and poor Brahmins from taxation.

However, the financial patronage of the state was without any strings attached to it. The

common men of the society also contributed their share to education whatever they could

afford. The other sources of income during the period were gifts from the people in general,

fees collected for the services rendered by the pupils, endowments in the form of elaborate

residential buildings and landed property endowed for the maintenance of institutions etc.

The main item of expenditure was the maintenance of the staff and students of the institution.

Next came the expenditure on the management and care of the endowments and the salary of

the teachers which consisted of the expenditure on their maintenance and supply of primary

needs of life. Besides expenditure incurred on the mess arrangement of the students,

provision of suitable robes to the monks, medical aid, production of literature and

maintenance of library books and a number of minor items of expenditure.

17

On the whole, the system of education prevalent during Buddhist period ensured a permanent

supply of qualified men devoting themselves for the service of humanity by a life of complete

self-denial, of celibacy, of poverty and wandering homelessness.

They renounced the materialistic world and left the society only to qualify themselves for

serving it better, as teachers and preachers. They travelled through the length and breadth of

the country only to enlighten the people and spread learning.

18

Development of Education during the Medieval Period in India

Education in the Muslim Period

The beginning of the 8th century A.D. witnessed a large number of Mohammedan invasions.

Mahmud Ghaznavi invaded the country and established a large number of schools and

libraries in his own country by the looted wealth. Later on when the Muslim rulers

established permanent empire in India, they introduced a new system of education.

Consequently, the ancient system of education was greatly changed. In fact, the education of

the Muslim period was much inferior than that of the Hindu period. No Muslim ruler except

Akbar did commendable works in the field of education.

Aim of Education

The aim of education during Muslim period was the illumination and extension of knowledge

and the propagation of Islam. The education of this period was imparted for the propagation

of Islamic principles, laws and social conventions. Education was based on religion and its

aim was to make persons religiousminded. The Muslim education aimed also at the

achievement of material prosperity.

Organization of Education

In the Muslim period, education was organized in Maktabs and Madrasas. Primary education

was given in Maktabs and Higher Education in Madrasas. In Maktabs the children were made

to remember the ‘Ayats’ of Quran. They were also imparted the education of reading, writing

and primary arithmetic. Children were given the education of Persian language and script.

After completing the primary education, children were sent to Madrasas to receive higher

education. Special emphasis was also given to the education of religious education of secular

subjects, which was imparted in Madrasas. The chief characteristics of education in Muslim

period were lack of University education, neglect of Vernaculars, decline in teacher- pupil

relationship and problem of discipline. Corporal punishment was started. The system of

examination depended upon the will of the teacher to send the pupil to the higher classes or

19

not. Degree was given after the completion of education. Military education was also

considered compulsory in order to establish supremacy over the Hindu kings.

Organization of Islamic Education in India

• Maktabs

In a Maktab children of general people were given primary education. Along with religious

education they were also taught reading, writing and arithmetic. He was also taught some

romantic literature of Persian e.g. Laila Majnu, Yusuf- Julekha etc. General practical

education was also given in Maktabs. Letter writing applications and accountancy were

taught in them.

• Madrasas

After completing the education in a Maktab, one could come to a Madrasa for Higher

Education. During the Muslim period, Madrasas were centers of higher learning. In Madrasa,

along with religious objective education, practical affairs of life were also attended to. Akbar

did a great deal in this direction and tried to give a practical shape also to education in a

unprecedented manner. Islamic religion was compulsorily taught to all the students. But

Akbar stopped this tradition. He provided study of Hindu religion and philosophy also in

many Madrasas. He introduced the study of medicine, history, geography, economics,

political science, philosophy, astrology, law and mathematics. He made the study of Vedanta,

Jurisprudence and Patanjali compulsory for Sanskrit students. Abul fazl has described the

educational system introduced by Akbar in his famous book Ain-e-Akbari. Law in those days

was based on religious practices. So the study of religious principles was in a way education

in law.

Method of Teaching

Oral education and memorization of the assigned lesson were the chief methods of teaching

in the Maktabs. Akbar encouraged writing and tried to reform the scripts. He wanted the

educational procedure to be systematic. So he urged that the student should be given the

knowledge of alphabets, then word knowledge and afterwards sentence knowledge. During

this period, cooperation of students was sought in maintenance of discipline. Practical

education was given much importance. There was no half-yearly or annual examination fixed

for students. But the students were examined from time to time in practical situations of life.

20

Military training, development of fine arts, crafts and women education were given much

importance in this period.

