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CitizenshipFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Citizenship is the status of a person recognized under the custom or law as being a member of a country.A person may have multiple citizenships and a person who does not have citizenship of any state is said tobe stateless.

Nationality is often used as a synonym for citizenship in English[1] – notably in international law –although the term is sometimes understood as denoting a person's membership of a nation (a large ethnicgroup).[2] In some countries, e.g. the United States, the United Kingdom, nationality and citizenship canhave different meanings (for more information, see Nationality#Nationality versus citizenship).

Contents

1 Determining factors

2 History

2.1 Polis

2.2 Roman ideas

2.3 Middle Ages

2.4 Renaissance

2.5 Modern times

3 Different senses

4 International

4.1 European Union

4.2 Commonwealth

5 Subnational

6 Education

6.1 United Kingdom

6.2 Ireland

7 See also

8 Notes

9 References

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10 Further reading

11 External links

Determining factors

A person can be a citizen for several reasons. Usually citizenship of the place of birth is automatic; inother cases an application may be required. Each country has their own policies and regulations whichchange the criteria of who is issued citizenship.

Parents are citizens (jus sanguinis). If one or both of a person's parents are citizens of a given state,then the person may have the right to be a citizen of that state as well. [a] Formerly this might onlyhave applied through the paternal line, but sex equality became common since the late twentiethcentury. Citizenship is granted based on ancestry or ethnicity, and is related to the concept of anation state common in China. Where jus sanguinis holds, a person born outside a country, one orboth of whose parents are citizens of the country, is also a citizen. States normally limit the right tocitizenship by descent to a certain number of generations born outside the state. This form ofcitizenship is not common in civil law countries.Born within a country (jus soli). Some people are automatically citizens of the state in which theyare born. This form of citizenship originated in England where those who were born within therealm were subjects of the monarch (a concept pre­dating citizenship), and is common in commonlaw countries.

In many cases both jus solis and jus sanguinis hold; citizenship either by place or parentage (or ofcourse both).

Marriage to a citizen (jure matrimonii). Many countries fast­track naturalization based on themarriage of a person to a citizen. Countries which are destinations for such immigration often haveregulations to try to detect sham marriages, where a citizen marries a non­citizen typically forpayment, without them having the intention of living together.[5]Naturalization. States normally grant citizenship to people who have entered the country legallyand been granted permit to stay, or been granted political asylum, and also lived there for a specifiedperiod. In some countries, naturalization is subject to conditions which may include passing a testdemonstrating reasonable knowledge of the language or way of life of the host country, goodconduct (no serious criminal record) and moral character (such as drunkenness, or gambling),vowing allegiance to their new state or its ruler and renouncing their prior citizenship. Some statesallow dual citizenship and do not require naturalized citizens to formally renounce any othercitizenship.Excluded categories. In the past there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship ongrounds such as skin color, ethnicity, sex, and free status (not being a slave). Most of theseexclusions no longer apply in most places. Modern examples include some Arab countries whichrarely grant citizenship to non­Muslims, e.g. Qatar is known for granting citizenship to foreignathletes, but they all have to profess the Islamic faith in order to receive citizenship. The UnitedStates grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, and internationallyadopted children born after Feb 27, 1983. Some exclusions still persist for internationally adoptedchildren born before Feb 27, 1983 even though their parents meet citizenship criteria.

History

Polis

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Geoffrey Hosking suggests that fearof being enslaved was a centralmotivating force for the developmentof the Greek sense of citizenship.Sculpture: a Greek woman beingserved by a slave­child.

Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city­states of ancient Greece,although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, formankind, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws. Polis meant both the political assemblyof the city­state as well as the entire society.[6] Citizenship has generally been identified as a westernphenomenon.[7] There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation thanmodern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny.[8] The relation of citizenship hasnot been a fixed or static relation, but constantly changed within each society, and that according to oneview, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods during certain times, such as when theAthenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state.[9]

Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested that citizenship inancient Greece arose from an appreciation for the importance of freedom.[10] Hosking explained:

It can be argued that this growth of slavery was what made Greeks particularly conscious ofthe value of freedom. After all, any Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore mightbecome a slave, at almost any time ... When the Greeks fought together, they fought in orderto avoid being enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take theminto slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free men.

