Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the relevant literature and studies local or foreign

taken from some books, journals, published thesis and dissertation and from

the internet.

Related Literature

A. Local Literature

God’s wonderful creation called nature is given to man with a package

for health, healing and happiness. Nature is the solution to many of man’s

illness through the lushly growing plants in the environment.1

According to Tan, there are more than 1,500 species different kinds of

plants, considered as functional foods because of its macronutrients and

micronutrients. The nutrients serve as antioxidants or act as phytochemicals

not for plants but to protect a person from sickness and reduce its chance of

having a chronic disease. These plants which are also known as food

medicine are Persea americana (avocado), Premna odorata (alagaw),

Momordica charantia (ampalaya), Foeniculum vulgare (anis), Anonas

reticulate (anonas), Asparagus officianalis (asparagus), Annona squamosa

Linn. (atis), Bixa orellana (atsuete), Ocimum basiculum (balanoy), Averrhoa

1 J.C. Kurian, Amazing Healing Plants, Volume 1, (Manila: Philippine Publishing House , 2010), page

carambola Linn. (balimbing), Dolichos lablab (bataw), Allium sativum

(bawang), Psidium guajava Linn. (bayabas), Antidesma bunius (bignay),

Bidens pilosa Linn. (burburtak), Daucut carlota Linn. (carrot), Citrus nobilis

Lour (dalanghita), Citrus aurantifolia (dayap), Curcuma longa Linn.,(dulaw),

Syzygium cumini Linn. (duhat), Colocasia esculenta Linn.(gabi), Punica

granatum (granada), Anona muricata (guyabano), Theobroma cacao (kakaw),

Cucurbita maxima (kalabasa), Citrus microcarpa (kalamansi), Lycopersicon

lycopersicum Linn. (kamatis), Pithecolobium dulce Roxb. Benth,(kamatsile),

Averrhoa bilimbim Linn. (kamias), Ipomoea batatas Linn., (kamote), Manihot

esculenta (kamoteng-kahoy), Ipomoea aquatica (kangkong), Coffea Arabica

Linn. (kape), Annacardium occidentale (kasuy), Chrysophyllum cainito

(kaymito), Apium graveolens Linn.(kintsay), Amaranthus viridus Linn. (colitis),

Sesamum orrientale Linn. (linga), Zingiber officianale (luya), Zea mays (mais),

Moringa oliefera Linn. (malunggay), Mangifera indica Linn.,(mangga),

Garcinia mangostana Linn. (mangostan), Arachis hypogaca Linn., (mani),

Cucumis melo Linn. (melon), Cocos nucifera Linn. (niyog), Quisqualis indica

Linn. (niyog-niyogan), Morinda citrofolia Linn. (noni), Citrullus lanatus vulgaris

Schrad (pakwan), Carica papaya Linn., (papaya), Canarium ovatum (pili),

and Anonas comosus (pinya).

Most of these plants contain at least two or more of the following

phytochemicals namely; flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, glucosides, and

17

saponin. It was also mentioned that some part/s of these plants have

antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacteria.2

There are also thirteen medicinal plants listed as common and widely

used plants to treat the different illnesses of most Filipinos. The Philippine

Traditional and Alternative Health Care (PTAHC) of Department of Health

provided it in cooperation with the University of the Philippines. The plants in

the list are Cassia alata (Akapulko/Ringworm Bush), Allium sativum (garlic),

Psidium guajava (Guava), Vitex negundo (Lagundi), Quisqualis indica L.

(Niyog-niyogan), Blumea balsamifera (Sambong), Ehretia microphylla Lam.

(Wild Tea), Anona squamosa (Sweet sop or Atis), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Linn.(Gumamela), Zingeber officinale (Ginger), Aloe barbadensis miller liquid

(Aloe vera), Cocos nucifera (Coconut), and Oreganum vulgare (Oregano).3

Cassia alata (Akapulko/Ringworm Bush) is for the treatment of scabies,

and skin fungal infection and Allium sativum (garlic) is used to lower

cholesterol in the blood and serves as antibacterial, antihelminthic,

antimycotic, antiviral, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, expectorant, and fibrinolytic.

