CIRI Forum on Worker-driven Innovation in the Globalized ... · PDF fileCIRI Forum on...

CIRIForumon

Worker-drivenInnovationintheGlobalizedEconomy–

LearningfromEncounters

–Forumreport–

KarinAstridSiegmann&GiulioIocco1

(9January2017)

1KarinAstridSiegmannandGiulioIoccoorganisedtheForumon“Worker-drivenInnovationintheGlobalizedEconomy–LearningfromEncounters”,jointlywithShikhaSethia.

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Tableofcontents

Abbreviations......................................................................................................................................... 3Summary................................................................................................................................................ 4

Forumquestions ................................................................................................................................ 4Whatisworker-driveninnovation?.................................................................................................... 4Lessonsinorganising ......................................................................................................................... 5Howdoesworker-driveninnovationcomeabout? ............................................................................ 5Coalitionsascatalystsofworker-driveninnovation .......................................................................... 6Howtoguaranteeeffectivenessofworker-driveninnovation? ......................................................... 6Scalingupworker-driveninnovation ................................................................................................. 7Amorecentralvoiceforworkersintradeunionsandresearch......................................................... 7

1.Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 8Towardsdecentworkwithworkersinthedriver’sseat..................................................................... 8Whyisworker-driveninnovationnecessary?..................................................................................... 8TheForumasanopenspaceforencounterandlearning................................................................ 10Encouragingexamplesofworker-driveninnovation ....................................................................... 10Participatorymethodsledtoactiveengagementandmutualinspiration ...................................... 12

2.Givingmeaningtoworker-driveninnovation .................................................................................. 14Reclaiming‘innovation’forcivicmovements................................................................................... 14Workersdrivingprogressivechange................................................................................................ 15Innovationbuildsonworkers’first-handknowledgeofworkingconditions ................................... 15‘Worker-driven’isnotnecessarilyunion-driven............................................................................... 16Worker-driveninnovationas‘positiveclasscompromise’ ............................................................... 16Worker-driveninnovationasalternativeformofproduction .......................................................... 17Innovationtakesplacefromlocaltogloballevel............................................................................. 17

3.Thehowofworker-driveninnovation ............................................................................................. 18Whatenablesorganizingforworker-driveninnovation? ................................................................ 18Whichfactorspromoteworker-driveninnovation? ......................................................................... 21Howcanworker-driveninnovationbemadeeffectiveinthelong-term?........................................ 27Howcanworker-driveninnovationbebroughttoscale? ................................................................ 30

4.Towardsworker-driventradeunions .............................................................................................. 325.Researchthatworksforworkers ..................................................................................................... 34

Academicsasalliesinworker-driveninnovation ............................................................................. 34Doingresearchwithratherthanaboutworkers.............................................................................. 35

6.Learningaboutworker-driveninnovation ....................................................................................... 36References ........................................................................................................................................... 37Annexure ............................................................................................................................................. 42

Annex1:Listofexternalinvitees,speakersandorganisers ............................................................. 42Annex2:Forumprogramme ............................................................................................................ 44

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Abbreviations

AFW AsiaFloorWage

CBA collectivebargainingagreement

CGT CentralGeneraldeTrabajadores(GeneralWorkers’Centre)

CIRI CivicInnovationResearchInitiative

CIW CoalitionofImmokaleeWorkers

CSR CorporateSocialResponsibility

EPZ ExportProcessingZone

FFP FairFoodProgram

FFSC FairFoodStandardsCouncil

FNV FederatieNederlandseVakbeweging(TheNetherlandsTradeUnionConfederation)

FoA freedomofassociation

GSP GeneralSystemofPreferences

GVC GlobalValueChain

ICRSE InternationalCommitteeontheRightsofSexWorkersinEurope

IDWF InternationalDomesticWorkersFederation

ILO InternationalLabourOrganisation

ISS InternationalInstituteofSocialStudies,ErasmusUniversityofRotterdam

MoU MemorandumofUnderstanding

PILER PakistanInstituteofLabourEducationandResearch

TNC TransnationalCorporation

USAS UnitedStudentsAgainstSweatshops

WRC WorkerRightsConsortium

WSR Worker-drivenSocialResponsibility

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Summary

Inthecontextofneo-liberalgovernanceofmarketsthathasoftentakenplaceatworkers’expense,

inmanycasesworkershaveneverthelessstruggledsuccessfullyto(re-)establishtheirrightsand

improvetheirworkingconditions.TheForumon“Worker-drivenInnovationintheGlobalized

Economy–LearningfromEncounters”thattookplaceattheInternationalInstituteofSocialStudies

atErasmusUniversityRotterdam(ISS)from13-15June2016offeredanopenspacetoshare,discuss

andlearnfromadiverseandexcitingrangeofsuchinitiatives.FundingfromtheMondiaalFNV,part

oftheDutchtradeunionconfederationFNV,aswellasfromtheISSCivicInnovationResearch

Initiative(CIRI)madetheForumpossible.

Forumquestions

Weinvitedtheparticipatingpractitionersandscholarsofworker-driveninnovationtoengagewith

thefollowingkeyquestions:

1. Whatparticularconditionsmakeorganizing/strategizingmorefavourable?

2. Whichfactorspromoteworker-driveninnovation?

3. Howcanworker-driveninnovationbemadeeffectiveinthelong-term?

4. Howcanupscalingofworker-driveninnovationbeachievedintheglobalisedeconomy?

Whatisworker-driveninnovation?

TheForumbroadlycharacterizedworker-driveninnovationasinitiativesthroughwhichworkers,

labourorganizationsandtheirallieshavesuccessfullychallengedtheeconomic,politicalandsocial

structuresthatmarginalizethem.Suchinitiativesbuildonworkers'knowledgeoftheirworking

conditionsaswellasontheirunderstandingofthemechanismsthatexploitorempowerthem.

TheForumrepresentedagreatdiversityofformsofworker-driveninnovation,rangingfromcases

whereworkerorganizations’strugglesledtoanagreementwithcompaniesviathesuccessful

campaignfordomesticworkers’recognitionandrightsthatledtotheratificationofthe

internationalDomesticWorkersConventiontotheestablishmentofalternativeformsofproduction

basedonworkers’controlandself-management.

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Lessonsinorganising

Organisingworkersisnecessaryforinnovativecollectivemovestowardsdecentwork.Forum

participantshighlightedtheroleofintangibleresources,suchaseffectivecommunicationwithand

confidence-buildingamongworkers.Asharedbackgroundfacilitateseffectivecommunicationwith

andawareness-raisingamongworkers.FairWorkthereforetriestoreachouttoasmanymigrant

workersintheNetherlandsaspossiblethroughso-called‘culturalmediators’.Thesemediatorsare

oftenmigrantsthemselves;someofthemareformerworkerswhohaveexperiencedsimilar

conditionsofsevereviolationsoftheirlabourrightsastheworkersthatFairWorktriestoreachout

to.TheprocessoftradeunionrenewalattheGermantradeunionIGMetallexemplifiedthat

tangibleresourcesintheformofavailablefundsareimportantfororganising,too.Ademocratic

politicalenvironmentaswellasafavourablelegalenvironmentcancatalyseworkers’organisation,

buttheyarenotsufficientforworkplacedemocratisation.

Howdoesworker-driveninnovationcomeabout?

Workersinnovateinstrategicresponsetothepoliticalandeconomicstructuresthatoppressthem.