— Geoffrey Hosking, 2005[10]

Slavery permitted slaveowners to have substantial free time, andenabled participation in public life.[10] Polis citizenship wasmarked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread;citizens had a higher status than non­citizens, such as women,slaves or barbarians.[11][12] The first form of citizenship was basedon the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small­scaleorganic communities of the polis. Citizenship was not seen as aseparate activity from the private life of the individual person, inthe sense that there was not a distinction between public andprivate life. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connectedinto one's everyday life in the polis. These small­scale organiccommunities were generally seen as a new development in worldhistory, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of Egyptor Persia, or the hunter­gatherer bands elsewhere. From theviewpoint of the ancient Greeks, a person's public life was notseparated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguishbetween the two worlds according to the modern westernconception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with everyday life. To be truly human,one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: "To take no part inthe running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!" This form of citizenship was basedon obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of thecommunity. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destinyand the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to thecommunity as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honour and respect. In Athens, citizenswere both ruler and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had the rightto speak and vote in the political assembly.

Roman ideas

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In the Roman Empire, citizenship expanded from small­scale communities to the entire empire. Romansrealized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule overconquered areas. Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency; it had been reduced to ajudicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law.[13] Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenshipsuch as the principles of equality under the law, civic participation in government, and notions that "noone citizen should have too much power for too long",[14] but Rome offered relatively generous terms toits captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship.[14] If Greek citizenship was an"emancipation from the world of things",[15] the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizenscould act upon material things as well as other citizens, in the sense of buying or selling property,possessions, titles, goods. One historian explained:

The person was defined and represented through his actions upon things; in the course oftime, the term property came to mean, first, the defining characteristic of a human or otherbeing; second, the relation which a person had with a thing; and third, the thing defined as thepossession of some person.

— J. G. A. Pocock, 1988[16]

Roman citizenship reflected a struggle between the upper­class patrician interests against the lower­orderworking groups known as the plebeian class.[14] A citizen came to be understood as a person "free to actby law, free to ask and expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of suchand such a legal standing in that community".[17] Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions,immunities, expectations, which were "available in many kinds and degrees, available or unavailable tomany kinds of person for many kinds of reason".[17] And the law, itself, was a kind of bond unitingpeople.[18] Roman citizenship was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees andapplications.[18]

Middle Ages

During the European Middle Ages, citizenship was usually associated with cities and towns, and appliedmainly to middle class folk. Titles such as burgher, grand burgher (German Großbürger) and bourgeoisiedenoted political affiliation and identity in relation to a particular locality, as well as membership in amercantile or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic status wereinterchangeable with citizens.

During this era, members of the nobility had a range of privileges above commoners (see aristocracy),though political upheavals and reforms, beginning most prominently with the French Revolution,abolished privileges and created an egalitarian concept of citizenship.

Renaissance

During the Renaissance, people transitioned from being subjects of a king or queen to being citizens of acity and later to a nation.[19]:p.161 Each city had its own law, courts, and independent administration.[20]And being a citizen often meant being subject to the city's law in addition to having power in someinstances to help choose officials.[20] City dwellers who had fought alongside nobles in battles to defendtheir cities were no longer content with having a subordinate social status, but demanded a greater role inthe form of citizenship.[21] Membership in guilds was an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped theirmembers succeed financially.[22] The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of republicanism, according

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Many theorists suggest that there are two opposing conceptions ofcitizenship: an economic one, and a political one. For furtherinformation, see History of citizenship.

to one account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power.[23] Citizenship became anidealized, almost abstract, concept,[9] and did not signify a submissive relation with a lord or count, butrather indicated the bond between a person and the state in the rather abstract sense of having rights andduties.[9]

Modern times

The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually donethrough "elaborate systems of political representation at a distance" such as representative democracy.[8]Modern citizenship is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint onacting, not an impetus to act.[8] Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities,and are aware that these bonds often limit what they can do.[8]

