City of Beaverton

High Impact Business Writing

CLIMB Center for Advancement

Portland Community College

Facilitated by George Knox

Overview of Workshop Modules

Pre-Writing Analysis Organization, Style & Diction Strategies for Specific Documents Proofreading, Revising & Editing

Perception

Studies show that we all have preferred “perceptual styles”

Presenter’s preferences may be different than audience’s

Effective perception combines styles

Perceptual Styles(Adapted from Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model)

AuditoryFocuses on what is heardRemembers 75% heardDistracted by note-taking

VisualFocuses on what is seenRemembers 75% seenSummarizes with notes

TactileFocuses on what is

touched and manipulated

Remembers by touchingTakes both traditional

and visual notes

KinestheticFocuses on moving within contextual environmentRemembers by doingDistracted by note-taking

Perceptual Styles (Cont.)

Perceptual styles are only preferences Most people utilize more than one style Most people can learn to use different styles

SO

Recognize your preference, but learn to use the style(s) that work best for each situation

Prepare your documents with audience’s perceptual styles (multiple) in mind

Document Development

P.A.T.– Purpose – Audience – Technique

Purpose and Audience Determine Technique!

P. A. T. Purpose

– Topic– Goals (Inform,persuade, entertain, record, cite,

respond, etc.)– Requirements (Schedule, materials, budget, tools,

delivery, etc.) Audience

– Who? Multiple audiences?– Expectations (Content, style, delivery, etc.)– Requirements

Technique

Document Design: Focus

“The Rule of Ones”

– One idea per sentence– One topic sentence per paragraph– One thesis/main point per document

Document Design: Format

Informative Intro of

problem Main point Details Summary

(restating main point)

Persuasive Intro of problem Main point Supports Summary Request for action

Instructional Intro of problem Steps in sequential order Sources of further help

Document Design: Flow Front load vs. back load Roadmap

– Statement of purpose– Overview of content

Signposts (Text)– Transitional phrases and words

Cues (Visual)– Visual elements guiding reader– Headings, highlighted text, dividers, white space

Chunking (Grouping related elements) Parallel form

Document Design: Graphics

Integrate graphics into text– See Tips for Using Visuals

Maintain a graphic theme Generally do not use clip art or

extraneous graphics for formal documents

Follow corporate/publication guidelines Adhere to copyright law

Document Design: Other Issues

Headings, spacing, pagination, type Titles, length, submission Documentation of sources

All of these are dependent upon the publisher and style guide

Formatting Text

10-12 point type (body text) Serif vs. San Serif Consistent type styles (“Magic 3”) Bold/italics to emphasize Avoid all capitals Ragged right – justified left margins Text boxes, large size, color for emphasis

Style: Business vs. Technical

Business Writing: Purposeful Persuasive Flexible Economical Reader-focused

Technical Writing: Purposeful Informative Structured Economical Product/process-

focused

Style: Business WritingStrategies: Gain attention early Clarify benefits to

readers Always include a

“request for action” Front load a positive

message Back load a negative

message

Use keywords Explain technical or

unfamiliar terms Prepare for multiple

audiences Avoid conversational

and narrative styles Consider multiple

modes of delivery

Style: Technical WritingStrategies: Design document to be

“used” rather than “read”

Provide for document navigation

Front load most technical documents

Use appropriate technical & industry terms including acronyms

Use technical graphics whenever possible

Create distinct document sections based on use

Provide necessary caution and warning messages

Prepare document for use within technical setting

Consider multiple modes of delivery

Style: Proper Citation Use the correct style

– (Academic/industry standard, in-house guide, editor/reader preference)

Document your sources in progress– Take notes with source info– Place citations/short-cuts in drafts

Proofread for citations– Citations matched with sources?– Correct style and punctuation?

Diction (Word Choice and Order)

Diction affects:

MeaningToneEmphasis

Diction: Barriers to Meaning

Misused words– See Commonly Confused Words

Nonspecific nouns– Area, factor, issue, problem, thing

Slang, regional expressions, figures of speech, inappropriate jargon

Euphemisms, pretentious language– Adult language, collateral damage, disadvantaged,

economic downturn, pre-owned, rightsizing

Sexist language

Diction: Barriers to Tone Inappropriate level of formality

– Contractions and acronyms

– Slang, jargon, figures of speech

– Proper or strict language

– I’d like to get that info you’ve got posted on your web page. VS. I would like a copy of the information posted on your web site.

Improper connotation– Images and emotions associated with a word or phrase

– The details he gave were fictional. VS. The details he gave were not factual. VS. The details he gave were incorrect.