TheAsiaFloorWage(AFW)AllianceintheAsiangarmentindustryexemplifiesthis.TheideaofAFW

Allianceemergedinresponsetothepowerofafewbrandsandretailersintheglobalgarment

industry.ThesebuyersholdoligopolisticpoweroversuppliersintheglobalSouth,enablingthemto

drivedownpricespaidtomanufacturerswhopasstheseontogarmentworkersintheformof

povertywages.TheAFWAlliancethereforedecidedtotargetbuyingcompanieswiththeirdemand

foraregionallivingwage.Moregenerally,inordertocounterlabourprecarityintheglobalized

economy,workersoftenneedto‘jumpscale’andtargetpowerfultransnationalbuyersratherthan

theirdirectemployers.

Thevisibilityofthesebrandsorthedirectemployersagainstwhichworkersstrugglecameoutasa

catalyticfactorforworkers’initiatives.Forinstance,themigrantfarmworkerorganisationCoalition

ofImmokaleeWorkers’(CIW’s)successesinempoweringandprotectingsomeofthemost

precariousworkersintheUSAhaveemergedinacontextinwhichtomatobuyerssuchas

McDonald’sandWalmartarehighlyvisibletoconsumers.Especiallyinsectorswithastrong

consumerorientation,brands’reputationisanimportantfactorfortheirabilitytocreateand

capturevalue.TNCssellinggoodsandserviceswithagreatervisibilitytoconsumersare,therefore,

morelikelytobeconcernedabouttheir‘reputationalcapital’.Asaresult,theyaremoreeagerto

negotiate.

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Coalitionsascatalystsofworker-driveninnovation

Thepresenceofcoalitionswithothersocialactorsandmovementscameoutasakeyfactorin

worker-driveninnovationduringtheForum.ThesuccessoftheCGT’scampaignagainstunion

repressioningarmentcompanyFruitoftheLoom’sHonduransubsidiarywaspossibleonlybecause

oftheunion’sstrategicallianceswithpartnerssuchastheUnitedStudentsAgainstSweatshops

(USAS).USASmobilizedpublicopinionintheUSandusedtheirbulkpurchasingpoweras

institutionalgarmentsconsumersagainstunionrepressioninFruitoftheLoom’sfactoriesin

Honduras.Brookes(2013:192)callsthisworkers’‘coalitionalpower’asworkers’capacity‘[…]to

expandthescopeofconflictbyinvolvingother,nonlaboractorswillingandabletoinfluencean

employer’sbehavior’.

AllieshaveplayedadifferentroleintheItalianagriculturalcooperativeManieTerra.Cooperative

workersrelyonthesupportofprogressivefarmersandcriticalconsumers.Farmersexperiencingan

incomesqueezeasaresultoftheirmarginalroleinmainstreambuyer-drivenfoodchainssearchfor

analternativebysubcontractingthemanagementandcommercializationoftheirharvestand

productstothecooperative.Theroleofcriticalconsumersisequallycrucial:bypurchasingproducts

fromproducersata‘fairprice’,theyenableworkersandfarmerstoreceiveafairremuneration.

Howtoguaranteeeffectivenessofworker-driveninnovation?

Monitoringandenforcementmechanisms,flankedbythethreatwithmarketand/orstatesanctions,

havegreatimportanceforinitiatives’effectiveness.Intheabsenceofmonitoring,powerful

companiesareunlikelytocomplywithagreementstheyhavesignedtoreducepublicpressureon

theirreputation.Inordertobeeffective,enforcement,too,needstobedrivenbyworkers.The

effectivenessoftheCIW-designedFairFoodProgram(FFP)inUSagriculturereliesonthefactthat

theFFPplacesthejobofmonitoringlabourrightssquarelyinthehandsofthosewhoworkinthe

fields.Yet,workerscandrivetheenforcementofnewinitiativestoimprovetheirlabourconditions

onlyiftheyareawareoftheirrightsandentitlements.Therefore,laboureducationandthe

promotionofworkers’self-organisationarekeystepstowardslong-termeffectivenessofworker-

driveninnovation.

Someformofstatebackingofworker-driveninnovationscanenhancetheseinitiatives’

effectiveness.Brookes(2013:188)labelssuchstatebacking‘institutionalpower’.Shedefinesitas:

“[…]thecapacityofworkerstoinfluencethebehaviorofanemployerbyinvokingtheformalor

informalrulesthatstructuretheirrelationshipandinteractions”.Domesticworkers’lobbyingof

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statesforratificationandimplementationoftherulesenshrinedintheinternationalDomesticWork

Conventionexemplifiessuchinstitutionalpower.

Scalingupworker-driveninnovation

TheencounterstheForumsuggestedtentativeanswerstothequestionofhowtobringworker-

driveninitiativestoscale.Ifsuchinitiativesarestrategicresponsestoaspecificeconomicand

politicalcontext,thenthisimpliesthattherearenoblueprintsforupscaling.SeveralForum

participantsproposedadaptedreplicationinsteadofinitiatives’economicgrowthinordertoensure

thatworker-driveninnovationsarenotplayingamerelysymbolicrole.TheCIW,forinstance,has

collaboratedwiththedairyworkerorganizationMigrantJusticeinVermontinanefforttoreplicate

theFFPwithintheirMilkwithDignityProgram.Physicalproximityisessentialforsuchnetworking

andmutualinspiration,andmeetingspacesliketheForumhaveanimportantroletoplay.

Amorecentralvoiceforworkersintradeunionsandresearch

Tradeunionshavehadakey,yet,ambiguousroleintheworker-driveninnovationsrepresented

duringtheForum.Severalinitiativesemergedfromlocalunions’struggles,suchastheCGT’sFruitof

theLoomcampaigninHondurasandtheFoAProtocolinIndonesia.TheAFWAlliance’scampaignfor

aregionalfloorwageisanexampleforhowtradeunions’regionalnetworkingenabledmovesfrom

competitiontocollaborationamongworkersindifferentcountries.Yet,tradeunions’limited

presenceinworkplacesandthefactthatcoverageofinitiativesissometimeslimitedtotheupper

tierofcomplexvaluechains,raisesthequestioninhowfarinnovationisunion-ratherthanworker-

driven?Especiallysex,migrantanddomesticworkers’voicesduringtheForumspokeofa

widespreadcrisisofrepresentationinthegloballabourmovement,whichhasbeenslowto

acknowledgethattheranksoftheworkingclassarefilledwithamorediversecrowdthan

permanent,male,industrialemployees.

Academicsandacademicinstitutions,too,playanambiguousroleinworker-driveninitiatives.On

theonehand,theyemergeaskeyalliesin‘pro-labourcivilsocietynetworks’(Chan2016).However,

thetypeofknowledgethatscholarscontributeandthewaytheygenerateitmattersfortheroleof

researchinworker-driveninnovation:Forumparticipantsinsistedonknowledgegenerationwith

workersratherthanaboutthem.

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1.Introduction

Inthecontextofneo-liberalgovernanceofmarketsthathasoftentakenplaceatworkers’expense,

workershaveneverthelessstruggledsuccessfullyto(re-)establishtheirrightsandimprovetheir

workingconditions.TheForumon“Worker-drivenInnovationintheGlobalizedEconomy–Learning

fromEncounters”thattookplaceattheInternationalInstituteofSocialStudiesatErasmus

UniversityRotterdam(ISS)from13-15June2016offeredanopenspacetoshare,discussandlearn

fromadiverseandexcitingrangeofsuchinitiatives.