Different senses

Citizenship status, under socialcontract theory, carries with it bothrights and duties. In this sense,citizenship was described as "a bundleof rights ­­ primarily, politicalparticipation in the life of thecommunity, the right to vote, and theright to receive certain protection fromthe community, as well asobligations."[24] Citizenship is seen bymost scholars as culture­specific, inthe sense that the meaning of the termvaries considerably from culture toculture, and over time.[8] In China, forexample, there is a cultural politics ofcitizenship which could be called"peopleship".[25] How citizenship isunderstood depends on the personmaking the determination. The relationof citizenship has never been fixed orstatic, but constantly changes withineach society. While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time,there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well. As a bond, citizenship extendsbeyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds. It usually signifies membershipin a political body. It is often based on, or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation offuture service. It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts toactive service in government. Citizenship is a status in society. It is an ideal state as well. It generallydescribes a person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost always has an element ofexclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens, and that this distinction can sometimes be veryimportant, or not important, depending on a particular society. Citizenship as a concept is generally hardto isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions, since it relates to many other aspects ofsociety such as the family, military service, the individual, freedom, religion, ideas of right and wrong,ethnicity, and patterns for how a person should behave in society.[19] When there are many different

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groups within a nation, citizenship may be the only real bond which unites everybody as equals withoutdiscrimination—it is a "broad bond" linking "a person with the state" and gives people a universal identityas a legal member of a specific nation.[26]

Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas:[27]

The liberal­individualist or sometimes liberal conception of citizenship suggests that citizensshould have entitlements necessary for human dignity.[28] It assumes people act for the purpose ofenlightened self­interest. According to this viewpoint, citizens are sovereign, morally autonomousbeings with duties to pay taxes, obey the law, engage in business transactions, and defend the nationif it comes under attack,[28] but are essentially passive politically,[27] and their primary focus is oneconomic betterment. This idea began to appear around the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,and became stronger over time, according to one view.[9] According to this formulation, the stateexists for the benefit of citizens and has an obligation to respect and protect the rights of citizens,including civil rights and political rights.[9] It was later that so­called social rights became part ofthe obligation for the state.[9]

The civic­republican or sometimes classical or civic humanist conception of citizenshipemphasizes man's political nature, and sees citizenship as an active process, not a passive state orlegal marker.[27] It is relatively more concerned that government will interfere with popular placesto practice citizenship in the public sphere. Citizenship means being active in government affairs.[28]According to one view, most people today live as citizens according to the liberal­individualistconception but wished they lived more according to the civic­republican ideal.[27] An ideal citizen isone who exhibits "good civic behavior".[9] Free citizens and a republic government are "mutuallyinterrelated."[9] Citizenship suggested a commitment to "duty and civic virtue".[9]

Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes calledtensions, existing within the relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship issupposed to mean.[9] Some unresolved issues regarding citizenship include questions about what is theproper balance between duties and rights.[9] Another is a question about what is the proper balancebetween political citizenship versus social citizenship.[9] Some thinkers see benefits with people beingabsent from public affairs, since too much participation such as revolution can be destructive, yet too littleparticipation such as total apathy can be problematic as well.[9] Citizenship can be seen as a special elitestatus, and it can also be seen as a democratizing force and something that everybody has; the concept caninclude both senses.[9] According to sociologist Arthur Stinchcombe, citizenship is based on the extentthat a person can control one's own destiny within the group in the sense of being able to influence thegovernment of the group.[19]:p.150 One last distinction within citizenship is the so­called consent descentdistinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a personchoosing to belong to a particular nation––by his or her consent––or is citizenship a matter of where aperson was born––that is, by his or her descent.[11]

International

Some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated withcitizenship to the international level,[29] where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituentcountries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from nationalcitizenship.

European Union

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The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union. Article 17 (1) of theTreaty on European Union[30] stated that:

Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of aMember State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional toand not replace national citizenship.[31]

An agreement known as the amended EC Treaty[31] established certain minimal rights for European Unioncitizens. Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guaranteed a general right of non­discrimination within thescope of the Treaty. Article 18 provided a limited right to free movement and residence in Member Statesother than that of which the European Union citizen is a national. Articles 18­21 and 225 provide certainpolitical rights.

