CLASS A AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE.pdf
Transcript of CLASS A AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE.pdf
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
PERFORMANCE CLASS AAEROPLANES - JAR 25 CERTIFIED
JAR ATPL - 032 03
Version 0 / MAR 06
Predava:
Zlatko irac,[email protected]
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LIMITATIONS
Environmental
Envelope
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDLIMITATIONS
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LIMITATIONS
Speeds
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
VMCG - minimum control speed on the ground
It is the calibrated airspeed during the take-off run, at which, whenthe critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible tomaintain control of the aeroplane with the use of the primaryaerodynamic controls alone (without the use of nose-wheelsteering) to enable the take-off to be safely continued using normalpiloting skill.
VMCA - minimum control speed in the air
It is the calibrated airspeed, at which, when the critical engine issuddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the
aeroplane with that engine still inoperative, and maintain straightflight with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees.
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDVMCL - Minimum control speed during approach and landing
It is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is
suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of theaeroplane with that engine still inoperative, and maintain straightflight with an angle of bank of not more than 5.
VMU
Minimum unstick speed
It is the calibrated airspeed at and above which the aeroplane cansafely lift off the ground, and continue the take-off.
LIMITATIONS
Speeds
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Engine Failure Speed: VEFVEF is the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail.VEF must be selected by the applicant, but may not be less than VMCG.
Decision Speed: V1
V1 is the maximum speed at which the crew can decide to reject the takeoff,and is ensured to stop the aircraft within the limits of the runway.V1 may not be less than VEF plus the speed gained with the critical engineinoperative during the time interval between the instant at which the criticalengine is failed, and the instant at which the pilot recognises and reacts to theengine failure.The time which is considered between the critical engine failure atVEF, and the pilot recognition at V1, is 1 second.
TAKEOFF
VMCG VEF V1
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Speeds
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDVR Rotation speed
The speed at which the pilot initiates the rotation, at the appropriate
rate of about 3 per second in order to achieve V2 at 35ft.
VLOF Liftoff speed
The speed at which the aeroplane first becomes airborne.
V2 Takeoff safety speed
The minimum climb speed that must be reached at a height of 35feet above the runway surface, in case of an engine failure.
TAKEOFF
SpeedsVR 1.05 VMCA
VLOF 1.05 VMU (OEI)VLOF 1.10 VMU (AEO)
V2 1.13 VS1g (Fly-By-Wire aircraft)V2 1.2 VS (Classic types)
V2 1.1 VMCA
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDMaximum Brake Energy Speed: VMBEThe Maximum speed at which the brakes will absorb aircraft kinetic
energy and stop aircraft safely.When the takeoff is aborted, brakes must absorb and dissipate theheat corresponding to the aircrafts kinetic energy at the decisionpoint.
Maximum Tire Speed: VTThe tire manufacturer specifies the maximum ground speed thatcan be reached, in order to limit the centrifugal forces and the heatelevation that may damage the tire structure.
TAKEOFF
Speeds
V1
VMBE
VLOF VTIRE
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Speeds
Takeoff speeds limitations summary
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
TAKEOFF DISTANCES
TOD - Takeoff distance
Takeoff distance is the greater of the following values:
TODN-1 = Distance covered from the brake release to a point at whichthe aircraft is at 35 feet (15 feet on wet runway) above the takeoffsurface, assuming the failure of the critical engine at VEF andrecognized at V1
1.15 TODN = 115% of the distance covered from brake release to apoint at which the aircraft is at 35 feet (15 feet on wet runway) above
the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating.
TOD = max of {TODN-1 , 1.15 TODN }
The takeoff distance on a wet runway may not be lower than on a dry one.
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
TOD - Takeoff distance
35 ftVR
TOD1 E/O
All engines operative
35 ft
From BR to 35 ft above runway surface.
V2
One engine out at V1
+ 15%
TODAll engines
1 engine1 engine
outout
V1
TODOEI
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
TOR - Takeoff run
The takeoff run is the greater of the following values :
TORN-1 = Distance covered from brake release to a point equidistantbetween the point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which theaircraft is 35(15) feet above the takeoff surface, assuming failure of the
critical engine at VEF and recognized at V1,
1.15 TORN = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to apoint equidistant between the point at which VLOF is reached and thepoint at which the aircraft is 35(15) feet above the takeoff surface,assuming all engines operating.
TOR = max of {TORN-1 , 1.15 TORN }
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
TOR - Takeoff run
+ 15%
TORAll engines
All engines operative
35 ftVR
From BR to middle point.
(between 35ft and LOF point)
TOR1 E/O
35 ftV2
One engine out at V1
1 engine out1 engine out
V1
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
ASD Accelerate-stop distance
The accelerate-stop distance is the greater of the following values:
ASDN-1 = Sum of the distances necessary to:- Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF,- Accelerate from VEF to V1, assuming the critical enginefails at VEF and the pilot takes the first action to reject thetakeoff at V1 (delay between VEF and V1 = 1 second)- Come to a full stop- Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1
speed. ASDN = Sum of the distances necessary to:
- Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V1,assuming the pilot takes the first action to reject the takeoff
at V1- With all engines still operating come to a full stop- Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1speed
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
ASD Accelerate-stop distance
V1 V=0
2 sAll engines idle
ASDall engines
V1 V=0
All engines2 s
1 E/O idle
ASD 1 E/O
All engines operative
1 Engine out
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
TakeOff Run Available (TORA)
The length of runway which is declared available by the appropriate
authority and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane taking off.
TOR TORA
Takeoff Distance Available (TODA)The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of theclearway available.
