Class 4 Literature Reviews and Ethics

Review of Research Design, Literature Reviews,
Ethics and Research

Dr. Ed Carberry

Methodology of Management Science

September 28 29

Rotterdam School of Management

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Review for Part 1

Submit your questions directly to me by Friday, October 2

[email protected]

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Outline of Todays Lecture
Review of last week: research designGetting a project startedInitial considerations (Chp 3)Conducting literature reviews (Chap 4)Referencing and plagiarism (Chap 4)Ethical issues (Chap 5)
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Review of Last Week

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The Research Process

Formulating questions

Literature review

Specifying the purpose of the research

Research design choices

Choosing a research strategy

Data collection

Data analysis

Writing up results

Disseminating results

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Research Process
Formulating research questionsShould be as clear and specific as possibleConnected to existing literatureCan be modified
Purpose of research
Exploratory: what is going on?Descriptive: how is it happening?Explanatory: why is it happening?
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Research Design Choices
Research methodTechnique of data collectionResearch designGuiding framework for collecting and analyzing dataWhat influences research design choices?Intellectual assumptions and paradigmsResearch questionResources availableImportance of causality, generalization, and context
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Type of explanation (social context)Ideographic: focusing on one case and all the possible causes and influencesNomothetic: identify a few causal factors that impact a number of casesRelationship between theory and dataDeductive: theory >>> dataInductive: data >>> theory
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Type of dataQualitative: words and meaningsResults of interviews, direct observation, ethnographyQuantitative: numbersSurveys, financial data, experimentsOften associated with specific ontological and epistemological assumptionsWhich people or phenomena? (generalization)PopulationSample
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Causality and the role of time (deductive and quantitative)Conditions for nomothetic causalityCorrelationTime-orderingNonspurious relationshipCross-sectional vs. longitudinal researchOne point in time vs. several points in timeLongitudinal is essential for uncovering time-orderingInductive and qualitative research is often longitudinal
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How will your research be evaluated?Reliability: consistent measurementValidityConstruct validity: do your measures accurately reflect the underlying concept? Internal validity: do your causal relationships make sense? External validity: do your results apply outside of your research setting? Ecological validity: do your results apply to the every day world and real actors?
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Nomothetic vs. ideographicDeductive vs. inductiveQuantitative vs. qualitativePopulation and samplingCross-sectional vs. longitudinalReliability, replication, and validity
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How do our assumptions shape research design?Objectivist ontology, positivist epistemologyDeductive, quantitative, nomothetic approachConstructionist ontology, interpretivist epistemologyInductive, qualitative, ideographic approach
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Research Design
How does the importance of different factors influence design?CausalityLongitudinal, deductive/inductiveGeneralizationNomothethic, samplingThe specific social context in which social behavior occursInductive, ideographic
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Research Design Strategies
ExperimentalCausalityDeductiveQuantitativeSurveyNomotheticQuantitative: measurement very importantCross-sectional or longitudinalCase studiesFlexible and ideographic
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Research Design: An Example
What is the effect of layoffs on employees who keep their jobs?Causality and generalizationDeductive, nomothetic, longitudinalSurvey a random sample of employees in a random sample of companiesConduct survey every 3 months for two years
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Research Design: An Example
What is the effect of layoffs on employees who keep their jobs?Social context and changes over timeInductive, ideographic, and longitudinalCase study with one companyIn-depth interviews, focus groups, observation

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Getting Started

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Getting Started

Initial considerations

Research questions

Literature review and sources

Referencing and plagiarism

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Initial Considerations
What is expected of your institution and project? BA/IBA thesis?Masters thesis?Do not be afraid to use your supervisorConsult early and oftenKeep meticulous recordsHow will you access your data? Do you need to negotiate access? Do you need to learn new software for data analysis?
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Initial Considerations
Time management: many phases of research take longer than you expectFormulate research questionsLiterature reviewResearch design and methodsWrite research proposalData collectionData analysisWrite first and subsequent drafts
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Literature Reviews
Description, summary, and critical evaluation of existing workEngaging in an intellectual conversationWhy is your research important? What does it contribute?Ongoing throughout research project
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Literature Reviews
PurposeJustifies and motivates your core questionWhat is already known? What are the significant controversies?How have different researchers approached the question? What are the most interesting questions?Where is there space for a contribution?
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Literature Reviews
Purpose Assessing plan designIdentify potential concepts and variablesWhat types of methods have been used?Interpreting your findingsChallengesMuch has been done: what can you contribute? Too much information: your question crosses boundaries and involves multiple literaturesBalancing systematic analysis with gaining understanding