Psidium guajava (Guava) using its decoction is used as wound disinfectant

and mouthwash, while its bark decoction is good for chronic diarrhea; and

Vitex negundo (Lagundi) which is used for the relief and treatment of cough,

asthma, dyspepsia, worms, rheumatism, and boils. The list also mentioned

2 Jaime Z. Galvez Tan, et. al., Medicinal Fruits and Vegetables, (Philippines: The National Shelf, 2008) pp. 1-157.

3 Allan C. Salaldica, A Primer on Medicinal Livestock Healthcare, (Philippines: Northern Marianas College, 2011), pp. 19-46

18

Quisqualis indica L. (Niyog-niyogan), which is believed to eliminate intestinal

worms, treats skin diseases and fever using its leaves; and Blumea

balsamifera (Sambong) is used for the treatment of kidney disorders, colds,

fever, rheumatism, hypertension, and removal of kidney stones. Ehretia

microphylla Lam. (Wild Tea) was also part of the list together with Anona

squamosa (Sweet sop or Atis), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.(Gumamela),

Zingeber officinale (Ginger), Aloe barbadensis miller liquid (Aloe vera), Cocos

nucifera (Coconut), and Oreganum vulgare (Oregano). Wild tea is a

medicinal herb for diarrhea, dysentery, gastroenteritis and other stomach

problems. While the leaf decoction of Atis is used for rheumatic baths to

alleviate pain and its unripe fruit juice is good for infected insect bites.

Gumamela on the other hand is used for boils, cancerous swellings and

mumps using the flower buds while its roots is used for coughs and the

decoction of 15 to 30 grams dried gumamela plant is good for mumps and

urinary tract infection.4

The Philippines being one with the most diverse flora in the world have

identified one thousand five hundred plants with medicinal value. A Philippine

pharmacopeia was released in 2004. It contains a list of thirty priority plants

alcoholic extracts backed up by tests or studies for validation purposes. The

plants included are Dita bark, sinta herb, kintsay leaf, sampaguita flower, Ipil-

ipil seeds, makahiya herb, apatot fruit, malunggay bark, ikmo leaf, paminta,

4 Ibid

19

oregano leaf, mayana leaf, granada rind, romero leaf, akasya leaf, duhat bark,

sampalok pulp, makabuhay stem, ginger, banaba, lagundi, yerma Buena,

sambong, ulasimang bato, tsaang gubat, bayabas, niyug-niyogan, ampalaya,

akapulko and bawang. The last ten plants in the list are the plants approved

by the Department of Health 5

At present, another ten medicinal plants are being studied and

validated. These are Balanoi or Ocimum basilicum L., Oregano or Coleus

amboinicus, Banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa L.), Malunggay (Moringa

oleifera), Makabuhay (Tinospora rumphi), Balbas pusa (Orthosiphon

aristatus), Luyang dulaw (Cucurma longa L.), Saluyot (Cochorus capsularis

L.), Tanglad (Andropogon citrates), and Takip-kuhol (Centenella asiatica L.). 6

Utilization of Balanoi is good for dizziness and cough using the crush

leaves or decoction of eight tablespoons of fresh leaves in two glasses of

water respectively. The tea from Banaba tea leaves is taken as a general

tonic. While the leaves of oregano were squezzed and one teaspoon is taken

every hour for adults cough or asthma and/or bronchitis or for the same

respiratory problem, for children with ages 3 and above. One to two cups of

cooked Malunggay leaves, taken at supper time is good for the treatment of

constipation; while crushed leaves can be applied directly to wounds.