TOD TODA
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA)
The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway,
if such stopway is declared available by the appropriate Authority andis capable of bearing the mass of the aeroplane under the prevailingoperating conditions.
ASD ASDA
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
TOR TORA
TOD TODA
ASD ASDA
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
Loss of Runway Length due to Alignment (Line-up distance)
JAR-OPS 1.490(c)(6): an operator must take account of the loss, if any,of runway length due to alignment of the aeroplane prior to takeoff.
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
Balanced field
Balanced field: TOD = ASD = RWY LENGTH
V1 = Balanced V1
MTOWFIELD MAX. VALUE
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
Influence of V1
V1 VRLow V1
Long TOD
Short ASD
V1VRHigh V1
Short TOD
Long ASD
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Distances
Influence of V2
Long TOD
High V2 = Long TOD and High Climb gradient
Short TOD
Low V2 = Short TOD and Low Climb gradient
V1 VR
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS
RWY Conditions
Dry runway:A dry runway is one which is neither wet norcontaminated.
Damp runway:A runway is considered damp when the surfaceis not dry, but when the moisture on it does not give it a shinyappearance.JAR-OPS 1.475 states that a damp runway is equivalent to adry one in terms of takeoff performance. In the future, a damp
runway may have to be considered as wet.
Wet runway:A runway is considered wet when the runwaysurface is covered with water or equivalent, with a depth less
than or equal to 3 mm, or when there is a sufficient moisture onthe runway surface to cause it to appear reflective, but withoutsignificant areas of standing water.
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS
Contaminated runway:A runway is considered to becontaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface area
within the required length and width being used is covered by thefolowing:-surface water more than 3mm in deep-slush or loose snow equivalent to more than 3mm of water
Standing water: Caused by heavy rainfall and/orinsufficient runway drainage with a depth of more than3mm (0.125 in).
Slush: Water saturated with snow, which spatters when stepping
firmly on it.
Wet snow: If compacted by hand, snow will stick together andtend to form a snowball.
Dry snow: Snow can be blown if loose, or if compacted by hand,will fall apart again upon release.
Compacted snow: Snow has been compressed.
Ice : The friction coefficient is 0.05 or below.
AEROPLANES CLASS A
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS
Effect on Performance
There is a clear distinction of the effect of contaminants on aircraft
performance. Contaminants can be divided into hard and fluidcontaminants.
Hard contaminants are : Compacted snow and ice.They reduce friction forces.
Fluid contaminants are : Water, slush, and loose snow.They reduce friction forces, and cause precipitation dragand aquaplaning.
Precipitation drag causes following effects:Improve the deceleration rate: Positive effect, in case of a rejected
takeoff.Worsen the acceleration rate: Negative effect for takeoff.
So, the negative effect on the acceleration rate leads to limit thedepth of a fluid contaminant to a maximum value.
On the other hand, with a hard contaminant covering the runwaysurface, only the friction coefficient is affected, and the depth of
contaminant therefore has no influence on takeoff performance.
AEROPLANES CLASS A
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS
Aquaplaning PhenomenonThe presence of water on the runway creates an intervening water
film between the tire and the runway, leading to a reduction of the dryarea. This phenomenon becomes more critical at higher speeds,where the water cannot be squeezed out from between the tire andthe runway. Aquaplaning (or hydroplaning) is a situation where thetires of the aircraft are, to a large extent, separated from the runway
surface by a thin fluid film. Under these conditions, tire traction dropsto almost negligible values along with aircraft wheels braking; wheelsteering for directional control is, therefore, virtually ineffective.
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS
JAR 25.1591:Supplementary performance information for runways contaminated
with standing water, slush, loose snow, compacted snow or ice mustbe furnished by the manufacturer in an approved document, in theform of guidance material, to assist operators in developing suitableguidance, recommendations or instructions for use by their flightcrews when operating on contaminated runway surface conditions.
The information on contaminated runways may be established bycalculation or by testing.
Example data for A320F provided by the Airbus Industrie
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
RWY
CONDITIONS
Braking action
Data published by ATR Industrie
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PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations
Takeoff path
The takeoff path extends from a standing start (brake release) to apoint at which the aeroplane is at a height:
Of 1500 ft above the takeoff surface, or At which the transition from the takeoff to the en-route
configuration is completed and the final takeoff speed isreached,whichever point is higher.
The takeoff flight path begins 35 ft above the takeoff surface at the
end of the takeoff distance.
The takeoff path and takeoff flight path regulatory definitions assumethat the aircraft is accelerated on the ground to VEF, at whichpoint the critical engine is made inoperative and remains
inoperative for the rest of the takeoff.
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PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations
Minimum required groos gradient (%)
JAR 25.121
P 1.7%P 1.7% (accel.)P 3.0%P 0.5%4 ENG
P 1.5%P 1.5% (accel.)P 2.7%P0.3%3 ENG
P 1.2%P 1.2% (accel.)P 2.4%>02 ENG
Final SEG3rd SEG2nd SEG1st SEGAircraft
Commuter category aircraft (JAR 23)
P 1.2%P 1.2% (accel.)2.0%>02 ENG
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PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations
1.0 %4 ENG
0.9 %3 ENG
0.8 %2 ENG
Mandatory gross gradient reductionJAR 25.115
AIRCRAFT
Gross Net takeoff flight path
Net takeoff flight path must clear all obstacles in the Obstacle AccountableArea for at least 35 ft.