Towardsdecentworkwithworkersinthedriver’sseat

WhenwestartedorganisingtheForum,wehadinnovativemechanismsfortheregulationoflabour

relationsliketheFairFoodProgram(FFP)inmind.Thisprogrammefortheimprovementofworking

conditionsinFlorida’stomatofieldswasdesignedandisimplementedbymigrantfarmworkers

organisedintheCoalitionofImmokaleeWorkers(CIW).TheCIWhascontractswithtomatobuyers

andagreementswithgrowers.TheyensurethatfailuretocomplywiththeFFPlabourstandardsisa

reasonforbuyerstostoppurchasingtomatoesfromagrower.TwodecadesaftertheCoalitionwas

formedandfiveyearsaftertheestablishmentoftheFFP,theirstrugglesagainstpovertywagesand

precariouslabourconditionshavebornefruit:significantimprovementsintheconditionsinFlorida

tomatofields,andnowalongtheentiresoutheastcoastoftheUS,arevisible.Amongothers,

workersreceivednearlyUS$20millioninwagepremiumssince2011,andnocasesofforcedlabour

andsexualassaultwerereportedonparticipatingfarms(FFSC2016:33).TheFFPhasbeenlabelled

asthebestworkplace-monitoringprogrammeintheUSAandwasawardedarangeofprestigious

nationalhumanrightsawards(Siegmannetal.2016:119).Themessagethatthisexampleof

‘worker-driveninnovation’conveyspowerfullyisthatworkers’enduringorganisedmobilisationsand

innovativecampaignsdoforceeventhemostpowerfulcorporationstoaddressworkers’demands.

Whyisworker-driveninnovationnecessary?

TheFFPisaresponsetotheincreasesinworkingpovertyandinsecurelabourrelationsthathave

accompaniedtheneo-liberalgovernanceofmarketssincethe1990s.Forinstance,povertywagesin

Florida’sagriculturehavebeentheresultoftheconcentrationatthetopoftheUS-Americanfood

industry,creatingtremendouspressureonsupplierprices.Thishastranslatedintodownward

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pressureonwagesanddeteriorationofworkingconditionsinthetomatofields(AsbedandSellers

2013:43-44).

Neo-liberalismisanexpressionofasecularshifttowardstheeconomicandpoliticaldominanceof

corporations.ForumparticipantEvangelinaArguetasummarisedthisprocesssuccinctlywhenshe

statedthatthestateprovides“[…]operationalprivilegestolargecompanieswithoutconditionsor

guaranteesoflabororhumanrights”(Argueta2016).Itfetishisesthepowersofafreemarketto

regulatehumanbehaviour(Guthman2007:458).Thishastriggeredamovefromstatetomarket

regulation,associatedwiththesuccessiveliberalisationofmarketsandincreasedcompetition.

Furthermore,ithasledtothecommoditisationofessentialgoodsandservicesaswellastothe

weakeningofprotectivelabourregulation.

Asaresult,neo-liberalisationhasoftentakenplaceatworkers’expense.Marketliberalisationhas

catalysedtherestructuringoftheproductionofgoodsandservicesinglobalvaluechains(GVCs).

Here,labourprecarityistheflipsideofcapitalmobilityandcorporations’demandforflexiblelabour

relations.Export-processingzones(EPZs)fortransnationalcorporations(TNCs)wereestablishedin

Asia,LatinAmericaandAfricabasedontheargumentthatwiththeinfusionofcapital,productivity

wouldgrowandwageswoulddevelopintandemwiththisgrowth.Yet,incontrast,EPZsare

characterisedbyhighproductivity,butlowwagesthatfallshortofwhatworkersrequiretomeet

theirownandtheirfamilies’basicneeds(Bhattacharjee2016).Besides,theconcentrationofpower

inTNCshasresultedincasesofaggressiveandoftenviolentrepressionoftradeunionrights

(Argueta2016,Siegmannetal.2014b).Theriseofglobalisedproductionanddistributionhascaused

aregulatoryvacuumforlabourrights,whicharecommonlygovernedatthenationallevel.Not

surprisingly,thisvacuumhasnotbeeneffectivelyfilledbycompany-ledinitiatives.Mostly,such

corporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)hasonlybeeneffectivetoaddressthe“publicrelationscrisis

promptedbytherevelationofgrosshumanrightsviolationsinacompany’ssupplychain”(CIW

2014).

Parallelingthecapital-friendlyre-regulationofmarkets,stateregulationhasbecomemore

restrictiveinpolicyareasthatindirectlyaggravatelabourprecarity.Thisconcernsmigration

governance,inparticular.Discriminationagainstmigrantworkerswithlegalimmigrationstatusis

oftensanctionedbylaw.Increasinglyrestrictivemigrationregimesthatdonotofferlegal

immigrationstatusforlow-paidoccupations,suchasagricultural,domesticandsexwork,fashion

andentrenchtheseworkers’povertyandprecarity(Anderson2010).Forsexworkers,these

dynamicsarecompoundedbyanti-traffickingregulationusedtocurbsexworkaswellasbythe

widespreadcriminalisationofsexwork.

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TheForumasanopenspaceforencounterandlearning

Whilelabourprecarityiswidespread,wearealsowitnessingencouragingexamples,liketheFFP,

whereworkersandlabourorganisations,jointlywithallies,havesuccessfullychallengedthe

economic,politicalandsocialstructuresthatmarginalizethem.Theirdiverseformsoforganising,

activismandadvocacycanalsoinspirescalingupofworker-driveninnovationintheglobalized

economy.

Buildingonresearch(Siegmann2015,Siegmannetal.2014a,2014b,2016,forthcoming)onand

activismforinnovativeworker-driveninitiativesatISS,westartedconceptualisingtheForumon

Worker-drivenInnovationintheGlobalizedEconomyin2015.WeimaginedthisForumasoffering

spaceforsharingsomeoftheseexperiencesasawaytodrawfromthestrengthsandlessons

learnedofpastexperiences.FundingfromtheMondiaalFNV,partoftheDutchtradeunion

confederationFNV,aswellasfromtheISSCivicInnovationResearchInitiative(CIRI)allowedusto

puttheseideasintopractice.

InoldRomancities,theforumreferredtoanopenpublicspace.OurForumofferedsuchaspace,

too.Participationfluctuatedbetween45personsandacoregroupofadozeninternationalguests

plusahandfulofISSstudentsandmembersoffaculty.Thegroupofparticipantswascharacterised

byanenormousdiversity(seeAnnex1):Participants’originsrangedfromIndiatoItaly,from

PakistantoParis.Theyrepresentedworkerscultivatingorangesandtomatoes,stitchinggarmentsas

wellasprovidingdomesticandsexualservices.Thegroupincludedworkers,tradeunionistsand

otherlabourrightsadvocates,researchersandstudentsfromtheISSaswellasfromother

institutions–andnottoforgetthetwosonsoftheCIWrepresentativeandco-founderLucas

Benitez.Heproudlysharedthattheboys’firstwordswerenot‘Papa’and‘Mum’,but‘boycott’.

Encouragingexamplesofworker-driveninnovation

Theinternationalguestsrepresentedandfamiliarisedusavarietyofinnovativemechanismsforthe

regulationoflabourrelations:

• TheFFPoutlinedabovewasoneofthem,representedbyLucasBenitezandNatali

Rodriguez.

• Domesticworkersaroundtheglobehavecomeoutoftheinvisibilityoftheirprivate

workplacestoleadacampaignforrecognitionandrightsthatledtoaninternational

DomesticWorkersConventionandtheestablishmentoftheInternationalDomesticWorkers

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Federation(IDWF).WehadthehonourandpleasuretowelcomeMyrtleWitbooi,theIDWF’s

President.