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Elements of Good Literature Reviews
Making informed judgments about relevant sourcesMoving beyond description and summaryParticipating in a conversation: how do different sources relate to each other?How does existing work set up your own original core question or thesis?Evaluating research design, data collection, analysis and conclusionsHow might specific sources be biased and how might this influence their argument and use of evidence?
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Using Sources

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Google/Wikipedia: be very very carefulWhat is the source of the site?Person or organization behind the site?How current is the information?Can be good for initial explorationGoogle scholar can be very helpful
Finding Sources

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Finding Sources
BooksIn-depth single volumes on a topicChapters in edited volumesText booksJournal articlesAcademy of Management JournalAdministrative Science QuarterlyStrategic Management Journal
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Finding Sources
Non-academic research and reportsGovernment organizationsPolicy organizationsTrade associationsUnions and employee groupsShareholder activistsSocial movement organizations
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Finding Sources
Academic research: electronic databasesABI/INFORMEBSCO Business Source PremierSocial Science Citation Index

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Accessing Library Databases
Library (http://www.eur.nl/ub/english)SearchClick DatabasesIf accessing from campusAlphabetical listMost frequently usedIf accessing from off campusClick Access to Databases from HomePick the correct manual for your PC operating system

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Using ABI Inform/Proquest

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ABI Inform/Proquest: Types of Sources

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ABI Inform/Proquest: Getting Full Text Articles

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Electronic Sources
Be exhaustive, systematic, flexible and creative about search terms for all of these sourcesPersonnel systems, human resource managementPayment systems, reward managementMany articles and electronic citations contain keywordsAccess to very sophisticated databasesPowerful tools, but can become overwhelmingExperiment and explore

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Avoiding Plagiarism

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Plagiarism: Type 1
Passing off someone elses work as your ownInternet makes it easy, but also makes it easier to detectSafeAssignmentInstructors and TAs are more sensitive to it than you think
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Plagiarism: Type 1

AVOID IT AT ALL COSTS!

Can lead to failing a class,

dismissal from school

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Plagiarism: Type 2
Presenting someone elses thoughts as your ownMore specifically (Babbie 2004: 488-498)Using someone elses exact words without using quotation marks and a complete referenceParaphrasing someone elses words and presenting them as your ownPresenting someone elses ideas as your own, even if you use your own words
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Referencing
Proper referencing is the key to avoiding plagiarismKeep a meticulous record of what you readTake clear and extensive notes about how you are going to use the work of othersCommon problemsDirect quotationsParaphrasing and discussing the ideas of others
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Referencing
Harvard style (primary method)After you paraphrase an idea or argument of someone else, add the last name and year of publication, in parentheses (Babbie 2004)If quoting, do the same, but also include the page number (Babbie 2004: 487)List all sources at the end in alphabetical order by last name (Bibliography or References)

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An Example
All social scientists approach their subject via explicit or implicit assumptions about the nature of the social world and the way in which it may be investigated (Burrell and Morgan, 1982: 1)
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An Example
Acceptable: direct quoteBurrell and Morgan (1982: 1), in their influential work on organizational paradigms, point out that all social scientists approach their subject via explicit or implicit assumptions about the nature of the social world.
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An Example
AcceptableParaphraseBurrell and Morgan (1982) have emphasized that social researchers all work from different assumptions about the social worldUsing ideasSome writers have focused on the role of philosophical assumptions in social research (Burrell and Morgan 1982)
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An Example
UnacceptableDirect quote, but not citedIn this paper, I will examine the role of assumptions in research. All social scientists approach their subject via explicit or implicit assumptions about the nature of the social world and the way in which it may be investigated.
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An Example
UnacceptableParaphrased, but not citedIn this paper, I will examine the role of assumptions in research. Social researchers of all kinds analyze their topics with specific assumptions about the essence of social lifeUsing ideas, but not citedIn this paper, I will examine the role of assumptions in research. In examining social research, it is notable that researchers bring in their own fundamental beliefs about society.
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Literature Reviews
Description, summary, and critical evaluation of existing workEngaging in an intellectual conversationOngoing throughout research projectMaking informed judgmentsMoving beyond description and summaryAvoiding plagiarism through proper citations

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Part 3: Ethics and
Social Research