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PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations
Maximum Bank Angle During a Turn
25
15
15
Standard
procedure
30Above 400 ft
20Between 200 ft and 400 ft
15Below 200 ft
Specific
approval
Height above RWY END
Track changes
JAR-OPS 1.495(c)(1): Track changes shall not be allowed up to the point atwhich the net take-off flight path has achieved a height equal to one half the
wingspan but not less than 50 ft above the elevation of the end of the take-
off run available.
Loss of climb gradient during a turn must be taken in account.
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PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations
Obstacle Accountable Area (OAA)
All obstacles inside the OAA must be taken in account.
Track changes
up to 15
Track changes
more than 15
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PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations
Engine Failure Procedures (Contingency Procedures)
Designed by the operator to safely clear all obstacles in case of an engine failure duringtakeoff, providing max. possible takeoff weight in given conditions.
JAR OPS1.495(f): An operator shall establish contingency proedures to provide a safe
route , avoiding obstacles, to enable aeroplane to either comply with the en-routerequirements or land at the aerodrome of departure or at a takeoff alternate.
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PERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Climb &
Obstacle
Limitations
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JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
TOW
Calculation
TOW Calculation
TOD,TOR,ASD (runway)
Speeds
1st Segment gradient (>0%)
2nd Segment gradient (>2.4%)
Brake energy
ObstacleTire speed
Final Take off (>1.2%)
Limitations Take off parameters.
Configuration Speeds (V1, Vr, V2)
Allow the take off with a maximum performance TOW
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JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
TOW
Calculation
To obtain MATOW explore all range of V1/Vr and V2/Vs
TOD
ASD
2nd
Obstacleoptimum weight
V2/Vs=1.27
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JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Takeoff Data
Takeoff Data
Takeoff data are usually presented in Runway Weight Charts (RWC).
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JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Flex T/O
Reduced thrust takeoff (FLEX T/O)
The aircraft actual takeoff weight is often lower than themaximum regulatory takeoff weight. Therefore, in certain cases, itis possible to takeoff at a thrust less than the Maximum TakeoffThrust.It is advantageous to adjust the thrust to the actual weight, as itincreases engine life and reliability, while reducing maintenanceand operating costs.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
N i Ab t t t k ff
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JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Noise
Abatement
takeoff
Noise Abatement takeoff
Aeroplane operating procedures for the take-off climb shall ensure that the
necessary safety of flight operations is maintained whilst minimizingexposure to noise on the ground.
The following two procedures for the climb have been developed asguidance. The first procedure (NADP 1) is intended to provide noise
reduction for noise sensitive areas in close proximity to the departure end ofthe runway . The second procedure (NADP 2) provides noise reduction toareas more distant from the runway end .
The two procedures differ in that the acceleration segment for flap/slatretraction is either initiated prior to reaching the maximum prescribed height
or at the maximum prescribed height. To ensure optimum accelerationperformance, thrust reduction may be initiated at an intermediate flap setting.
NOTE 1: For both procedures, intermediate flap transitions required for
specific performance related issues may be initiated prior to the prescribed
minimum height; however, no power reduction can be initiated prior toattaining the prescribed minimum altitude.
NOTE 2: The indicated airspeed for the initial climb portion of the departure
prior to the acceleration segment is to be flown at a climb speed of V2 plus
10 to 20 kt.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 2 CERTIFIEDALLEVIATING NOISE CLOSE TO THE AERODROME (NADP 1)
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JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Noise
Abatement
takeoff
ALLEVIATING NOISE CLOSE TO THE AERODROME (NADP 1)
This procedure involves a power reduction at or above the prescribedminimum altitude and the delay of flap/slat retraction until the prescribed
maximum altitude is attained. At the prescribed maximum altitude,accelerate and retract flaps/slats on schedule while maintaining a positiverate of climb, and complete the transition to normal en-route climb speed.
Maintain positive rate of climb. Accelerate smoothly to en-route climb speed. Retract flaps/slats on schedule.
Climb at V2 + 10 to 20kt. Maintain
reduced power/thrust. Maintain
flaps/slats in the takeoff configuration.
Initiate power/thrust reduction at or above 800 ft.
Takeoff thrust, V2 + 10 to 20kt.
3000 ft
800 ft
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
ALLEVIATING NOISE DISTANT FROM THE AERODROME (NADP 2)
This procedure involves initiation of flap/slat retraction on reaching the
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JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Noise
Abatement
takeoff
This procedure involves initiation of flap/slat retraction on reaching theminimum prescribed altitude. The flaps/slats are to be retracted onschedule while maintaining a positive rate of climb. The power reduction is
to be performed with the initiation of the first flap/slat retraction or whenthe zero flap/slat configuration is attained. At the prescribed altitude,complete the transition to normal enroute climb procedures.
Transition smoothly to en-route climb speed.
Not before 800 ft and whilst maintaining a
positive rate of climb, accelerate towards VZFand reduce power with the initiation of the first
flap/slat retraction,
- or -when flaps/slats are retracted and whilst
maintaining a positive rate of climb, reduce
power and climb at VZF + 10 to 20 kt.
Takeoff thrust, V2 + 10 to 20kt.
3000 ft
800 ft
RWY
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDMany locations continue to prescribe the former Noise
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JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Noise
Abatement
takeoff
Many locations continue to prescribe the former Noise
Abatement Departure Procedures A and B.
Flap retraction and accelerate smoothly to en-route climb speed.
CLimb at V2 + 10 to 20 kt.
Takeoff thrust
V2 + 10 to 20kt.
3000 ft
1500 ft
Reduce to climb power/thrust.
Runway
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JAR 25 CERTIFIED
TAKEOFF
Noise
Abatement
takeoff
Accelerate smoothly to en-route
climb speed.
Climb at VZF + 10 kt.