• KaramatAli,DirectorofthePakistanInstituteofLabourEducationandResearch(PILER),

sharedtheexperienceofthesuccessfullobbyingafterPakistan’sworstindustrialdisaster,a

factoryfireinKarachiin2012.MobilisationbyanumberofcivilsocietyactorsinPakistan,

ledbyPILER,resultedinthesigningofamemorandumofunderstandingbythe

transnationalbuyerofgarmentsfromthatfactory,KiKTextilien,andPILERforthe

immediatereliefandlongtermcompensationtotheaffectedfamiliesoftheworkerswho

losttheirlives.

• Themovementoftheunemployedaswellasworkers’occupationandself-managementof

factorieswerejusttwoofthemultipleformsofworkers’collectiveagencyinthecontextof

thefinancialandeconomiccrisisinArgentinathatMaurizioAtzeni,CentreforLabour

Relations,NationalResearchCouncilofArgentina,portrayed.

• StefanSchmalz,UniversityofJena,outlinedhowIGMetall,thelargeGermanmetalworker

unionand,accordingtoSchmalz,an‘industrialdinosaur’,celebratedacomebackthrough

innovativeorganizingstrategiesamongprecarious,outsourcedworkers.

• AnannyaBhattacharjee,InternationalCoordinatoroftheAsiaFloorWageAlliance,shared

theconceptoftheAsiaFloorWage(AFW)developedbyAsianlabourorganizations.The

AFWwouldenablearegionalmovefrompovertytowardslivingwagesintheglobalgarment

industrialframework.

• Lamine(MohamedRassoulou)NiangintroducedtheruralcooperativeManieTerra(Hands

andLand)inSouthernItaly.ManieTerrasellstheiragriculturalproduceatafairprice,

higherthantheoneimposedbybigretailers,thatwayguaranteeingafairremunerationto

workersandproducers.InthecontextoftheexploitationofmigrantworkersinSouthern

Europeanagriculture,ManieTerraestablishesasmalllivingexamplethatanalternative,

worker-ledgovernanceofthelabourprocessispossible.

• Arguingthatthebadworkingconditionsinthesexindustryandinformalsectorsarethenew

normsinacontextofneo-liberalgovernanceofmarkets,ThierrySchaffauser,International

CommitteeontheRightsofSexWorkersinEurope(ICRSE),emphasisedthattheexperience

ofsexworkersdoesmatter.Hesharedsexworkers’strugglesforrecognitionandrights

duringtheForum.

• FromEvangelinaArgueta,ProjectCoordinatoroftheHondurantradeunionCentralGeneral

deTrabajadores(CGT),welearnedabouttheCGT’ssuccessfulstrugglesagainstTNCs’

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repressionofcollectivelabourrightsinaHonduranEPZ.Theyresultedinthesigningofan

innovativeagreementwiththegarmentgiantFruitoftheLoom.

• SandraClaassen,FairWorksharedexperiencesfromFairWork’sfightsagainstforcedlabour

inarichcountryliketheNetherlands.Migrantworkers,inparticular,areaffected.So-called

‘culturalmediators’frommigrantcommunitiesareusedtoreachouttoasmanyworkersas

possibleforawareness-raisingabouttheirlabourrights.

• JeroenMerk,ISS,introducedhowIndonesiansportswearworkerslobbiedfortheFreedom

ofAssociation(FoA)ProtocolintheIndonesiansportswearchain.Thisinnovativetriangular

agreementbetweenIndonesiantradeunions,sportswearmanufacturersandbuyershasthe

potentialtore-balancepowerrelationsbetweenworkers,factorymanagementandlarge

sportswearbrands.

Participatorymethodsledtoactiveengagementandmutualinspiration

Weinvitedtheparticipatingpractitionersandscholarsofworker-driveninnovationtoengagewith

thefollowingkeyquestions:

1. Whatparticularconditionsmakeorganizing/strategizingmorefavourable?

2. Whichfactorspromoteworker-driveninnovation?

3. Howcanworker-driveninnovationbemadeeffectiveinthelong-term?

4. Howcanupscalingofworker-driveninnovationbeachievedintheglobalisedeconomy?

Inthesectionsbelow,weprovideconcisesummariesoftheForumdiscussionsandinsightsrelevant

tothesequestionsthathaveemergedfromtheevent.

TheForumprogrammewasorganisedinsuchawaytocatalyseactiveengagementofallparticipants

(seeAnnex2).Besidesplenaryandsmallgroupdiscussionsthattookplaceintheinformalspaceof

theISSattic,wevisitedtheFNVinAmsterdamtolearnaboutanddiscusssomeofthefederation’s

neworganisingandregulatoryinitiatives.Weusedarangeofparticipatorytechniquestostimulate

thebuildingoftrust,invitediscussionandencouragenetworkingamongparticipants2.Forinstance:

• Anice-breakingexerciseintroducedparticipants’backgroundandexpectationswhilst

simultaneouslydevelopingacolourfulnetworkofwoollenthreadbetweenthem.

• Theworker-driveninnovationsoutlinedabovewereintroducedinaso-calledWorldCafé

format.Afterconciseintroductionsofthehighlightsoftheinitiatives(±5minutes),

2WegratefullyacknowledgeinspirationofandsuggestionsbyourcolleagueKeesBiekart,ISS,here.

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participantscouldraisequestionsanddiscussaspectsoftheseexperiencesthatwereof

specificinteresttotheminsmallergroups(±20minutes).

• Thediscussiononhowupscalingofworker-driveninnovationcouldbeachievedtookplace

inaso-calledFishbowlsetting.Itimpliedthatafterinitialinputsfromasmallpanelof

participants,thosewhowantedtocommentorraisequestionscoulddothatbyjoiningan

emptychaironthepanel.

• DuringthelastdayoftheForum,inaparticipatoryprocess,allparticipantsjointlysetthe

agendaforhowtotakethediscussionofthefirsttwodaysfurther.

Thedifferentsmallergroupsthatemergedasaresultofthesetechniques,amongothers,supported

trustbuilding,mutuallearningandcatalysednetworkingacrossgeographicalandoccupational

boundaries.Itbroughttogetheragricultural,domesticandsexworkerrepresentativesarounda

platformforinformalworkers,inspiredtradeunionistsintheLatinAmericangarmentsectortolearn

frominitiativestocounterthedownwardwagespiralintheAsiangarmentchainandallowed

migrantworkersinItalytodrawfromtheexperienceoftheCIW’sstrugglesintheUS.

ThierrySchaffauserexplainstheresultsofhisgroup’sdiscussion

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ThebackgroundnotessubmittedbytheinternationalForumparticipantsandournotestakenduring

thethreedaysoftheForumformthebasisofthisreport.Selectively,werelatetheseexperiences

andinsightstobackgroundresearch,includingourown.Thereportsummarisestheexperienceof

theForumfromourperspectiveandinvitesdiscussionofourinterpretationsandconclusions.Inthe

following,wereflectonhowForumparticipantsunderstood‘worker-driveninnovation’(section2)

andhowitcomesabout,canbepromotedandmadeeffectiveinthelong-term(section3).Theroles

oftradeunionsandacademicalliesarediscussedinsections4and5.Intheconcludingsection6,we

returntotheForumobjectivesandkeyquestionsandreflectonwhatwehavelearnedfromthe

encountersduringthethreedaysdurationoftheevent.