5 Monica Feria, “Ten Medicinal Plants,” Philippine Council for Health Research and Development, www.pchrd.dost.gov.ph, Accessed Date: August 25,2012. 6

? Ibid

20

Makabuhay on the other hand can be made into an anti-rheumatic ointment

by cooking one half cup of cleaned and chopped stem in a glass of coconut

oil for five minutes then, add half glass of grated white candle wax. The

same procedure is followed in making Ginger rhizome ointment which is used

for swelling. Ginger can also be used as antiseptic for wounds by applying

directly the juice extracted from fresh rhizome. Another medicinal use of

ginger is for gas pain which is done by drinking the one half decoction

produced from boiling a thumbsized rhizome in a glass of water. For

mosquito repellant, Tanglad should be planted around the house to repel

mosquitoes. To drive away other insects, an infusion from four ounces of

Tanglad boiled in a pint of boiling water can be used. For gout, Balbas pusa

can be used but its preparation and dosage is not yet established. Saluyot

and Takip-kuhol are two of the other medicinal plants in which the

preparations and dosages are still under study. 7

The proper dissemination of the medicinal value, proper preparation

and dosage of plants is highly important. The reason for this is that some

species of plants have harmful and toxic effects. In this regard, a compilation

of twelve (12) useful plant species with toxic substance was published. The

plants mentioned were Adelfa, Atis, Baraibai, Ligtang, Kuasia, Molave,

Paraiso, Putat, Saging-saging, Tubang-bakod, Tuba, and Tubli. The leaves

of Adelfa, Atis, Paraiso, and Tuba were confirmed to contain toxic

7 Ibid

21

substances. While the bark of Adelfa, Kuasia, Molave, Paraiso, Putat, and

Saging-saging have poisonous substance. The plants with toxic compound in

the seeds are Atis, Baraibai, Ligtang, Putat, Tubang-bakod, and Tuba. For the

plants with poisonous roots; Adelfa, and Tubli. While the flowers and fruits of

Paraiso are considered poisonous because of its alkaloid.8

One of the plant secondary metabolites is alkaloid. It has bitter taste

and exhibits physiological effects valuable in the field of medicine. These

secondary metabolites in plants or popularly called phytochemicals also

include saponins, glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, and

anthraquinones. The one responsible for the dramatic effects on cardiac

muscles and skeleton is the physiological effect of steroids. While the basis

for natural perfumes, spices and food flavorings are the terpenoids. For dyes,

cathartics and purgatives, anthraquinones are utilized. While flavonoids have

antiviral, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities. Saponins on

the other hand are inhibitors of sperms and mollusk activities. Another

phytochemical substance is tannin which is known for it astringent action.9

According to Rummel, the same plant at different places, even at the

same altitude, humidity and rainfall may have different concentrations of the

active substance. This means that, the same plant at the same place may

8 Wilma C. Dichoso, Useful Plant Species with Toxic Substances, (Philippines: RISE-UPLB, 2000), pages 1-14.

9Beatrice Q. Guevarra et. al., A Guidebook to Plant Screening: Phytochemical and

Biological, (UST,RCNS, 2004) pp.26 –58.

22

have different levels of alkaloids in different years thus resulting in different

intensities of biological effects.10

This is the reason why the use of medicinal plants in the Philippines

was regulated by the Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD). This is done by

establishing a number of requirements for standardization of plants to be used

as medicines. It inludes macroscopic and microscopic examination,

physicochemical testing and biological testing.11

B. Foreign Literature

Phytochemicals are naturally occurring, biologically active chemical

compounds in plants which serve as protective and disease-preventing

particularly for some forms of cancer and heart diseases.12 The most

important action of these chemicals with respect to human beings is

somewhat similar in that they function as antioxidants which means that it

reacts with free oxygen molecules or free radicals in our bodies which must

be removed since it can damage the cells of our bodies.13 There is some

evidence that certain phytochemicals may help prevent the formation of

10 Dietmar J. Rummel, Useful Plants of the Philippines, A Scientific Guide to Modern Botanical Medicine, Phtopharmacology/ Phytotheraphy/ Economic Botany, Volume I,(Philippines: C and E Publishing, Inc, 2005), page 445