Takeoff thrust
V2 + 10 to 20kt.
3000 ft
1000 ft Accelerate to VZF.
Reduce power/thrust.
Retract flaps/slats on schedule.
Runway
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDCLIMB
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CLIMB
Flight
Mechanics
CLIMB
Flight Mechanics
Thrust x cos = Drag + Weight x sin
Lift = Weight x cossin tan (in radian)
cos 1 and cos 1
RC = TAS x sin TAS x
DL
1
W
T
WEIGHT
THRUST
WEIGHT
DRAGTHRUST=
=
=
WEIGHT
POWER
WEIGHT
DRAGTHRUSTTASRC
=
=
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Th li b l ( ) i ti l t th diff b t th
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CLIMB
Flight
Mechanics
The climb angle () is proportional to the difference between theavailable thrust and the required thrust.
The rate of climb (RC) is proportional to the difference between theavailable power and the required power.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Influencing parameters
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CLIMB
Influencing
parameters
Influencing parameters
Altitudeeffect
Climb gradient and the rate of climb decrease with pressure altitude, dueto a lower excess of thrust.
Temperature effect
As temperature increases, thrust decreases due to a lower air density. As
a result, the effect is the same as for altitude.
WEIGHT
THRUST
WEIGHT
DRAGTHRUST ==
WEIGHT
POWER
WEIGHT
DRAGTHRUSTTASRC
=
=
Weight effect
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDWind effect
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CLIMB
Influencing
parameters
Wind effect
Headwind: - Rate of climb
- Fuel and time to TOC - Flight path angle (g) - Ground distance to TOC
Tailwind: - Rate of climb
- Fuel and time to TOC - Flight path angle (g) - Ground distance to TOC
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDClimb profile
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CLIMB
Climb Profile
Climb profile
Constant IAS / Mach tehnique
Crossover Altitude
-switch from constant IAS to constant Mach during climb to avoidreaching critical Ma (Makr).
-switch from constant Mach to constant IAS during descent to avoid
exceeding VMO.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDClimb data
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49
CLIMB
Climb data
Climb data
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
CRUISE
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50
CRUISE
Flight
Mechanics
CRUISE
DL
WT=
L = WD = T
Min. Thrust required for best L/D ratio
Flight Mechanics
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDSpecific Range
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51
CRUISE
Specific
Range
p g
( )ton
NM
TASTTSFCTTSFC
TASSRAIR
=
=1
USEDFUELDISTANCEAIRSRAIR=
Prop. aircraft:
Jet aircraft:
SR=f(WEIGHT, ALTITUDE, SPEED)
( )ton
NM
TASPPSFCPPSFC
TASSRAIR
=
=
1
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
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52
CRUISE
Specific
Range
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDMax. Range vs. Long Range
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53
CRUISE
MR & LRC
Flight at Long Range cruise speed will result in significant speed
increase (more comfort by shortening flight time on long distanceflights) and slight decrease in Specific Range (SRLRC will be 99% ofthe SRMR).
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
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54
CRUISE
MR & LRC
Min. T/TAS ratio
( )tonNMTAS
TTSFCTTSFCTASSRAIR
=
= 1
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDWind-Altitude trade
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55
CRUISE
MR & LRC
Optimum Altitude 37100At FL330 -6/25(interpolated)It means that at FL330 the Specific Rangeis 6% worse than at the Optimum Altitude,but it may be compensated with at least 25kt favourable wind.As at FL330 there is 60-20=40 kt less HW,
it is better choice to fly at FL330.
Aircraft A320 9A-CTFGW 62.0 tonSpeed M0.78Wind At Optimum Altitude HW=60kt
At FL330 HW=20kt
FINDGIVEN
MACH .78DS
R%/W
C[kt]
OPTIM
UMALTIT
UDE
-7/30-5/20
-9/40
-2/5
-3/10
-11/50
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
464850525456586062646668707274
GROSS WEIGHT [ton]
FLIGHTLEVEL
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Cost Index
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56
CRUISE
Cost IndexLong-range Cruise Mach number was considered as a minimum fuelregime. If we consider the Direct Operating Cost instead, theEconomic Mach number(MECON), can be introduced.
( ) ( ) CTTFF
CCCDOC ++=That is:CC = fixed costsCF = cost of fuel unitF = trip fuel
CT = time related costs per flight hourT = trip time
Minimum fuel costs correspond to the Maximum Range Mach
number. The minimum DOC corresponds to a specific Machnumber, referred to as Econ Mach (MECON).
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
D.O.C.
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57
CRUISE
Cost Index
The MECON value depends on the time and fuel cost ratio. Thisratio is called Cost Index (CI), and is usually expressed in kg/minor 100lb/h:
F
T
CC
FuelofCostTimeofCostCI ==
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
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CRUISE
Cost Index
The extreme CI values are:
CI = 0: Flight time costs are null (fixed wages), soMECON = MMR (lowest boundary).
CI = CImax: Flight time costs are high and fuel costs are low,
so MECON = MAX SPEED in order to have a trip with a minimumflight time. The maximum speed is generally (MMO - 0.02) or(VMO - 10kt).
CI => MECON
CI => MECON
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDCeiling
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59
CRUISE
Ceiling
Critical Ma (Makr) Speed of aircraft in term of Ma at which for the firsttime speed of sound is achieved locally, usually at wing upper surface).