2.Givingmeaningtoworker-driveninnovation3

InpreparationoftheForum,severaloftheinviteesasked:“Whatdoyoumeanby‘worker-driven

innovation’?”TheChineselabourscholarandForumparticipantChrisChanevenpolitelyapologised:

“Thisconceptisnewforme”.Therewasnoreasonforapologies:Theconceptwasnewfor

everyone.ItwascoinedfortheForum.

Reclaiming‘innovation’forcivicmovements

TheinvitationtotheForumbroadlycharacterisedworker-driveninnovationasinitiativesthrough

whichworkersandlabourorganisations,jointlywithallies,havesuccessfullychallengedthe

economic,politicalandsocialstructuresthatmarginalizethem.Theterm‘innovation’wasincluded

inanefforttore-claimitfrommanagementdiscourses.InourISSresearchgroup,theCivic

InnovationResearchInitiative(CIRI),weusetheterm‘civicinnovation’toidentify,understandand

promoteformsofcollaborationofcivicactorsthatembodyprogressivesocialchange.Inthefirst

CIRIbookthataimsatgivingmeaningtocivicinnovation,ourcolleagueshaveexpressedthisasthe:

“[…]multipleeconomic,politicalandsocialprocesseswherepeople,organizations,movementsand

ideasareshapingstrugglesforglobaljusticeontheinterfaceofcapitalism.[…]Civicinnovationis

aboutfocusingonwhatispositive,creativeandimaginativeinthefaceofaworldthatseemsbeset

3Thesub-titleisinspiredbyBiekartetal.(2016).

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bycrisisnarratives,whetherfinancial,economic,ecological,socialorcultural”(Biekartetal.2016:

3).

Workersdrivingprogressivechange

DuringtheForumdiscussions,however,severalfeaturesthatcharacteriseworker-driveninnovation

cametothefore:itisdrivenbytheworkersthemselveswhoexperiencepovertyandprecarity,and

itbuildsonworkers'specificknowledgeoftheirworkingconditionsaswellasofthemechanisms

thatexploitorempowerthem.

Asmentionedabove,theFFPwasanimportantsourceofinspirationforourunderstandingofwhat

itmeansforaninitiativetobe‘worker-driven.MechanismsliketheFFP,thattheCIWhasdubbed

‘worker-drivensocialresponsibility’(WSR)4-incontrasttocorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)–

respondtothedemandfora‘sea-changeintheinternationalbusinessmodelandtheactive

participationofinformedandempoweredworkers’(Brown2013:5).TheCIWbringsoutthe

contradictionsofcompany-ledCSRwhenitasks:“Doesthecorporationwhosesupplychainis

riddledwithhumanrightsviolationsdrivetheprogram,ordotheworkerswhosebasichumanrights

arebeingviolatedonadailybasis?”(CIW2014).Onthatbasis,theCoalitionarguesthat:“Ifahuman

rightsprogramistobeeffective,thehumanswhoserightsareinquestionmustbekeyplayersin—

thearchitects,nottheobjectsof—thedesignandimplementationoftheprogram”(CIW2014).The

resultofinitiativesfordecentworkinwhichworkersthemselvesareatthehelmisthedesignof

workplacestandardsinwhichworkersthemselves“[…]craftindustryspecificcodesofconductthat

reflecttheparticularrightsandreformsnecessarytotransformabrutaljobintoamoremodern,

morehumaneworkplace.WSRcodescontainprovisionsdesignedtogetatlongstandingabusesthat

onlyworkerscouldknow,theformsofexploitationandhumiliationuniquetoeachparticular

industrythatworkershaveexperiencedforgenerations,butnooutside“expert”couldeverdivine”

(CIW2014).AprominentexamplefromFlorida’stomatofieldsistheeliminationofthepracticeof

forcedoverfillingofharvestingbucketsthroughtheFFP.Thispracticeeffectivelydeniedworkerspay

forupto10percentofthetomatoestheyharvested(FFSC2016:6-7).

Innovationbuildsonworkers’first-handknowledgeofworkingconditions

OtherinitiativesdiscussedduringtheForum,too,highlightthatworker-driveninnovationbuildson

workers'specificknowledgeofthelabourprocessaswellasoftheconcreteexpressionsof

4TheCIWhasacopyrightonthisterm.

16

structuresthatexploitorempowerthem.ChrisChansummarisedthissuccinctly,whenhepointed

outthat:“Therealproblemsonlyworkerscantellyou”.Forinstance,Asiangarmentworkersknow

theircostsofreproduction.Theyarethereforeinthebestpositiontodesignalivingwagelikethe

AFWthatoffersthemcompensationallowingforadecentstandardofliving.TheFoAProtocolinthe

Indonesiansportswearindustryaddressesthemicro-formsofunionrepressionthattheIndonesian

tradeunionsinvolvedintheProtocol'snegotiationknewtoowell(Siegmannetal.2014b:14).Inthe

innovativecollectivebargainingagreement(CBA)betweentheCGTandFruitoftheLoom’s

Honduransubsidiary,workers'knowledgeturnedouttobekeyinaveryspecificway:Workerswere

awareofthemanagersinvolvedinanti-unionbehaviourandworkers'repression.Basedonthat,

theyensuredthesewerenotrecruitedaspartthemanagerialstaffinthenewplant.

‘Worker-driven’isnotnecessarilyunion-driven

DuringtheopeningoftheForum,wepointedoutthatworker-drivendoesnotonlycontrastwith

corporate-driveninitiativesasemphasisedbytheCIW.Inmanycases,‘worker-driven’isalso

differentfrom‘tradeunion-driven’.Historically,domesticandsexworkareexamplesoftwolarge

occupationscharacterizedbyhighdegreesofprecarityandrampantviolationsofkeylabourrights

(ILO2013,SandersandHardy2013).Yet,often,traditionaltradeunionshaveignoredboth,arguing

thatdomesticandsexworkdonotconstituteworkand/orthatorganizingtheseoccupationsistoo

difficult(Pape2016,Schaffauser2015).Nonetheless,drivenbydomesticworkersandtheircolourful

coalitions,theInternationalDomesticWorkersNetworklobbiedsuccessfullyforthe2011Domestic

WorkersConventionC189,aninternationallegalinstrumentforrespect,recognitionandregulation

ofdomesticwork.WhileAmnestyInternationalhasurgedgovernmentstoprotectofthehuman

rightsofsexworkersthroughmeasuresthatincludethedecriminalisationofsexwork(Amnesty

International2016:2),sexworkershavenotyetachievedbroadrecognitioninthetradeunion

movement.Insum,‘worker-driven’essentiallyreferstoexamplesofworkersgettingtogetherand

organisingtoimprovetheirlot–independentlyofwhatformstheorganisationtheygiveto

themselvestake.

Worker-driveninnovationas‘positiveclasscompromise’

Initially,welookedatworker-driveninnovationfromtheperspectiveofWright's(2000:958,967)

notionof‘positiveclasscompromise’,referringtothemutualcooperationbetweenopposingclasses

thatemergesfromstrongworkerorganizations’struggles.TheFreedomofAssociation(FoA)

ProtocolintheIndonesiansportswearindustryintroducedbyISSresearcherJeroenMerkcanbe

17

seenasanexampleofthistypeofworker-driveninitiative.TheProtocolwascatalysedbythe

collaborationofdiverseIndonesiantradeunionsandsupportedbylabourrightsorganizationsin

EuropeandAustralia.WorkingwiththeunionstowardstheFoAProtocolallowedmanufacturersto

overcomeasituationinwhichviolentlabourstruggleschokedproduction.Furthermore,the

Protocol‘rescued’sportswearbrandsfromthreatstotheirreputationasproducersthat‘playfair’

withtocollectivelabourrights.Wright(2000:976)assumesthisformofclasscompromisetobe

morestablethatnegativeclasscompromise.Thistimedimension,theinstitutionalisationor'long-

termeffectiveness'ofimprovementsforlabouris,ofcourse,crucial.