11 Ibid, p. 442

12 Nyam New Admin, Phytochemicals, The Caribbean food and Nutrition Institute, ISSN 0255-8203, 2005 Accessed date 8/10/1213

? Ibid23

carcinogen or substance that cause cancer, blocks the action of carcinogens

on their target organs or tissues, or act on cells to suppress cancer

development.14

Plant phytochemicals include carotenoids, alkaloids, phytosterols,

saponins, glucosinolates, flavonoids, protease-inhibitors, terpenes,

phytoestrogens, sulfides, phytic acid, esteroid and essential oil.15

Some phytochemicals are consume by man as plant products,

particularly spices and extracts of various plant parts used extensively as

natural antimicrobials and antioxidants. It has also shown greater potential in

treating human diseases like cancer, coronary heart disease, diabetes and

infectious diseases. Nowadays, a number of studies on plants allegedly

claim the beneficial effects of eating plants on health due to its

phytochemicals. Several researches done even attested the importance of

consuming plants as food and medicine not only to every individual but also to

the community as a whole. 16

According to Mandal, berries phytochemicals activate the brains natural

“housekeeper” mechanisms that are normally performed by cells called

14

? American Cancer Society, http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/Treatmentsand SideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/HerbsVitaminsand Minerals/ phytochemicals Accessed date: July 9, 2012

15 George F.O.A, Ephraim, R.N; Obasa, S.O et.al, “Antimicrobial Properties of Some Plant Extracts on Organism Associated with Food Spoilage”, p. 8, Accessed date 7/15/2012

16Marcia Zimmerman, “Phytonutrients & Nutraceuticals: An Overview,” http://www. realtime.net/anr /phytonu.html Accessed Date: August 9, 2012

24

micgrolia. It removes and recycles biochemical debris that otherwise would

interfere with brain function. Strong scientific evidence exists that eating

blueberries, blackberries, strawberries, and other berry fruits has beneficial

effects on the brain and may help prevent age-related memory loss and

changes.17 It contains high level of antioxidants, compounds that protect cells

from damage by harmful free radicals.18

Related Studies

A. Local Study

Palawan forests have different kinds of forest tress which includes

ebony, camagong, teak, cedar, dungon,banaba, guijo, molave and many

others which are considered very valuable.19

17 Science Daily, Eating Berries Benefits the Brain, posted March 7, 2012, h American Cancer Society, http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/Treatmentsand SideEffects /Complementary andAlternativeMedicine/HerbsVitaminsand Minerals/ phytochemicals Accessed Date: July 9, 2012

18 Ibid

19 Walfrido R. Ponce De Leon, Palawan: Land of Promise, (Philippines:Palawan Provincial Capitol, 2001) p. 4

25

A pictograph made by Miguel also showed several trees and other

kinds of plants in Puerto Princesa Underground River which are used by the

Tagbanua as medicine. It revealed 31 plants species identified by the

medicinemen of the Tagbanua. These are Kala-kalabasa, Milletia longipes

(Gubay), Pogostermon reticulata (Lampunaya), Coleus aromaticus

(Oregano), Mussaenda philippica (Agboi), Mallotus philippensis (Bulalanting-

lalaki o Maragsa-anen), Leucosyke sp (Kadas-kadas), Ficus ulmifolia (Papa-

en),Blumea balsamifera (Sambong), Garcinia lateriflora (Kandis), Phaenthus

sp (Kalubigan)., Melastoma malathrium L.(Amomosing), Kayea sp. (Sagpo),

Alstonia scholaris (Kamanlit/Dita), Bauhinia semibida var perkinsae

(Tipakla/Pitakla), Ficus sp.(Ulam), Mimosa pudica (Kanumay), Phaenthus sp.

(Sya-sya), Psychotria sp.(Kilyat), Begonia sp. (Gimbaloy), Archidendron sp.