Makr< 1
2
LSL
2 MCSP7.0CVS2
1Wn ==
Lift equation
PS Static air-pressure = Pressure Altitude (PA)
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDAt given weight, depending on the Lift equation, each of CLmaxxM2 value
corresponds to a static pressure, that is pressure altitude. There is direct
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60
CRUISE
Ceiling
Ma(L/D)max
p p prelationship between CLmaxxM
2 and PA same curve shape.
n=1
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDAt given weight and given altitude (PA), depending on the Lift equation,each of CLmaxxM
2 value corresponds to one load factor (n) . There is
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61
CRUISE
Ceiling
Coffin
Corner
direct relationship between CLmaxxM2 and n same curve shape.
PA3=Absolute Ceiling
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDAltitude
Absolute Ceiling Coffin corner
Flight Envelope
B ff C ili
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62
CRUISE
Ceiling
Absolute ceiling - No more R/C capability, MCT- Flight is only possible at Best (L/D) ratio speed
Buffet ceiling - Protection from buffet (stalling) in term of manouv.capability usually 1.3g load factor
Max. Altitude - R/C capabilty of 300ft/min @ MCT
Altitude R/C Climb gradient
TAS, R/C
Coffin
Corner
Operational Ceiling
BuffetingArea
VMO
lim
it
MMO
limit
Low
speed
stall
Highsp
eedstallV
Y
V X
Max. Altitude
R/C
capab
ility
Buffet Ceiling
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
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63
CRUISE
Max. Altitude
Example: 1. Determine max. bank angle limited by buffet:Data: M=0.56, FL=330, CG=35%, GW=60tResult: Load factor available=1.2g or 30 bank2. Determine low and high speed limited by buffet:Data: 47 bank or 1.6g load, GW=70t, CG=35%, FL=330
Result: Mmin.=0.72 (low speed buffet), Mmax.=0.81 (high speed buffet)
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
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64
CRUISE
Max.
Altitude
The 1.3g load factor corresponds to turn in level flight with 39 bank angle.
The 1.5g load factor corresponds to turn in level flight with 48 bank angle.
ISA+1
0&below
ISA+1
5
ISA+2
0
1.3gb
uffet
1.5gb
uffet
33000
34000
35000
36000
37000
38000
39000
70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46
GW [ton]
Al
titude[ft]
MACH 0.78
Max. Altitude
Buffet Ceil ing
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Fli ht M h i
DESCENT
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66
DESCENT
Flight
Mechanics
Flight Mechanics
W
DTASsinTASRD
DL1tg
sinWD
cosWL
==
=
=
=
)
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDMin. descent gradient when (L/D) ratio is max.
Min rate of descent when TAS x Drag is min
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67
DESCENT
Flight
Mechanics
Min. rate of descent when TAS x Drag is min.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Weight Effect:
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68
DESCENT
Flight
MechanicsHeavy goes heavier
Wind Effect:
Headwind: - Rate of descent- Fuel and time from TOD- Flight path angle (g) - Ground distance from TOD
Tailwind: - Rate of descent
- Fuel and time fromTOD - Flight path angle (g) - Ground distance from TOD
Temperature Effect: No significant influence
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Speed schedule
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69
DESCENT
Speed
schedule
Speed schedule
Cross-over
Altitude
Cross-over Altitude switch from constant Ma speed to constantIAS during descent, to avoid exceeding VMO.
A320F Standard Descent Rule: 0.78/300/250
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Descent Data
STANDARD DESCENT 2 ENGINE A320-211/212
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70
DESCENTDescent Data
M0.76/280/250KT CLEAN CONFIGURATION
ISA HIGH AIR CONDITIONINGIDLE WITHOUT ANTI ICINGCG = 30.0 %WEIGHT
(ton)
TIME FUEL DIST. N1 TIME FUEL DIST. N1FL (min) (kg) (NM) (min) (kg) (NM) (kt)
390 21.2 213 104 IDLE 234
370 20.5 209 99 IDLE 22.0 217 114 IDLE 245350 19.8 205 94 IDLE 21.3 213 109 IDLE 257
330 19.2 202 90 IDLE 20.6 209 104 IDLE 269
310 18.6 199 86 IDLE 19.9 205 99 IDLE 280
290 17.9 194 80 IDLE 19.1 200 92 IDLE 280
270 17.2 190 75 IDLE 18.2 194 86 IDLE 280
250 16.4 185 70 IDLE 17.3 188 80 IDLE 280
240 16.0 183 68 IDLE 16.8 185 77 IDLE 280
220 15.3 178 63 IDLE 15.9 179 71 IDLE 280200 14.5 172 58 IDLE 14.9 173 65 IDLE 280
180 13.7 167 53 IDLE 14.0 166 59 IDLE 280
160 12.9 161 48 IDLE 13.0 159 53 IDLE 280
140 12.1 155 44 IDLE 12.0 152 47 IDLE 280
120 11.3 149 39 IDLE 11.0 144 42 IDLE 280
100 10.5 143 34 IDLE 10.0 137 36 IDLE 280
50 7.5 116 20 IDLE 6.5 106 20 IDLE 25015 5.6 97 12 IDLE 4.3 83 10 IDLE 250
13.2-113 A320-211/212 CFM56-5A1/A3 23100000C5KG300 0 018400 0 0-1 0.0 0.0 0.00 1 03 0.760280.000250.000 0
TOTAL ANTI ICEPER 10ABOVE
ISA
+ 12 % -+ 74 % + 4 %
+ 11.5 % + 5 %DISTANCE - + 11 %FUEL - 2.5 % + 57 %TIME - + 11 %
CORRECTIONSLOW AIR
CONDITIONINGENG ANTI ICE ON
50 70
IAS
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDEN-ROUTE ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE
Regulatory requirements
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71
GROSSP
ATH
NETPATH
g y q
2000ft
1000ft1500ft
JAR OPS 1.500 Net path must:
1. Clear all obstacles in OAA for at least 2000ft during descent
2. Clear all obstacle in OAA for at least 1000ft in horizontal flightor climb
3. Must be positive at 1500ft overhead airport of intended
landing.