Worker-driveninnovationasalternativeformofproduction

Yet,thediscussionsattheForumbroughttotheforeamuchgreaterdiversityofformsofworker-

driveninnovation.Otherinitiativesincludedtherecentestablishmentoftheagriculturalcooperative

ManieTerrainSouthernItalybylocalandforeignlabourersandthefactoryoccupationsthat

Argentinianworkersorganisedinthemidstofthecollapseofthenationaleconomyin2001.They

representattemptstopromoteaprocessofsocialtransformationfrombelowthroughthe

establishmentofalternativeformsofproductionbasedonworkers’controlandself-management

(SOSRosarnoandManieTerra2016).

DuringthegroupdiscussionthatfollowedhisWorldCaféteaser,MaurizioAtzenitherefore

emphasisedthatthereisaneednottofocusstrictlyonindustrialrelations.Formsoforganisation

andmobilisationoftengooutsidetraditionalclassboundariesandencompasstheneighbourhood,

thecommunity,thesphereofsocialreproduction,andeverydaylife.Otheractors,suchaspoliceand

landlordsincaseofmanysexworkers,contributetolabourprecarity.Aswillbediscussedbelow,to

challengethem,workersindifferentsectorsandgeographicalsettingshavejoinedhandswitha

rangeofalliesoutsidetheirworkspaces.

Innovationtakesplacefromlocaltogloballevel

Diversityalsorelatedtothegeographicalscaleatwhichinnovationtookplace.Forinstance,while

factoryoccupationsinArgentinahappenedandManieTerraoperatesatalocallevel,theAFW,FFP

andFoAProtocoladdressworkingconditionsinonesector,each,atbothnational(FFP,FoA

Protocol)andregionallevel(AFW).TheDomesticWorkersConventionC189isasectoralinstrument

thatintervenesatthesupra-nationallevelfollowingsomeformof‘boomerangpattern’:the

InternationalDomesticWorkersNetworkusedlobbyingattheleveloftheInternationalLabour

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Conferenceasanorganizingtoolinordertoputmoreeffectivepressureonnationalactors

subsequently(SiegmannandSchiphorst2016:119).Moregenerally,a‘boomerangpattern’in

transnationaladvocacyisbasedonlinkagesbetweenactivistsintheglobalSouthandglobalNorth

variousparts.Throughthesenetworks,domesticactorsseekinternationalalliestotrytobring

pressureontheirstatesfromoutside(KeckandSikkink1999:93).

3.Thehowofworker-driveninnovation

ThedebatesattheForumcentredaroundthe“how”ofworker-driveninnovation.Activists,scholars

andstudentsengagedpassionatelyandextensivelywiththequestionsthatwehadraisedinourcall

totheForum.Inthissection,weanalyticallysummarisethedebatesaboutconditionsthatmake

organizingmorefavourable,factorspromotingworker-driveninnovationandmakingiteffectivein

thelong-termaswellasaboutwaystobringworker-driveninnovationtoscale.

Whatenablesorganizingforworker-driveninnovation?

Whetherworker-driveninitiativesemergefromantagonisticclassstruggles,involvesomeformof

collaborationwithcorporationsortaketheformofworkers’self-management:organisingworkersis

anecessaryconditionforinnovativecollectivemovestowardsdecentwork.

Ourdiscussionsprovidedrichlearningexperiencesaboutwhichfactorsenableorganising,as

buildingworkers’‘associationalpower’(Wright2000).Forumparticipantshighlightedtheroleof

bothintangibleresources,suchaseffectivecommunicationwithandconfidence-buildingamong

workers,aswellastangibleresourcesintheformofavailablefunds.Ademocraticpolitical

environmentisimportant,butnotsufficientforworkplacedemocratisation.

Forumco-organiserShikhaSethia,ISS,highlightedthatangerandfrustrationaboutpoorworking

conditionsandviolationsofworkers’rightsarecommontriggersfororganisingforprogressive

change.Domestic,sexandagriculturalworkers’precarity,state-backedunionrepressionin

HonduranorIndonesianfactories,aswellaspovertywagesinawiderangeofsectorsclearly

motivatedtheorganisingeffortsandthevisionsforchangethattheForumparticipantsshared.This

angerandthesevisionsarerootedinworkers’ownexperience.MyrtleWitbooiexpressedthiswhen

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shedeclared:“Youcanonlybuildanorganisationifyouareaworkeryourself.Youknowtheprocess,

youknowtheworth.Yourworkisyoureducation.”

TheexperiencesharedbyseveralForumparticipantshighlightsthattheselectionoforganisersthat,

beyondbeingworkersthemselves,reflectthesocialidentitiesofthetargetedworkforceiskeyto

successfulorganising.Suchsharedbackgroundfacilitateseffectivecommunicationwithand

awareness-raisingamongworkers.FairWorkthereforetriestoreachouttoasmanymigrantworkers

intheNetherlandsaspossiblethroughso-called‘culturalmediators’.Theycanformabridgeto

Dutchcultureandinstitutions.Thesemediatorsareoftenmigrantsthemselves.Someofthemare

formerworkerswhohaveexperiencedsimilarconditionsofsevereviolationsoftheirlabourrightsas

theworkersthatFairWorktriestoreachoutto.StefanSchmalzunderlinedthesamefactorimplicitly

whenhementionedthatyoungshopstewardswererecruitedtofacilitatetheorganisationofa

precariousworkforceintheGermanmetalindustry(Schmalz2016).Chun(2016:179-180)describes

similarexperiencesinthenewlycasualisedBritishColumbianhealthcaresectorinCanada.There,co-

ethnicorganizersfromtherankandfilewerehiredwhoseculturaltiesandlanguageskillshelpedthe

HospitalEmployeesUniontoreachnewimmigrantgroupswhohadlittlepriorcontactwithunions.

ThierrySchaffauserstressedthatthisprocessof‘translation’inabroadersenseisrequiredtobuild

trust:“Thebestwaytoincludethemistogototheirplacesofwork.Translateintotheirlanguages.

Theyseewedoaneffort.Youneedonekeyperson,thenthelinkworks.”Organisingemphasisesthis

trustandsolidarityastheflipsideofwhatManieTerra’sbackgroundnotereferredtoas‘savage

competitionamongworkers’(SOSRosarnoandManieTerra2016).

Moregenerally,Forumparticipantsemphasisedthatworkers’subjectiveexperiencesand

perspectivesshouldbethestartingpointfororganising.Thisinvolvesovercomingtheisolationand

resultinglackofconfidencethatmanyprecariousworkersexperience.ChrisChanarguedthat

‘docile’migrantworkerswhohavegenerallybeenunderstoodasthevictimsofglobalizationareable

tomakechangesoncetheirconfidenceisbuilt(Chan2016).Physicalisolationispartandparcelof

mostdomesticandsexworkers’labourprocess.Inthiscontext,ThierrySchaffauserhighlightedhow

sexworkers’isolationduetothesocialstigmathattheyexperienceactsasabarrierfororganisation.