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Ethics in Medical Research
Use of animalsTuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)US government researchersExamine the effect of treatment vs nontreatment on 400 African-American malesParticipants lied to, given placebos, not told they were part of a studyFunding ran out: observe progress of the disease When effective treatment available, subjects were prevented from receiving it28 died of the disease, 100 died from complications
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Stanley Milgram (1961)
Experiment on learningNewspaper ad: $4.50 to participate in an experiment on learning and memoryParticipantsAcademic running the experimentOne participant played the role of teacherThe other participant played the role learner
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Milgrams Experiment
Learner was taken to another room and strapped into a chair with electrode placed on their armTeacher in the next room with a large console with knobs for different levels of electric currentTeacher reads pairs of words and asks learner to read them backIf the learner made an incorrect answer, the teacher was supposed to shock the learner
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Milgrams Experiment
If teacher indicated they did not want to administer the shockPlease continueThe experiment requires that you continueIt is absolutely essential that you continueYou have no other choice, you must go onWhat was the experiment really about?
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Milgrams Experiment
Results65% of all participants punished learners to the maximum of 450 voltsNo participants stopped before 300 voltsImplicationsWillingness of many people to obey authorityOrdinary people can engage in destructive actsWhat ethical issues does it raise?Engaging in abusive behaviorSevere anxiety and stress
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Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)
What leads to abuse in prisons?21 undergraduates lived in a mock prison for two weeks10 prisoners and 11 guardsExperiment terminated after six daysGuards were very abusivePrisoners experienced severe emotional traumaInfluence of social conditions and roles on behavior, obedience to authority
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Ethics and Social Science
Milgram and Stanford Prison experiments led to new standards for ethical procedures in social science researchKey questionsHow should we treat the people on whom we conduct research?Are there things we should or should not do?
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Ethics and Social Science
Conforming to the standards is not enoughDeveloping an awareness of potential issuesEthical issues are not always obvious: what is right and wrong?Balancing ethical considerations with the value of research and knowledgeNot just experiments, but all type of research

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Key Ethical Issues
Harm to participantsInformed consent and voluntary participationDeceptionRespect of privacy
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No Harm to Participants
Participant is helping research with little promise of direct returnPhysical harm: rarely a considerationPsychological harmStress of actual researchExperiments: MilgramInterviews: length, frequencySurveys: length, frequency
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No Harm to Participants
Psychological harmAsking subjects to reveal undesirable aspects of themselvesDeviant behavior: prison experimentUnpopular attitudes or characteristics that are demeaning Harm to reputation and careersDalton (1959): having a secretary provide access to company filesThe Experiment (BBC): role of television
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Participation and Consent
Voluntary participationSubjects should have the choice of whether or not to participateInformed consentAddresses potential harm and voluntary participationPotential subjects should information to make an informed decisionChallenges and contradictionsIf researchers provide all the information about the study, many people may not participateCan hinder our ability to study the social world
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Deception
ExperimentsDeceiving participants about the goals of the researchOften essential to observe of the phenomena of interestMay cause harm when truth is revealedDebriefing interviewsExplain the real goals and potential consequencesOffer counseling if appropriate

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Deception
Lying participants that you are a researcherObservation (Dalton 1959)Covert or overt: do you reveal your role?How else could we observe this type of behavior?Participant observation/ethnographyCan be more difficult to hide your roleOften, participants will adjust to you and incorporate you into the group
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Privacy
AnonymityMost participants wish to remain anonymousResearcher can not link responses to respondentsDifficult with interviews, observationEasier with surveys and quantitative researchGuaranteeing anonymity can increase response rates
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Privacy
ConfidentialityResearchers knows the identity, but does not reveal it publiclyResearcher has to make the distinction between anonymous and confidentialSensitive corporate or personal informationSpecial care in reporting results: sophisticated readers may be able to identify participants or organization
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Obligations to Scientific Community
Honesty and openness in reporting dataScience relies on trust until replication is possibleMake shortcomings of your research knownReporting negative findingsMake transparent data collection and analysisMaking funding sources transparentResearch about effects of managerial decision-making on performance funded by CEO associationResearch on the success of an intervention funded by the company
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Stances on Ethics
UniversalismEthical principles should never be brokenSituation ethicsDeception to be considered on a case by case basisEnds sometimes justify the meansEthical transgression is everywhereAll research involves ethically questionable behaviorAnything goesFlexibility in ethical decision-makingDeceptions are often very minorVery few researchers adopt this stance
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Ethics: A Balancing Act
Goals of science & ethical considerationsVoluntary participationNeed for subjects and representative samplesNo harm to participantsAre small amounts justified to collect data?DeceptionNecessary to measure certain phenomenaNot just blindly following formal guidelines, but being aware of all potential ethical issues
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Review for Part 1

Submit your questions directly to me by Friday, October 2

[email protected]

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Next Week:
Quantitative Research

Read Bryman and Bell,
Chapter Six

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Class 4 Literature Reviews and Ethics

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Transcript of Class 4 Literature Reviews and Ethics