(Bunsikag), Canarium asperum (Saheng), Chrysopogon aciculatus

(Amorsiko) or Nauclea orientalis (Bangkal), Derris sp. (Sungkar),

Cinnamommum sp.(Panulak na babae), Nephelium ramboutan-ake

(Balisangkad), Urena lobata (Galupang lalaki or Dalupang), Yucca sp.

(Aksibar), Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Kambing-kambingan) and Lantana

camara (Muyo-muyo/Moyo-moyo).20

Muyo-muyo is a weed with berry-like fruits prominent in rangeland and

grassland areas. It is scientifically known Lantana camara. It has troterpenoid

20 Antonieta Miguel, “Inventory and Documentation of the Medicinal Plants Used by the Tagbanua of Sugod 1, Barangay Cabayugan, Puerto Princesa City,” (Palawan Ethno-environmental Research Center Research, Holy Trinity University, Puerto Princesa City, 2012), p. 62.

26

or pentacyclic triterpenes called lantadenes which are hepatogenic

photosensitizers that can be found in its leaves and in unripe and ripe fruits.

The plant when eaten by grazing animals will experience liver dysfunction,

jaundice, constipation, bile accumulation, gall bladder enlargement, renal

damage, gastroenteritis and loss of appetite.21 But these flavonoids might also

be responsible for the therapeutic property of Lantana camara as medicine for

asthma.

Plants were also used by the Tagbanua in Aborlan in healing and hilot

practices. The study revealed that different plants were utilized for epilepsy,

snake and insect bites, food poisoning, stomachache, diarrhea, kulebra,

allergy, fever, colds, giving birth, bone fractures, paralysis, and relapse. The

plants species used were rice, betel nut, balo-balongay vine, coconut,

lumpaki, kamulang, olagak, sibukaw, sepa, lubigan, bukangkang, panpan,

balingsangkad, ulam, cashew, dulaw, siling labuyo, wild patola, banana,

ganda, orchid, imaraan, balete, kataka-taka, cogon, macasla, tawa-tawa,

noni, kawayan, calamamsi, and sampaloc. The Tagbanua albularios made

use of different plant parts including roots, leaves or bark of two to seven

plant species to treat an ailment.22

21 Wellington Z. Rosacia, et. al., “Lantana and Hagonoy,” DENR,Quezon City: Research Information Series on Ecosystems, Vol. 16, No.2, 1997, pp.1-7.

22 Leonita D. Dela Rosa, “ The Healing and Hilot Practices of the Tagbanuas in Aborlan, Palawan and Their Implications for The Educational Guidance of the Young Generations,” (Master’s Thesis, Holy Trinity College, Puerto Princesa City, April 2007), pp. 72-74.

27

A study on medicinal plants used by selected and prominent medicine

men of Brooke’s Point revealed the use of the following medicinal plants to

treat the common illnesses: Lagerstroemia speciosa (Banaba), Psidium

guajava (Bayabas), Imperata cylindrical (Kogon), Anacardium occidentale

(Kasuy), Vitex negundo (Lagundi), Zea mays (Mais), Peperomia pellucida

(Pansit-pansitan), Blumea balsamifera (Sambong), Chrysopyllum cainito Linn.

(Star apple), Musa acuminate (Banana), Corypha elata Roxb. (Buri),  Mimosa

pudica (Makahiya) and Andropogon citrates (Tanglad), Moringa oleifera Lam.

(Malunggay), Premna odorata Blanco (Alagaw), Pandanus sp. (Pandan

tsina), Jatropha curcas Linn. (Tuba-tuba) and Cocos nucifera (Buko or Niyog).