Union citizens have also extensive rights to move in order to exercise economic activity in any of theMember States[32] which predate the introduction of Union citizenship.[33]

Commonwealth

The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since the establishment of theCommonwealth of Nations. As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizenof a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within someCommonwealth countries:

Some such countries do not require tourist visas of citizens of other Commonwealth countries.In some Commonwealth countries resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries are entitled topolitical rights, e.g., the right to vote in local and national elections and in some cases even the rightto stand for election.In some instances the right to work in any position (including the civil service) is granted, except forcertain specific positions, such as in the defense departments, Governor­General or President orPrime Minister.

Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic,Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equaltreatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to "Commonwealth countries andIreland".[34] Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in the United Kingdom.

Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 theIrish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship. However, Irish citizens were still treated assubjects of the Crown, and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member ofthe Commonwealth.[35] The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1947 provided for a distinct CanadianCitizenship, automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, anddefined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept ofCommonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948. Other dominionsadopted this principle such as New Zealand, by way of the British Nationality and New ZealandCitizenship Act of 1948.

Subnational

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Diagram of relationship between;Citizens, Politicians + Laws

Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation state, but the term can also apply at thesubnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permitcitizens to participate in the political life of that entity, or to enjoy benefits provided by the government ofthat entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state,province, or region. An example of this is how the fundamental basis of Swiss citizenship is citizenship ofan individual commune, from which follows citizenship of a canton and of the Confederation. Anotherexample is Åland where the residents enjoy a special provincial citizenship within Finland, hembygdsrätt.

The United States has a federal system in which a person is a citizen of their specific state of residence,such as New Jersey or California, as well as a citizen of the United States. State constitutions may grantcertain rights above and beyond what are granted under the United States Constitution and may imposetheir own obligations including the sovereign right of taxation and military service; each state maintains atleast one military force subject to national militia transfer service, the state's national guard, and somestates maintain a second military force not subject to nationalization.

Education

"Active citizenship" is the philosophy that citizens should worktowards the betterment of their community through economicparticipation, public, volunteer work, and other such efforts toimprove life for all citizens. In this vein, schools in some countriesprovide citizenship education (subject). By secondary educationthere is an empathise on such unconventional subjects to beincluded in academic curriculum. While the diagram on citizenshipto the right is rather facile and depthless, it is simplified to explainthe general model of citizenship that is taught to secondary schoolpupils. The idea behind this model is to instill into the young pupil that their actions (i.e. their vote) has animpact on collective citizenship and thus them.

United Kingdom

Citizenship is offered as a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) course in many schools inthe United Kingdom. As well as teaching knowledge about democracy, parliament, government, thejustice system, human rights and the UK's relations with the wider world, students participate in activecitizenship, often involving a social action or social enterprise in their local community.

Citizenship is a compulsory subject of the National Curriculum in state schools in England for allpupils aged 11–16. Some schools offer a qualification in this subject at GCSE and A level. All stateschools have a statutory requirement to teach the subject, assess pupil attainment and reportstudent's progress in citizenship to parents.[36]

In Wales the model used is Personal and Social Education.[37][38]Citizenship is not taught as a discrete subject in Scottish schools, but is a cross­curricular strand ofthe Curriculum for Excellence. However they do teach a subject called "Modern Studies" whichcovers the social, political and economic study of local, national and international issues.[39]

Ireland

It is taught in Ireland as an exam subject for the Junior Certificate. It is known as Civic, Social andPolitical Education (CSPE). A new Leaving Certificate exam subject with the working title 'Politics &Society' is being developed by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) and is

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expected to be introduced to the curriculum sometime after 2012.[40]

See also

NationalismNon­citizens (Latvia)Citizenship in the United StatesCitizenship in CanadaGlobal citizenshipHistory of citizenshipTransnational citizenshipSpatial CitizenshipHonorary citizenship

Honorary citizen of the United StatesHonorary Canadian citizenship

Notes

a. Examples: Philippines,[3] United States[4]

References1. Votruba, Martin. "Nationality, ethnicity in Slovakia.". Slovak Studies Program. University of Pittsburgh.2. Weis, Paul (1979). Nationality and Statelessness in International Law. Sijthoff & Noordhoff. p. 3.ISBN 9789028603295.