Socialeventsoutsideworkcanhelptoovercomethisisolation(Schaffauser2015).Migrantworkers

inagricultureoftenexperienceghettoizationintheplacesinwhichtheyresideandworkasaresult

ofpublicandemployers’policies(SOSRosarnoandManieTerra2016).Waystobreakmigrant

workers’isolationthatwerediscussedduringtheForumincludedtheorganisationoflanguage

classes,educationaboutlabourrights,aswellascreatingspacesthatallowworkerstosocialiseand

empowerthem.MyrtleWitbooiexpressedthisconfidencepowerfullyinthesongshetaughtuson

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thelastdayoftheForum,inwhichpeoplewhohavehistoricallynotbeenrecognisedaspartofthe

workingclassproudlyclaimacollectiveidentity:“Mymotherwasakitchengirl/Myfatherwasa

gardenboy/AndthatiswhyI’maunionist/I’maunionist/I’maunionist!”

Theavailabilityoffundsisarelevantfactorfororganising,too.InthecontextoftheGerman

metalworkerunionIGMetall,thesignificantfinancialresourcesmadeavailablewerecrucialfor

initiativestoreachouttonon-traditionalmembers.Annually,EUR16to20millionwasinvestedin

aninnovationfundearmarkedforgainingnewmembers.Thisallowedtheuniontogainmembersin

weaklyorganizedsectors,suchasagencyworkers,inatargetedmanner.Thisway,theunion

respondedtothechallengesofaglobalizedeconomyandaflexibilisedlabourmarketandrevertthe

trendofmembershipdecline(Schmalz2016).

Theroleofademocraticenvironmentwasdiscussedasanexternalfactorfororganisationamong

Forumparticipants.Inthebackgroundnotethatoutlinesandanalysestheagreementbetweenthe

Germandiscountclothingretailer,KiKTextilien,andPILERafterthe2012factoryfireinKarachi,

PILERemphasisesthatprogressinPakistan’sdemocratisationsince2008hasprovidedan

encouragingsocio-politicalenvironmentforthenegotiationoftheagreement.ChrisChan

highlightedthatinauthoritarianstateslikeChina,workers’righttoindependenttradeunionsis

denied.InSouthKorea,incontrast,thedemocratizationofthepoliticalregimecreatedconditions

forlabourorganizing.ShikhaSethiacontrastedtheideathatpoliticaldemocratisationofacountry

supportsworkplacedemocratisation,unionisationandpushingforbetterimplementationoflabour

rightswiththeviewthatpeoplewhogettiredfromdemocracyarealsowithdrawingfromactive

engagement.Thewidespreadacceptanceoflegalisedage-basedwagediscriminationinthe

Netherlandsisacaseinpoint.ForumparticipantslearnedabouttheDutchyouthminimumwage

andYoung&United’scampaignagainstitfromorganiserAnneWijers.Thecampaignillustratesthat

evenindemocraticenvironments,manyotherobstaclestoorganisingarepresent.Hence,whilea

moredemocraticenvironmentcanfacilitateorganising,thisisnotnecessarilythecase.

Morespecifically,afavourablelegalenvironmentforspecificsectorscancatalyseworkers’

organisation.Therefore,domesticworkerssawthestrugglestoberecognizedasworkerswithrights

inaninternationalconventionasanimportant,firststep.Ithelpedthemtobuildamovementand

pushforinclusionintonationallabourlawstoprovideforrealimprovementsoftheirworkingand

livingconditions(Pape2016:189).Withregardstosexworkers,ThierrySchaffauser(2015:2)argues

that:“Fulldecriminalisationofsexworkisnotgoingtoresolvealltheproblems,especiallyregarding

exploitation,butitisafirststeptohelpsexworkersorganisewithoutfear.”

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Whichfactorspromoteworker-driveninnovation?

Externalandinternalfactorspromotingtheemergenceofworker-driveninnovationcanbe

distinguished.Externally,workers’initiativesrespondstrategicallytostructuresthatoppress

workersaswellastoacutecrises.Inthecontextofglobalisedproductionnetworks,thisoften

impliestargetingthebuyerofproductsinspacesofconsumptionratherthandirectemployersinthe

workplace.Coalition-buildingcomestotheforeasakeyinternalstrategythatfacilitatesstruggles

connectingsuchdifferentgeographies.

Worker-driveninnovationasstrategicresponsestomarginalisation

LabourscholarMaurizioAtzenipointedoutthatworkersinnovateinstrategicresponsetothe

politicalandeconomicstructuresthatoppressthem.TheAFWAllianceintheAsiangarmentindustry

exemplifiesthis.AnnanyaBhattacharjeeexplainedhowtheideaofanAFWemergedinresponseto

thepowerofafew,mostlyEuropeanorUS-Americanbuyers,brandsandretailersintheglobal

garmentindustry.ThesebuyersholdoligopolisticpoweroversuppliersintheglobalSouth,enabling

themtodrivedownthepricespaidtomanufacturerswho,inturn,passthemontogarmentworkers

intheformofpovertywages.Basedonthisstrategicanalysisofthegarmentglobalvaluechain

(GVC),theAWFAlliancedecidedtotargetbuyingcompanies,i.e.thoseactorsintheGVCwhorealise

thehighestshareofprofits,withtheirdemandforaregionallivingwageinordertostopthe

competitionatworkers’expense.

TheCIWoffersasimilarstoryinadifferentindustry–theagro-foodchain.TheCoalition’sstrategic

decisiontotargetbuyersoftomatoesemergedinreactiontothefailureoftheirinitialcampaigning

strategy.Duringthefirstyearsoftheirstruggles,theCIWwasaddressingthegrowersofthe

tomatoestheyharvestedwiththeirdemandsforhigherwagesandmorehumaneworking

conditions.LucasBenitezdescribedthat:“Then,weunderstoodthatwewerenotseeingthereal

chains.”Thecompaniesbuyingtomatoeswereinvisible.Therealisationthatthesebuyerswerethe

realpowerholderschangedtheCIW’sapproach:Itstartedtotargetthebuyersoftomatoes.

ThecooperativeManieTerraemergedinaretailer-drivenfoodchain,notverydifferentfromthe

caseofCIW.Inthatcontext,smallproducersinSouthernEuropearebeingsqueezedandworkers

experiencesub-povertywagesandextremelyprecariousworkingandlivingconditions.Their

responseisaneconomicmodelbasedonworkers’self-management(Oliveri2015;SOSRosarnoand

ManieTerra2016).Itisbasedontheanalysisthat,inthecurrentframeworkcharacterisedby

economicrecessionandfinancialspeculation,itisnotrealistictothinkthatthestrugglesof

subordinatedworkersmightsuccessfullychallengetheorganisationoflabourinproduction.

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LamineNiangsharesManieTerra’sexperienceofcreatinganalternativeformofproduction

Giventhiscontextualcharacterofworkers’initiatives,KaramatAli’sdemandedworkers’strategic

engagementwithexistinglegalmechanismsatnationalandsupra-nationallevel.WhilePakistan

ratifiedtheInternationalLabourOrganisation’s(ILO’s)ConventiononFreedomofAssociationand

ProtectionoftheRighttoOrganisedecadesago,theILOandnationalsanctioningmechanismsdo

noteffectivelyprotectworkersagainstviolationsofthisright.AccordingtoAli,theEU’sGeneral

SystemofPreferences(GSP)+thatconnectspreferentialtradeaccesstotheEUwithgood

governanceintheareaoflabourrights,incontrast,hasthepotentialtobecomeatoolforworkersin

Pakistantoprotectthisandothercorelabourrights.

Crisisastriggerforworker-driveninnovation

Worker-driveninnovationalsorespondstoimmediatecrisesthattriggeraction.Theshapesofthe

crisesdiscussedduringtheForumwerediverse.Theymaythreatentheverylifeofworkersand

organisersorrepresentanimmediateandseriousthreattotheirbasic,materialneeds.