Figures of speech, clichés

Diction: Barriers to Emphasis Multiple terms for same subject

– First term has emphasis and sets tone– My client is innocent. I am confident that the jury

will find him not guilty due to insufficient evidence.

Active vs. passive voice– Focus on actor or result– The company laid off 300 workers. VS. Three

hundred workers were laid off by the company.

Front load vs. back load

Diction: Editing and Revising

Consider PAT Proof for meaning, tone and emphasis Default to direct meaning and formal

tone (unless writing personal narratives and correspondence)

Generally avoid jargon and slang Check a dictionary and/or thesaurus

Diction: Editing and Revising

Consider the following statements: Your client is responsible for the accident. Your client caused the accident. Your client is liable for the accident.

What is the meaning of each sentence?

What is the connotation for each sentence?

Where is the emphasis in each sentence?

Liability Issues: Risks “Technical” Liability

– Negligence– Breach of Warranty– “Strict Liability in Tort(e)”

Marketing Liability– “Uniform Commercial Code”– Expressed Warranty of Description

Other Areas of Liability– Privacy– Financial– Employment

Liability Issues: Protections Accuracy

– Check for clear interpretations and findings– Do not suppress knowledge or data– Do not exaggerate claims or data

Ownership– Confirm copyright, trademarks, etc.

Public Domain– Most documents by public officials are in public domain

(w/ legal/privacy exceptions)– Consider documents as “published”

Liability Issues: Avoiding Problems Be accurate (factual, precise) Know your audience

– Needs and expectations– Abilities (“reasonable person”)– Risk

Document your work– Sources/Citations– Paper trail– Data records– Copies of correspondence

Get approval of your work– “Sign off”– Feedback from peers– Practical test with target audience

Use waivers/consent forms

Memo and E-mail

Purpose– Written record (paper or electronic)– Information re: policies and procedures– Request for internal action– Documentation of decisions or actions– “Paper trail”

Memo and E-mail Audience

– Internal (usually)– Individual, departmental or company-wide– Knowledge of company organization, values,

policies, procedures, etc.– Familiar with jargon and acronyms– Attention to internal communications?

Note: E-mail is becoming more common for external communications

Technique: Memos & E-mail

Procedure and Information Messages

Request and Reply Messages

Confirmation (or Denial) Messages

Other?

Procedure/Information Message Routine messages “Downward” flow Informational in nature Goal of employee participation and cooperation Direct or indirect depending on nature of

message (good news, bad news, etc.)

Tip: Tone is important for success.

Request and Reply Messages

Request for information and action

– Persuasive in nature

– Direct or indirect depending on nature of request and source of request

Reply to previous communication

– Direct response to initiator

– Indirect response to wider audience

Confirmation Messages

“Incident” or “To File” reports

Documentation of decisions, directives, and discussions

Names and titles of people involved

Major issues described

Request for confirmation of receipt

Direct message

Technique: Strategies Headings: Date, To, From, Subject

Single topic

Conciseness

Conversational tone

“Cues” and “Signposts”

Technique: Strategies Direct vs. Indirect message

– Direct (“Front loaded”) message places main point early in the document

– Indirect (“Back loaded”) message places main point late in the document

– Use direct approach for “good” news or when acceptance is assured

– Use indirect approach for “bad” news or when persuasion is necessary

Techniques: Delivery Memos – Use standard in-house

delivery unless otherwise requested E-mail

– Use in-house standards (company vs. personal web-based e-mail, stationary, HTML vs. text only, etc.) within company

– Contact outside audiences for restrictions Avoid common e-mail mistakes

Common E-mail Mistakes Address errors Long messages or attachments Misleading or vague subject lines Inappropriate content Lack of discretion in responses Inappropriate copying and forwarding

Source: John Edwards, “The Six Most Common Mistakes in Sending E-mail”, Bottom Line Business, October 1997.

Letters Purpose

– Written record (Paper)– Formal information, persuasive or

responsive communication– Documentation with “wet” signature– “Official” communication with letterhead– Contractual agreement– “Paper trail”

Letters Audience

– External (usually)– May be unfamiliar with internal

organization, values, procedures, etc.– May be unfamiliar with jargon and

acronyms– May be inattentive to communication– Seeking formal or “official” message

Technique: Kinds of Letters Routine Letters

– Request for information and action– Direct reply

Good News – Approved request– Commendation/Recommendation

Bad News Letters– Denied request– Criticism/disciplinary action/termination

Persuasive Letters– Sales -Proposals

Technique: Strategies Single topic

Formal style and tone

“Official” letterhead and signature

“Cues” and “Signposts”

Request for action

Technique: Strategies

Direct vs. Indirect message– “Front load” Routine and Good News

Letters– “Back load” Bad News Letters– For Persuasive Letters, use the message

that best fits the audience

Tip: If cost is involved, you probably should “back load”.