OEI EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY
OEI
Operation
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
JAR 25.123 Gross gradient reduction
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72
-0.5%-1.6%4 ENG-0.3%-1.4%3 ENG
--1.1 %2 ENG
2 ENG INOP1 ENG INOPAIRCRAFT
Obstacle Accountable Area (OAA) JAR OPS 1.500
EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY
OEI
Operation
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Descent Strategies
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73
Maintain Best (L/D) ratio speed(Drift-down speed)
NO OBSTACLE LIMITATIONS
Maintain horizontal flight untillbest (L/D) ratio speed is reached
EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY
OEI
Operation
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Descision Point Descision Point
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74
Critical segment A-B
Either to have operating
diversion airport or to
reduce TOW
EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY
OEI
Operation
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Regulatory requirements
CABIN DECOMPRESSION
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76
EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY
Cabin
decompres.
JAR-OPS 1.770
An operator shall not operate a pressurized aeroplane at pressure
altitudes above 10,000 ft unless supplemental oxygen equipment [] is
provided.
The duration of passenger oxygen supply varies, depending on the system.As of today, two main oxygen system categories exist:
- Chemical systems
- Gaseous systems.
Summary of regulatory requirements on oxygen supply:
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
As a result, it is possible to establish a flight profile, with which the aircraftmust always remain, taking into account the above-mentioned oxygen
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77
EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY
Cabin
decompres.
requirements. This profile depends on the installed oxygen system
Nevertheless, this doesnt mean that the aircraft is always able to follow
the oxygen profile, particularly in descent.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDThe performance profile must be established, and this profile mustalways remain below the oxygen profile. The calculation is basedon the following assumptions:
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78
EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY
Cabin
decompres.
Descent phase: Emergency descent at MMO/VMO. Airbrakescan be extended to increase the rate of descent, if necessary.
Cruise phase: Cruise at maximum speed (limited to VMO).
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
EN ROUTE
Obstacle clearance
A net flight path is not required in the cabin pressurization failure case. Thenet flight path shall be understood as a safety margin when there is a risk
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79
EN-ROUTE
CONTINGENCY
Cabin
decompres.
A319 Obstacle Clearance Profile Pressurization Failure
net flight path shall be understood as a safety margin, when there is a riskthat the aircraft cannot maintain the expected descent performance (enginefailure case).
In case of cabin depressurization, any altitude below the initial flight altitudecan be flown without any problem as all engines are running. Therefore, the
standard minimum flight altitudes apply and the descent profile must,therefore, clear any obstacle by 2,000 feet.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDLANDING
Regulatory requirements
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80
LANDINGRegulatory
requirements
JAR 25.125The horizontal distance necessary to land and to come to a complete stop
from a point 50 ft above the landing surface must be determined (for
standard temperatures,at each weight, altitude and wind within the
operational limits established by the applicant for the aeroplane) as follows:
The aeroplane must be in the landing configurationA stabilized approach, with a calibrated airspeed of VLS must bemaintained down to the 50 ft.
Actual landing distance (ALD): Distance between a point 50 feet above the
runway threshold, and the point where the aircraft comes to a complete stop.VP1.3VS0 or 1.23VS1g
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Required Landing Distance (RLD) It is the ALD increased by regulatory
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81
LANDINGRegulatory
requirements
q g ( ) y g y
additions to provide safety margin.
( )7.06.0ALD
RLD DRYDRY=Turbojet: 0.6
Turboprop: 0.7
DRYWET RLD15.1RLD =
=
WET
.CONTAM
.CONTAMRLD
ALD15.1ofgreaterRLD
RLD LDA
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Max. Allowable Landing Weight of the aircraft may not be higher than
Limitations
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83
LANDINGLimitations-MLW limited by structure (MLWSTRUCT)
-MLW limited by field (MLWFIELD)-MLW limited by approach (go-around) climb gradient (MLWACG)-MLW limited by landing climb gradient (MLWLCG)
MLWSTRUCT
Prescribed by the aircraft manufacturer.
Limited by landing gear strength.May be exceeded only in owerweight landing (emergency).Maintenance action must follow.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
RLD LDAField limits
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84
LANDINGLimitations
RLD=f(ALD)
Approach climb gradient (ACG)
Descision Altitude
Min.ACG
Conditions: One engine inoperative
TOGA thrust (rem. engines) Gear retracted Slats and flaps in approach configuration VREF V and V VMCL
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
Min. ACG required byAIRCRAFT
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85
LANDINGLimitations
Terrain configuration (obstacles) may require higher ACG than min.
required by regulations.
Go-around procedures are normally desgined with assumed ACG of 2.5%. Ifrequired ACG is greater than 2.5%, it will be published on the approachchart.
2.7%4 ENG
2.4%3 ENG
2.1%2 ENGregulations (certification)
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDLanding climb gradient (LCG)
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86
LANDINGLimitations
50ft above THR
Min.LC
G
Conditions: All engines operative
Thrust available after 8sec from IDLE to TOGA
Gear extended
Slats and flaps in landing configuration
V2 VVREF and V VMCL
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
LANDING
Min. LCG required byAIRCRAFT
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87
LANDINGLimitations
Terrain configuration (obstacles) may require higher ACG than min.
required by regulations.
Landing climb gradient is never limiting due to fact that all engines areoperative. Approach climb gradient limit always prevail.