3. Article IV of the Philippine Constitution (http://www.chanrobles.com/article4.htm).4. 8 USC Part I ­ Nationality at Birth and Collective Naturalization8 USC Part I ­ Nationality at Birth andCollective Naturalization (http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/chapter­12/subchapter­III/part­I)

5. UK government Web site: Bishops act to tackle sham marriages ­ New UK Border Agency approved guidancefor clergy should help prevent weddings for visas, 11 April 2011 (http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/media­centre/news/sham­marriage­bishops)

6. Pocock 1998, p. 32.7. Zarrow 1997, p. 4.8. Isin, Engin F.; Bryan S. Turner, eds. (2002). Handbook of Citizenship Studies. Chapter 5 ­­ David Burchell ­­Ancient Citizenship and its Inheritors; Chapter 6 ­­ Rogers M. Smith ­­ Modern Citizenship. London: Sage.pp. 89–104, 105. ISBN 0­7619­6858­X.

9. Heater, Derek (2004). A Brief History of Citizenship. New York City: New York University Press. p. 157.ISBN 0­8147­3671­8.

10. Hosking, Geoffrey (2005). Epochs of European Civilization: Antiquity to Renaissance. Lecture 3: AncientGreece. United Kingdom: The Modern Scholar via Recorded Books. pp. 1, 2 (tracks). ISBN 1­4025­8360­5.

11. Hebert (editor), Yvonne M. (2002). Citizenship in transformation in Canada. chapters by Veronica Strong­Boag, Yvonne Hebert, Lori Wilkinson. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 3, 4, 5. ISBN 0­8020­0850­X.

12. Pocock 1998, p. 33.13. See Civis romanus sum.14. Hosking, Geoffrey (2005). Epochs of European Civilization: Antiquity to Renaissance. Lecture 5: Rome as a

city­state. United Kingdom: The Modern Scholar via Recorded Books. pp. tracks 1 through 9. ISBN 1­4025­8360­5.

15. Pocock 1998, p. 35.16. Pocock 1998, p. 36.17. Pocock 1998, p. 37.18. Pocock 1998, p. 38.19. Taylor, David (1994). Bryan Turner; Peter Hamilton, eds. Citizenship: Critical Concepts. United States and

Canada: Routledge. pp. 476 pages total;. ISBN 0­415­07036­8.

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20. Weber 1998, p. 44.21. Weber 1998, p. 46.22. Weber 1998, pp. 46­47.23. Zarrow 1997, p. 3.24. Virginia Leary (2000). "Citizenship. Human rights, and Diversity". In Alan C. Cairns, John C. Courtney, Peter

MacKinnon, Hans J. Michelmann, David E. Smith. Citizenship, Diversity, and Pluralism: Canadian andComparative Perspectives. McGill­Queen's Press ­ MQUP. pp. 247–264. ISBN 978­0­7735­1893­3. "... Theconcept of 'citizenship' has long acquired the connotation of a bundle of rights... ."

25. Xiao, Y (2013). "China's peopleship education: Conceptual issues and policy analysis". Citizenship Teachingand Learning, 8(1), 21­39.

26. Gross, Feliks (1999). Citizenship and ethnicity: the growth and development of a democratic multiethnicinstitution. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. xi, xii, xiii,4. ISBN 0­313­30932­9.

27. Beiner (editor), Ronald (1995). Theorizing Citizenship. J. G. A. Pocock, Michael Ignatieff. USA: StateUniversity of New York, Albany. pp. 29, 54. ISBN 0­7914­2335­2.

28. Oldfield, Adrian (1994). Bryan Turner; Peter Hamilton, eds. Citizenship: Critical Concepts. United States andCanada: Routledge. pp. 476 pages total; source: The Political Quarterly, 1990 vol.61, pp. 177–187; in the book,pages 188+.