Communicating Bad News

Goals– Make the audience understand and accept– Maintain positive image of organization – Make message clear so additional

communication is unnecessary– Avoid creating legal liability

Communicating Bad News Strategies

– Indirect message• Buffer with a neutral or positive opening• Give reasons or causes for bad news• Clearly state bad news, providing alternatives

or “next steps” if possible• Close with a personal, future-looking statement

Tip: Use subordinating or passive language (“Although your claim cannot be processed under current guidelines, we can provide a list of alternative ….”)

Communicating Bad News

Strategies– Avoiding Liability

• Do not use abusive language (defamation) or careless language implying liability

• Do not state or imply views that run contrary to your organization

• Do not admit or imply responsibility without checking with legal counsel

• Do not use “official” documents or equipment to communicate your personal views

Persuasive Writing

Strategies: Gain attention

– Review problem and state action taken– Stimulate a question and offer an answer– State a benefit to the audience

Build interest– Offer strong supports– Suggest direct and indirect benefits– Avoid emotionality

Persuasive Writing

Strategies: Reduce resistance

– Counter possible arguments

– Demonstrate credibility Motivate action

– Request specific action and repeat benefits Reinforce business relationship

Technical Formats

Instructions Reports Executive Summaries

Instructions Purpose

– Technical documentation of a specific task– Directive with sequential steps– “Used” during task

Audience– Varying technical abilities– “Users”, not readers– May need hazard statements

Technique: Document Types User Manual (Step-by-step for novice) Tutorial (Mini-lessons for novice) Reference Manual (Indexed for expert) Quick Reference Guide (Indexed for expert) Procedural Guide (Step-by-step for novice &

expert, Primarily to document) Policy Manual (Categorized for novice &

expert, Primarily to document) On-Line Documentation (Tree

structures/topics for novice & expert)

Technique: Basic Format

1. Introduction

2. Required materials/tools

3. Sequential steps

4. Additional resources

Technique: Strategies

Keep language simple and direct– 2nd person imperative– Appropriate technical language– Active voice– Avoid future tense– Industry standards (e.g. ANSI)

Technique: Strategies

List steps sequentially– Numbered lists for ordered tasks– Bulleted lists for unordered tasks– Vertical lists usually easier to read than

horizontal lists– Introduce steps or groups of steps (e.g. “To

install the software, follow these steps:”)

Technique: Strategies

Emphasize tasks over results (user’s actions before reactions)

Describe any necessary parts, tools or equipment BEFORE giving directions

Include visuals when appropriate (especially for “visual perceivers” and international readers)

Technique: Hazard Statements

Place warnings before and near the hazardous task listed

Highlight warning w/ appropriate visual techniques (symbols, colors, bold, etc.)

Keep hazard statements direct, clear and accurate

Follow expected/required guidelines

Reports

Purpose– Document primary or secondary research– Aid decisions, qualify sources and record

work or activities Audience

– Expects summaries, methods, findings– May expect recommendations– Data may be scrutinized– Multiple audiences?

Technique: Basic Format

Front Matter– Cover– Title page– Abstract– Table of contents– List of figures and tables– Executive summary

Technique: Basic Format (cont.)

Introduction– Definition & scope of problem– Background– Methodology– Report organization

Technique: Basic Format (cont.)

Body– Project details (Data, method review)– Conclusion (Analysis of findings)– Recommendations– Notes

Technique: Basic Format (cont.)

Back Matter– Appendices – Glossary– Bibliography/References/Works Cited– Resume/Vitae– Index

Technique: Strategies

Primary research– Clear description of methodology– Summary of data gathered (in body)– Access to full data (usually Appended)– Cross references to other research– Secondary sources used in Background to

add credibility

Technique: Strategies

Secondary research– Verify your sources with clear

documentation– Explain/describe sources as necessary– Use citation style as required or expected

Executive Summary Purpose

– Introduce document– Give synopsis of contents– Persuade reader of validity and importance

of document Audience

– Multiple audiences: technical and non-technical

– Expect summary of major points and findings

– May be read as “stand alone” document

Technique: Basic Format

Mini-document– Organize around major sections of full

document– Condense material into suitable length

“Brochure”– Highlight major sections most relevant to

non-technical audience– Categorize and order by importance to

audience

Technique: Strategies

Length: Usually 1 page, but could be longer (1/16th rule?)