The common illnesses of patients or clients in Brooke’s Point, Palawan

that were treated by the medidincemen/women were anemia (with flu, cough,

fever and “pasma”), cough, diarrhea, fever, flu, hypertension, kidney problem,

relapse, sprain, stomach-ache, and Urinary Tract Infection (UTI). While the

parts used to treat the common illnesses were the following: leaves,

combination of bark, roots and young stem, combination of roots, leaves, bark

and flowers, combination of roots and leaves, bark, thorns fruit juice and

hairs. Also, the most oftenly used preparation of medicinal plants was

decoction, followed by heating the plant part/s before applying it to the

affected area of the patient. Squeezing the fresh leaves to collect and drink

28

the juice was also used. While the other preparations include pound the plant

to release its aroma and drink the juice of the fruit as needed. 23

B. Foreign Study

Living plants are solar-powered biochemical and biosynthetic

laboratory which manufactures both primary and secondary metabolites from

air, water, minerals and sunlight Khanam said. The secondary metabolites

such as alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, volatile oils, and others are

biosynthetically derived from primary metabolites which represent chemical

adaptations to environmental stresses or serve as defensive, offensive

chemicals against microorganism, insects and higher herbivore predators.24

These metabolites some time considered a waste in secretory products of

plant metabolism and are of pharmaceutical importance.25

According to Kennedy and Wightman, secondary metabolites can be

unique to specific species or genera and do not display any role plants’

primary metabolic requirements but rather they increase their over all ability to

survival and overcome local challenges by allowing them to interact with their

environment.

23 Muhajirin B. Sali, “Inventory and Documentation of the Medicinal Plants Utilized by the Selected Indigenous Medicinemen/Women of Brooke’s Point, Palawan,” (Master’s Thesis, Holy Trinity University, Puerto Princesa City, April 2012), pp. 89-98.

24 Dr. Salma Khanam, Pharmacognosy, “General Study of Formation of Secondary Metabloites, pp. 2

25 Ibid29

Pascoline, et al, claimed that medicinal plants are of great importance

to the health of individuals and communities. The presence of secondary

compounds validates the used of plants as herbal drugs.26 The medicinal

properties of several herbal plants have been documented in the ancient

Indian literature and the preparations have been found to be effective in

treatment of diseases.27

Medicinal plants represent rich sources of antimicrobial agents.28

Antibacterial constituents of medicinal plants and their use for the treatment of

microbial infections are possible alternative to synthetic drugs to which many

infectious microorganisms have become resistant seem to very much

promising.29 Traditional healers claim that their medicine is cheaper and more

effective and impart least side effects as compared to synthetic medicine.30

Synthesis

26

? Jeruto Pascoline, et al, “Phytochemical Constituents of Some Medicinal Plants used by the Nandis of South Nandi District Kenya, Journal ofAnimal and Plant Sciences”, 2011, Volume 9, Issue 3:1201- 1210

27 S. Shyamal Gowri and K. Vasantha, “Phytochemical Screening and Antimicrobial Activity of Syzygium cumini (L.) (Myrtaceae) Leaves Extracts; International Journal of PharmaTech Research Coden (USA) Vol.2, No.2, pp. 1569

28 M.R. Ahsan, M.R., et al., “In Vitro Antibacterial Screening and Toxicity Study of Some Different Medicinal Plants”, World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 5(5); pp 617- 621

29 M.A. Bari, et al., 2010, “Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity of Solanum Torvum (Solanaceae),” International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, pp. 386-390

30 John J. Ragas, et al., “Screening of Antimicrobial Activity of Ten Medicinal Plants used in Colombian Folkloric Medicine: A Possible Alternative in Treatment of Nonsocomial Infections”, February 17, 2006, pp.

30

The review of related literature and studies revealed the widely use of

plants in treating the ailments of the people. Also mentioned are the presence

of phytochemicals in plants, which are considered responsible for the

medicinal property of the plants. It also showed that plants, is one of the

important connections of man to his environment. Also, the information

gathered revealed that there is a need to identify and scientifically validate the

therapeutic ability of plants and it must be given priority in any localities not

only for cultural preservation and health purposes but also for its other

economic importance and to prevent the extinction of the very useful plants.

The plants belonging to berry family is one of the plant species in

Narra, Palawan that needs to be studied. If wild berries which can be found in

other countries have phytochemicals and bioactive abilities then, the species

here might also contain these phytochemicals.

31