4 ENG
3 ENG 3.2%
2 ENGregulations (certification)
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
LANDING
Affecting factors
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88
LANDINGAffecting
factors
Atmosphere (Density Altitude)
RWY slopeMax. +/- 2%
Upslope ALD
Downslope ALD
DA rZ
TAS ALD
Climb gradient
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
LANDING
RWY conditions
Friction coefficient ALD
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89
LANDINGAffecting
factorsPrecipitation drag ALD
Depending on the type of contaminant and its thickness, landingdistance can either increase or decrease. So, it is not unusual to
have a shorter ALD on 12.7 mm of slush than on 6.3mm.
Flap settings
Flap deflectionLanding distance
Climb gradient
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
LANDING
Landing data
TAIL TAIL10 0 10 0
CONF FULL A320-211/212
LANDING
WEIGHT
[ton]
REQUIRED LANDING DISTANCE [m]
DRY RWY WET RWY
WIND [kt] WIND [kt]
10 0 10 0 10 0WIND [kt]
CONT. RUNWAY CONF FULL A320-211/212
LANDING
WEIGHT
[ton]
REQURED LANDING DISTANCE
6mm water 6mm slush Comp. Snow
WIND [kt] WIND [kt]
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90
LANDINGLanding
data
Landing distance
Climb gradient
TAIL TAIL-10 0 -10 0
78 2220 1910 2550 220074 2090 1790 2400 206070 1940 1650 2230 190066 1790 1510 2050 173062 1640 1400 1880 161058 1530 1340 1750 154054 1460 1280 1680 1480
50 1400 1230 1610 141046 1340 1170 1540 1350
TAIL TAIL
-10 0 -10 0
78 2430 2110 2800 243074 2280 1980 2630 228070 2120 1830 2440 211066 1950 1670 2250 192062 1790 1530 2060 176058 1650 1440 1900 166054 1570 1380 1800 158050 1500 1310 1720 151046 1430 1250 1640 1440
Note:
Weight [ton]60 andabove 55 50 45
Length [m]no
corrections +30 +60 +90
[ton]
- No correction for headwind due to windcorrection on approach speed.
-Shaded area indicates overweight landing
CONF 3 A320-211/212
LANDING
WEIGHT
[ton]
REQUIRED LANDING DISTANCE [m]
DRY RWY WET RWY
WIND [kt] WIND [kt]
per 1000 ft above SL 3%
Altitude Correction
Autoland Correction
Increase values by 15 % on wet runway
-10 0 -10 0 -10 0
78 2590 2200 2550 2200 2550 220074 2510 2070 2450 2060 2400 206070 2390 1970 2340 1930 2230 190066 2250 1840 2200 1820 2060 179062 2110 1720 2070 1720 1970 170058 1980 1610 1940 1630 1880 162054 1850 1520 1820 1540 1790 1540
50 1710 1430 1710 1450 1700 145046 1590 1350 1610 1350 1610 1370
-10 0 -10 0 -10 0
78 2550 2200 2550 2200 4790 392074 2400 2060 2400 2060 4720 384070 2270 1900 2230 1900 4580 370066 2140 1780 2100 1760 4400 353062 2010 1670 1970 1670 4230 336058 1890 1560 1850 1580 4060 320054 1770 1480 1750 1490 3890 304050 1650 1410 1650 1410 3720 288046 1540 1350 1550 1350 3560 2720
Note:
55 50 45+ 30 + 50 + 60No correctionsLength [m]
Altitude Correction + 5% per 1000 ft above sea level
- No correction for headwind due to wind correction on
approach speed.-Shaded area indicates overweight landing
Autoland Correction
Weight [ton] 60 and above
WIND [kt]
LANDING
WEIGHT
[ton]
REQURED LANDING DISTANCE
12mm water 12mm slush Ice
WIND [kt] WIND [kt] WIND [kt]
[ton] WIND [kt] WIND [kt]
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
RWY
BEARING
RWY BEARING STRENGTH
RWY bearing strength may limit Max. Weight of aircraft in order toavoid permanent deformation of the RWY surface.
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92
BEARING
STRENGTH
ACN/PCN
The ICAO introduced the ACN/PCN System as a method to classifypavement bearing strength for aircraft with an All-up Mass of morethan 5700kg.
ACN (Aircraft Classification Number) - A number expressing therelative effect of an aircraft on a pavement for a specified standardsubgrade category.
PCN (Pavement Classification Number) - A number expressingthe bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations.
ACN for selected aircraft types currently in use have beenprovided by aircraft manufacturers or ICAO (refer to Airplane
Characteristics Manual or Jeppesen Airport Directory.
PCN will be determined and reported by the appropriate authority.Data are published in the AIP, Jeppesen Airport Chart, etc.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDPCN will be qualified by type of pavement, subgrade strength, tirepressure and calculation method information, using the followingcodes:
1 The Pavement Classification Number:RWY
BEARING
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1. The Pavement Classification Number:The reported PCN indicates that an aircraft with an ACNequal to or less than the reported PCN can operate on thepavement subject to any limitation on the tire pressure.
2. The type of pavement:R - RigidF - Flexible
3. The subgrade strength category:A - HighB - MediumC - LowD - Ultra-low
4. The tire pressure category:W - High, no pressure limitX - Medium, limited to 1.5OMPa (218psi)Y - Low, limited to 1.OMPa (145psi)
Z - Very low, limited to 0.50MPa (73psi)
BEARING
STRENGTH
ACN/PCN
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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIEDACN are published for Max. Ramp Weight (MRW) and OperatingEmpty Weight (OEW). Between those two values, it varies linearly.