Highlight major sections with headings, bulleted lists, graphics, page design (e.g. multi-column), etc.

Language: Use key words and concepts, Explain technical terms and acronyms

Do NOT “cut and paste” or “summarize by list”

ProofreadingPurpose: Locate and mark errors and needed changes in a document.

Proof at least twice– Content (purpose, meaning, accuracy, emphasis,

tone)– Mechanics (grammar, spelling, punctuation, style,

document design) Mark errors, don’t fix them Organize your approach to proofing

– Proof in “chunks”– Read silently and aloud– Checklist?

Proofreading Tips

Accept that most drafts are not perfect Plan/schedule for proofreading Proof electronically AND hard copy Proofread multiple times Read your document aloud Have someone else proofread Practice proofreading

AND …

Proofreading Tips (Cont.)

Organize your proofreading:– Proof in sections. Complete a section

before moving on.– Proof for revision first. Make revisions.

Then proof for editing.– Proof general to specific (Paragraph –

Sentence – Word – Punctuation)– Read backwards (especially for editing)

Proofreading for RevisionPurpose: Check content and order for clarification or restatement

Read for overview Determine purpose of the document Find the main point or thesis Find the evidence or details Check paragraph order and “weight” Proof paragraphs for relevance and flow Repeat as necessary

Proofreading for EditingPurpose: Find sentence-level problems and mechanical errors

Proofread again after revising content Check your problem areas first Find topic sentences before supports Ensure 1 topic sentence per paragraph Check spelling separate from grammar Use but don’t trust writing assistants

Proofreading for Grammar (Sentence Level)

When proofing and editing, focus on meaning and clarity Know your grammatical weaknesses, and check those first Read a sentence aloud to confirm “verbal grammar” Look for shifts in voice, person and tense Identify subject, predicate, clauses and phrases within a

sentence Quickly cover the basics:

– Complete sentences (and ideas)– Agreement between elements– Clear and appropriate modifying phrases– Correct punctuation

Use the writing assistants to find likely errors (but check again for yourself)

Keep a good grammar guide handy

Revising Strategies Focus

– Clarify introduction of main “thesis”– Check for competing ideas– Delete unnecessary text

Content– Emphasize main ideas– Add facts, details, examples, definitions– Rethink central argument/insight

Point of View– Maintain consistency– Change POV?

Revising Strategies (Cont.) Organization

– Add/sharpen topic sentences– Move blocks of text– Re-paragraph

Audience Appeal– Use appropriate tone/language– Let the readers know why they are reading– Motivate the readers to read on

The “Rule of Ones”

Editing Strategies: Movement

Check paragraphs– Topic sentence followed by support sentences– Transitional sentences/phrases

Arrange paragraphs appropriately– Time (chronological, narrative, process)– Space (descriptive, setting)– Dramatic (build to climax, back load)– Logic (argument, essay)

Link ideas

Editing Strategies: Linking Ideas Use key words

– Repetition– Variety

Maintain parallel structures– Similar info presented in similar ways– “Visual” balance

Check for consistent style– Between paragraphs/chapters/sections– Subject identity– Perspective

Editing Strategies: Transitions Use “roadmap” sentences/paragraphs Choose appropriate phrases

– Addition (and, also, further, in addition to, moreover, next, too)– Compare (also, in the same manner, in this way, like, likewise,

similarly)– Contrast (although, but, even though, however, in contrast,

nevertheless, still)– Summary (In conclusion, in other words, in short, therefore, to

sum up)– Relation [time, order, place] (after, as, during, finally, later,

when, first, second, next, last, above, beyond, farther on, near, opposite)

– Logic (as a result, consequently, if, since, so, therefore, thus)

Editing Strategies: Sentence Level

Correct grammar– Sentence fragments– Run-on sentence (fused, comma splice)– Subject-Verb agreement– Pronoun references and agreement– Misused modifiers– Active vs. passive voice

Correct spelling and punctuation

Also Consider …

Utilizing a peer review Testing documents on sample audiences Requesting feedback from target audience(s) Developing measurements of effectiveness Rotating assignments to assess strengths

and weaknesses of writing staff Group writing for projects

On-line Materials Web Page:

http://cob/departments/HumanResources/Training/

– Access through City of Beaverton IntraWeb– Handouts, Additional Resources, Samples– Suggestions for Additional Materials?