A Critique of Muslim Education

The education which developed and expanded during the long period of about six hundred

and fifty years of Muslim rule in India had in it several merits as well as demerits. This

education pattern cast a lasting 3 influence on Indian culture. The vestiges of that old

educational system nurtured by the Muslim rulers are still to be found in the form of

Maktabs. Although thee Maktabs, the dying echoes of the old system, have no utility for the

masses, yet we do get an idea of the religious significance and the peculiarities of those times

from these Maktabs, which have tenaciously continued to exist inspite of various political

upheavals. The system of education of the Muslim period, no doubt, had many good points

about it, but there were certain flagrant shortcomings that cannot escape a critical eye. If the

education system of that age could take pride in the affection and regard between the teacher

and the taught, self-dependence of student, peaceful environment of educational institutions,

various means of encouraging students and integration of literary, useful and religious

education, it would necessarily admit of that severe corporal punishment, religious bigotry,

waste of time in learning reading and writing separately, supremacy of Arabic and Persian

aloofness of students from the realities of life and lack of arrangement of education for

women were the major defects of the system. The Muslim educational system inspite of

having both merits and demerits led by its religious practice to the destruction of the old

ancient Indian educational institutions also helped the expansion of Indian culture to Europe

and Central Asia. This educational pattern was a veritable boon for presenting the unity

among the Muslims. It was also helpful in strengthening the ties of equality and brotherhood

among the neo-Muslims of India who were Hindu converts. Thus, this education while

propagating Muslim culture succeeded in unifying into a complete unit, the whole of the

Muslim society. Consequently the Muslim culture went on developing inspite of being in

closer contrast with the culture of India.

21

BRITISH EDUCATION IN INDIA

Right from the beginning of their relationship with India, the British, who had come as

traders and had become rulers and administrators, had influenced the economic, political and

educational systems of the country. Their impact on the cultural and social life of India was,

however, gradual. It is essential to review the educational policies under the British rule to

understand the present and visualize the future.

EDUCATIONAL POLICIES IN INDIA ADOPTED BY THE BRITISH

Development of education system during the British period was determined by the needs of

the colonial powers. If we analyse the development, we will find that the colonial interests of

the British always shaped the then educational policies of India. European trading companies

began their commercial activities in India from 1600 A.D. Gradually the Portuguese, the

French, the Dutch and the English settled in some parts and commercial centres of India.

Among them the English East India Company was ultimately able to establish their rule in

India. Till the 19th century, they did not evolve any definite educational policy One should

not suppose that there had been no educational system before the coming of the East India

Company. When the British came to India and were gradually establishing themselves in

Bengal, they met such a system F. W. Thomas was of the opinion that “Education is no

exotic in India. There is no country where the love of learning had so early an origin or has

exercised so lasting and powerful an influence” . The modern system of education came to be

established in India during the British period at the cost of the traditional indigenous system.

Before the British established a new system of education in India both the Hindus and the

Muslims had their own systems of education. Both the systems went into oblivion gradually

and suffered a set – back because of political turmoil and lack of a strong centralised political

authority and want of suitable patronage. Indian education had always been of a classical and

spiritual rather of a practical nature. It was communicated through the sacred classical

languages of the Hindus and the Muslims, namely Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian. The Tols and

Madrassas were the highest seminaries of learning meant for the specialists. These

institutions were not meant for education of an elementary kind. For primary education, there

were in the villages, Patsalas and Educational Policies in India under the British Rule

22

Maktabs where the Gurus and Maulavis imparted knowledge of the three “R”s to the boys of

the locality. There was no school for the education of the girls though the Zamindars often

had their daughters educated at home. The indigenous Indian Education started with the

advent of the British. The colonial interests of the British shaped the then educational policies

of India. In his book, ‘Education in British India’ Arthur Howell says. "Education in India

under the British Government was first ignored, then violently and successfully opposed, then

conducted on a system now universally admitted to be erroneous and finally placed on its

present footing" (1872:3). The development of education system during the British period

was determined by the needs of the colonial powers. However the attitude of the British to

education when they came to Bengal was one of the differences, and this was naturally so

since India was yet to be a British colony and they were not yet the representatives of the

British Crown. They were the employees of a great commercial concern called the East India

Company. The Head – quarter of the Company were located at London and consisted of

twenty four Directors, who used to manage the affairs of the Company abroad. For each of

the British establishments in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, they appointed a Governor. After

Regulating Act of 1773, the Governor of Calcutta was called the Governor- General and was

given supervisory power over the Governors at Bombay and Madrassa.

REFERENCE LINKS:

• http://content.inflibnet.ac.in/data-server/eacharya-

documents/548158e2e41301125fd790cf_INFIEP_72/78/ET/72-78-ET-V1-S1__l_.pdf

• https://vedaeducation.in/what-is-vedic-education/

• http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/development-of-education-during-the-

buddhist-period-in-india/44818