If the RWY PCN is below the ACN for the MRW then the MaxWeight may be obtained by linear interpolationRWY
BEARING
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95
If the RWY PCN is below the ACN for the MRW, then the Max.Weight may be obtained by linear interpolation. BEARINGSTRENGTH
ACN/PCN
OEWMRW
OEWACNACN
OEWMRW)ACNPCN(OEWightWe.Max
+=
ACN
Weight
ACNMRW
ACNOEW
OEW MRW
PCN
Max. Weight
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
RWY
BEARING
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Example:A320 (MRW=73900kg), PCN 35 F/B/W/T. May we operate?
PCN=35 < ACNMRW=39 Max. Ramp Weight must be limited!!
OEW=45000kg, ACNOEW=22
BEARING
STRENGTH
ACN/PCN
kg671002239
4500073900)2235(45000MRW =
+=
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
LCN Method
At some airports the bearing strength of runway pavement is definedby Load Classification Number (LCN) / Load Classification Group
(LCG) The LCN / LCG has to be determined for a given aircraft andRWY
BEARING
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(LCG). The LCN / LCG has to be determined for a given aircraft andcompared with the specific runway LCN / LCG.
Normally the LCN / LCG of an aircraft should not be above that
of the runway on which a landing is contemplated.
Pre arranged exceptions may be allowed by airport authorities.
The aircraft LCN / LCG can be determined as follows:1) Obtain Single Isolated Wheel Load (SIWL) for the
aircraft from Aircraft Operations Manual and locate this
figure on the left scale of the chart.
2) Locate tire pressure on the scale to the right.
3) Connect the points found in 1 and 2 with a straight line.Where this line crosses the center scale read your aircraftLCN / LCG.
4) This LCN / LCG should not be above the published
runway LCN / LCG.
BEARING
STRENGTH
LCN
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
RWY
BEARING
Example:Aircraft SIWL = 36,500 lbs or 16.5 tonsTire pressure = 70 PSI or 4.9 kg/cm2
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STRENGTH
LCN
LCN = 32
LCG = IV
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
ETOPSJAR-OPS 1.245: Unless specifically approved by the Authority , anoperator shall not operate a two-engined aeroplane over a route which
ETOPS
Regulatory requirements
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p p g p
contains a point further from an adequate aerodrome than the distance flown
in 60 minutes at the [approved] one-engine inoperative cruise speed.
When at least one route sector is at more than 60 minutes flying time, with
one engine inoperative from a possible en route diversion airfield, the airlineneeds specific approval, referred to as ETOPS approval.
60 Minute Rule
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
ETOPS
ETOPS (Extended Twin Operations) is the acronym created by ICAO todescribe the operation of twin engine aircraft over a route that contains apoint further than one hour's flying time from an adequate airport at theapproved one-engine inoperative cruise speed.
ETOPS l ti li bl t t t ll t
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ETOPS regulations are applicable to routes over water as well as remoteland areas.
The advent of the ETOPS regulations permitted an enlarged area ofoperation for the twin-engine aircraft. This area of operation has beenenlarged in steps by allowance of maximum diversion time to an adequateairport from the nominal 60 minutes up to the current 180 minutes.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
ETOPS
A second benefit to operators is that ETOPS permits twins to be used onroutes previously denied them.
The increase of the diversion time to 120-minutes easily permits an operatorthe flexibility to use twins on an route which would otherwise remain the sole
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preserve of larger three and four-engine aircraft.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
ETOPS
ETOPS area of operation
The ETOPS area of operation is the area in which it is authorized to conducta flight under ETOPS regulations and is defined by the maximum diversion
distance from an adequate airport or set of adequate airports. It isrepresented by circles centred on the adequate airports, the radius of which
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represented by circles centred on the adequate airports, the radius of whichis the defined maximum diversion distance.
Suitable airport
A suitable airport for dispatch purposes is an airport confirmed to beadequate which satisfies the ETOPS dispatch weather requirements interms of ceiling and visibility minima within a validity period. This periodopens one hour before the earliest Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) at theairport and closes one hour after the latest ETA. In addition, cross-windforecasts must also be checked to be acceptable for the same validity
period.Field conditions should also ensure that a safe landing can be accomplishedwith one engine and / or airframe system inoperative.
Diversion / en-route alternate airport
A "diversion" airport, also called "en-route alternate" airport, is an adequate /suitable airport to which a diversion can be accomplished.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
ETOPS
Maximum diversion time
The maximum diversion time (75, 90, 120, 138 or 180 minutes) from an en-route alternate airport is granted by the operator's national authority and is
included in the individual airline's operating specifications.
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ETOPS Entry Point (EEP)The ETOPS Entry Point is the point located on the aircraft's outbound routeat one hour flying time, at the selected one-engine-out diversion speedschedule (in still air and ISA conditions), from the last adequate airport priorto entering the ETOPS segment. It marks the beginning of the ETOPSsegment.
AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE
JAR 25 CERTIFIED
ETOPS
ETOPS segment
The ETOPS segment starts at the EEP and finishes when the route is backand remains within the 60-minute area from an adequate airport.
An ETOPS route can contain several success if ETOPS segments well
separated each other.
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Equitime Point (ETP)
An Equitime Point is a point on the aircraft route which is located at thesame flying time (in forecasted atmospheric conditions) from two suitable
diversion airports.Critical Point (CP)
The Critical Point is one of the Equitime Point (ETP) of the route which scritical with regard to the ETOPS fuel requirements if a diversion has to beinitiated from that point. The CP is usually, but not always, the last
ETP within the ETOPS segment.