Segmentation in color space using clustering Student: Yijian Yang Advisor: Longin Jan Latecki.
CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007...
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Transcript of CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007...
![Page 1: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
CIS 2033 based onDekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007
Instructor Longin Jan Latecki
C3: Conditional Probability And Independence
![Page 2: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
3.1 – Conditional Probability Conditional Probability: the probability that an event will occur, given
that another event has occurred that changes the likelihood of the event
)(
),(
)(
)()|(
CP
CAP
CP
CAPCAP
Provided P(C) > 0
)()|(),()( CPCAPCAPCAP
For any events A and C:
3.2 – Multiplication Rule
![Page 3: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Example: If event L is “person was born in a long month”, and event R is “person was born in a month with the letter ‘R’ in it”, then P(R) is affected by whether or not L has occurred. The probability that R will happen, given that L has already happened is written as: P(R|L)
Dec}. Nov, Oct, Sep, Aug, Jul, Jun, May, Apr, Mar, Feb, {Jan,
Dec}.Oct, Aug, Jul, May, Mar,{Jan, L
Dec}.Nov, Oct, Sep, Apr, Mar, Feb,{Jan, R
Dec}.Oct, Mar,{Jan, LR
12
8)(
7
4
127
124
)(
)()|(
RP
LP
LRPLRP
What is P(Rc| L)?
![Page 4: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Show that P(A | C) + P(Ac | C) = 1.
Hence the rule P(Ac) = 1 – P(A)
also holds for conditional probabilities.
![Page 5: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
3.3 – Total Probability & Bayes Rule
The Law of Total Probability
Suppose C1, C2, … ,CM are disjoint events such that C1 U C2 U … U CM = Ω. The probability of an arbitraryevent A can be expressed as:
)()|(...)()|()()|()( 2211 MM CPCAPCPCAPCPCAPAP
)(...)()()( 21 MCAPCAPCAPAP
Or equivalently expressed as:
![Page 6: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
3.1 Your lecturer wants to walk from A to B (see the map). To do so, hefirst randomly selects one of the paths to C, D, or E. Next he selects randomly one of the possible paths at that moment (so if he first selected the path to E, he can either select the path to A or the path to F), etc. What is the probability that he will reach B after two selections?
![Page 7: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
3.1 Your lecturer wants to walk from A to B (see the map). To do so, hefirst randomly selects one of the paths to C, D, or E. Next he selects randomly one of the possible paths at that moment (so if he first selected the path to E, he can either select the path to A or the path to F), etc. What is the probability that he will reach B after two selections?
Define: B = event “point B is reached on the second step,” C = event “the path to C is chosen on the first step,” and similarly D and E.
P(B) = P(B ∩ C) + P(B ∩ D) + P(B ∩ E)= P(B | C) P(C) + P(B | D) P(D) + P(B | E) P(E)
![Page 8: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
3.3 – Total Probability & Bayes Rule
Bayes Rule:Suppose the events C1, C2, … CM are disjoint and C1 U C2 U … U CM = Ω. The conditional probability of Ci, given an arbitrary event A, can be expressed as:
)()|(...)()|()()|(
)()|()|(
)(
)()|()|(
2211 mm
iii
iii
CPCAPCPCAPCPCAP
CPCAPACP
AP
CPCAPACP
or
![Page 9: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
3.4 – IndependenceDefinition:
An event A is called independent of B if:
)()|( APBAP
That is to say that A is independent of B if the probability of A occurring is not changed by whether or not B occurs.
![Page 10: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
3.4 – Independence
Tests for Independence
To show that A and B are independent we have to prove just one of the following:
)()|( APBAP
)()|( BPABP
)()()( BPAPBAP
A and/or B can both be replaced by their complement.
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3.4 – Independence
Independence of Two or More Events
Events A1, A2, …, Am are called independent if:
)()...()()...( 2121 mm APAPAPAAAP
This statement holds true if any event or events is/are replaced by their complement throughout the equation.
![Page 12: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
3.2 A fair die is thrown twice. A is the event “sum of the throws equals 4,”B is “at least one of the throws is a 3.”a. Calculate P(A|B).b. Are A and B independent events?
![Page 13: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
3.2 A fair die is thrown twice. A is the event “sum of the throws equals 4,”B is “at least one of the throws is a 3.”a. Calculate P(A|B).b. Are A and B independent events?
a. Event A has three outcomes, event B has 11 outcomes, and A ∩ B = {(1, 3), (3, 1)}. Hence we find P(B) = 11/36 and P(A ∩ B) = 2/36 so that
b. Because P(A) = 3/36 = 1/12 and this is not equal to P(A|B) = 2/11 the events A and B are dependent.
![Page 14: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
A computer program is tested by 3 independent tests. When there is an error, these tests will discover it with probabilities 0.2, 0.3, and 0.5, respectively. Suppose that the program contains an error. What is the probability that it will be found by at least one test? (Baron 2.5)
![Page 15: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
A computer program is tested by 3 independent tests. When there is an error, these tests will discover it with probabilities 0.2, 0.3, and 0.5, respectively. Suppose that the program contains an error. What is the probability that it will be found by at least one test? (Baron 2.5)
![Page 16: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Example 2.18 from Baron(Reliability of backups). There is a 1% probability for a hard drive to crash. Therefore, it has two backups, each having a 2% probability to crash, and all three components are independent of each other. The stored information is lost only in an unfortunate situation when all three devices crash. What is the probability that the information is saved?
![Page 17: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Example 2.18 from Baron(Reliability of backups). There is a 1% probability for a hard drive to crash. Therefore, it has two backups, each having a 2% probability to crash, and all three components are independent of each other. The stored information is lost only in an unfortunate situation when all three devices crash. What is the probability that the information is saved?
![Page 18: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Example 2.19. from BaronSuppose that a shuttle's launch depends on three key devices that operate independently of each other and malfunction with probabilities 0.01, 0.02, and 0.02, respectively. If any of the key devices malfunctions, the launch will be postponed. Compute the probability for the shuttle to be launched on time, according to its schedule.
![Page 19: CIS 2033 based on Dekking et al. A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 2007 Instructor Longin Jan Latecki C3: Conditional Probability And.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062515/56649cba5503460f94981ab0/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Example 2.19. from BaronSuppose that a shuttle's launch depends on three key devices that operate independently of each other and malfunction with probabilities 0.01, 0.02, and 0.02, respectively. If any of the key devices malfunctions, the launch will be postponed. Compute the probability for the shuttle to be launched on time, according to its schedule.