29. Daniele Archibugi, "The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy"(http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8737.html), Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2008

30. Note: the consolidated version.31. Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union (http://eur­lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?

uri=OJ:C:2008:115:0001:01:EN:HTML)32. Note: Articles 39, 43, 49 EC.33. Violaine Hacker, « Citoyenneté culturelle et politique européenne des médias : entre compétitivité et promotion

des valeurs », NATIONS, CULTURES ET ENTREPRISES EN EUROPE, sous la direction de Gilles Rouet,Collection Local et Global, L'Harmattan, Paris, pp. 163­184

34. The Commonwealth Countries and Ireland (Immunities and Privileges) (Amendment) Order 2005(http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/246/pdfs/uksi_20050246_en.pdf)

35. Murray v Parkes [1942] All ER 123.36. "National curriculum". British Government, Department for Children, Schools and Families. Retrieved

2009­02­02.37. "NAFWC 13/2003 Personal and Social Education (PSE) and Work­Related Education (WRE) in the Basic

Curriculum. Education (WRE) in the Basic Curriculum.". Welsh Assembly Government. 15 June 2003.Retrieved 2007­06­09.

38. "Personal and Social Education Framework: Key Stages 1 to 4 in Wales". Welsh Assembly Government.Retrieved 2007­06­09.

39. "Modern Studies Association". Retrieved 2007­08­09.40. http://www.ncca.ie/en/Publications/Reports/Senior_Cycle_Politics_and_Society_Report_on_the_consultation.pdf

Weber, Max (1998). Citizenship in Ancient and Medieval Cities. Chapter 3. Minneapolis, MN: TheUniversity of Minnesota. pp. 43–49. ISBN 0­8166­2880­7.Zarrow, Peter (1997), Fogel, Joshua A.; Zarrow, Peter G., eds., Imagining the People: ChineseIntellectuals and the Concept of Citizenship, 1890­1920, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, p. 3, ISBN 0­7656­0098­6Pocock, J. G. A. (1998). Shafir, Gershon, ed. The Citizenship Debates. Chapter 2 ­­ The Ideal ofCitizenship since Classical Times (originally published in Queen's Quarterly 99, no. 1).Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota. p. 31. ISBN 0­8166­2880­7.

Further reading

Archibugi, Daniele (2008). The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward CosmopolitanDemocracy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978­1­4008­2976­7.Beaven, Brad, and John Griffiths. "Creating the Exemplary Citizen: The Changing Notion ofCitizenship in Britain 1870–1939," Contemporary British History (2008) 22#2 pp 203–225doi:10.1080/13619460701189559 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F13619460701189559)Carens, Joseph (2000). Culture, Citizenship, and Community: A Contextual Exploration of Justice

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Wikiquote has quotationsrelated to: Citizenship

Look up citizenship inWiktionary, the freedictionary.

as Evenhandedness. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978­0­19­829768­0.Heater, Derek (2004). A Brief History of Citizenship. NYU Press. ISBN 978­0­8147­3672­2.Kymlicka, Will (1995). Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. OxfordUniversity Press. ISBN 978­0­19­829091­9.Maas, Willem (2007). Creating European Citizens. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978­0­7425­5486­3.Marshall, T.H. (1950). Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays. Cambridge University Press.Shue, Henry (1950). Basic Rights.Smith, Rogers (2003). Stories of Peoplehood: The Politics and Morals of Political Membership.Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978­0­521­52003­4.Somers, Margaret (2008). Genealogies of Citizenship: Markets, Statelessness, and the Right to HaveRights. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978­0­521­79394­0.Soysal, Yasemin (1994). Limits of Citizenship. Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe.University of Chicago Press.Turner, Bryan S. (1994). Citizenship and Social Theory. Sage. ISBN 978­0­8039­8611­4.Young, Iris Marion (January 1989). "Polity and group difference: A critique of the ideal of universalcitizenship". Ethics (journal) (University of Chicago Press) 99 (2): 250–274. JSTOR 2381434.

External links

BBC PSHE & Citizenship(http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/pshe_and_citizenship/)The Life in the UK Citizenship Test Report by Thom Brooks(http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2280329)Citizenship (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/citizenship)entry by Dominique Leydet in the Stanford Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy"Citizenship Laws of the World" (PDF). United States Office of Personnel ManagementInvestigations Service. March 2001. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2006­04­04. Retrieved2007­03­07.

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Categories: Citizenship Human migration Nationality Government Political conceptsImmigration law

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