23

Thesigningofamemorandumofunderstanding(MoU)bythetransnationalbuyerofgarmentsKiK

TextilienandthePakistanInstituteofLabourEducationandResearch(PILER)isacaseinpointhere.

ThesuccessfulmobilisationforthenewinitiativewastriggeredbyPakistan’sworstindustrial

disasterthatledtothelossof256lives,while55workersremainedinjuredintheincident.TheMoU

stipulatedtheimmediatereliefandlong-termcompensationtofamiliesoftheworkerswholost

theirlivesinthe2012factoryfireinKarachi,Pakistan.

Suchcrisesurgeworkers,organisersandtheiralliesthatsomethingneedstobedone–urgentlyand

inadifferentwayfromthepast.MaurizioAtzeni(2016)underscoredhowfactoryoccupationsand

workers’self-managementinArgentinaemergedinresponseto“thethreatoffactoryclosurethat

thecollapseoftheeconomyinDecember2001accelerated,andintheabsenceofopportunitiesin

thelabourmarket”.

Crisis,morespecificallythecrisisoforganisation,hasalsobeenaninternaltriggerforinnovation.For

instance,StefanSchmalzrelatedthestepstakenforrenewaloftheGermanmetalworkerunionIG

Metalltotheenormouslossinmembershipandcollectivebargainingcoveragesincethe1990s

(Schmalz2016).TheCIW’sabovementionedstrategicchangeofcoursesincetheturnofthe

millenniumcansimilarlybereadasaresponsetoorganisationalcrisis.

‘Jumpingscale’tocounterlabourprecarity

SeveralForumparticipantsarguedthat,inordertocounterlabourprecarityintheglobalised

economy,workers’initiativesneedto‘jumpscale’(Merk2009)andtargetpowerfultransnational

buyersratherthantheirdirectemployers.Severalreasonswerebeingnotedforthisstrategicmove:

Firstly,thesebuyershaveeffectivelyemergedas‘indirectemployers’whopowerfullyinfluence

wagesandworkingconditions.Secondly,asAnnanyaBhattacharjeepointedout,brandsdispose

overthenecessaryfinancialpower:“[…]theirsharingofanegligiblefractionoftheirprofitcould

dramaticallyliftmillionsofworkersandfamiliesoutofpoverty”(AFWAlliance2016).Thirdly,

‘jumpingscale’shiftsattentionawayfromworkplace-basedstruggles,whereworkersarevulnerable

todismissal.TheexperienceofHondurangarmentworkersillustratesthis.In2008and2009,Fruitof

theLoomshutdowntwoHonduranfactoriesinretaliationtoworkersformingaunion.Yet,workers

reversedthissituationofunionoppressionandpovertywagesthroughalandmarkCBA.They

achievedthisvictoryincollaborationwithlaboursolidaritygroupsinNorthAmericaandEuropewho

putpressureonthebrandthroughboycottandothermeans.

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EvangelinaArguetaunderlinestheroleofstrategicalliancesforCGT’scampaign

Powerincoalition5

ForthesuccessoftheCGT’scampaignaswellasformanyotherexamplessharedduringtheForum,

thepresenceofcoalitionswithothersocialactorsandmovementscameoutasakeyinternal

catalystofworker-driveninnovation.Theyallowedworkerorganisationstojumpscaleinsomecases

andenabledworkerstoestablishalternativeeconomicmodelsinothers.

EvangelinaArgueta,CGT’sProjectCoordinator,arguedthatthesuccessoftheunion’scampaignwas

onlypossiblebecauseofthedurablestrategicalliancesbetweenherunion,humanrights

organisationsandotherallies.FortheCGT,theUnitedStudentsAgainstSweatshops(USAS)wasa

keyally.ThisstudentlabourorganizationmobilisedpublicopinionintheUSagainstunionrepression

inFruitoftheLoom’sfactoriesinHonduras.Besides,theypressurisedFruitoftheLoombyusing

theirbulkpurchasingpowerasinstitutionalgarmentsconsumers.Thisledtotheabovementioned

contractterminations.Brookes(2013:192)callsthisworkers’‘coalitionalpower’asworkers’

capacity“[…]toexpandthescopeofconflictbyinvolvingother,nonlaboractorswillingandableto

5Thesub-headingreferstoTattersall’s(2010)booktitle.

25

influenceanemployer’sbehavior”.Whileprecariousworkerswhousetheirstructuralpowertostall

productionrisklosingtheirjob,coalitionalpowerenablesthemtoshiftthelocusofstrugglesfrom

theplaceofproductiontotheplaceofconsumption(Siegmannetal.2016:114).

Physicalproximityhasanimportroletoplayincoalition-building.TheCGT’scampaignwasacasein

pointhere.Forit’ssuccessitwasimportantthatunionrepresentativestouredseveralUS

universitiestogetintouchwithandmobilisestudentsandstudentorganisationsasallies.

EvangelinaArguetastressedthat,forcoalitionstobeeffectiveforworker-driveninnovation,allies’

agendasneedtobealigned(Argueta2016).TheFoAProtocolintheIndonesiansportswearindustry,

too,exemplifiesthis.ThecoordinationbetweenIndonesiantradeunionsandtheiralliesinEurope

andAustraliaincreasedpressureonsportswearproducersandbrandswhohadalessunitedand

clearagenda(Siegmannetal.2014b).

Inthesecases,aswellasinPILER’sMoUwithKiKTextilien,allianceswithlaboursolidaritygroups

enabledworkers’campaignsto‘jumpscale’andtargetbrandsandretailers.Thespatialdistance

betweenworkersandthese‘indirectemployers’wasbeingbridgedbyallies,whichoften

representedcriticalcitizenandconsumergroupsinmainconsumermarkets.‘Coalitionalpower’

enablesworkerstopressuriseinspacesofconsumptionalongsidetheworkplaceinsomeformof

‘pincermovement’(Siegmannetal.2016:122).

PILER’sbackgroundnoteontheagreementbetweentheGermandiscountclothingretailer,KiK

Textilien,andPILERpointedoutthatthelinkagesandtrustwithgarmentworkersthatPILERhad

builtupthroughcollaborationwithawomenworkers’unionandgenerallythroughtradeunion

bodieswerecrucial.InanexchangebetweenhimandEvangelinaArgueta,KaramatAlihighlighted

PILER’sroleasorganiserofthe2006WorldSocialForuminKarachifortrustbuildingamongvarious

socialgroupswithinandoutsidePakistan.Basedonthattrust,inthenegotiationsoftheagreement,

PILERplayedtheroleofaninterlocutor“[…]whoinspire[s]andknit[s]togethertheneedednetwork

ofactorstosynergizethechangeprocess”(Biekartetal.2016:9).

ThierrySchaffauserpointedtoasimilardynamicwhenhedescribedcoalition-buildingthroughsex

workers’solidarityactionsinFrance.Sexworkerswouldjoindemonstrationsagainstthenewlabour

lawinFrance,despitethefactthattheiroccupationisnotcoveredbythelabourlawanyway.Their

messageisboth:“Thisisthetypeofinsecuritythatyougetwhenyoudoawaywithlabour

protection”,butalso:“Wearepartofthelabourmovement-andwesupportyourstruggles!”

LamineNianghighlightedadifferentrolethatalliescanplayinsupportingworker-driveninnovation

inthecaseoftheItalianagriculturalcooperativeManieTerra.InManieTerra’sexperience,

26

innovationtakestherouteofestablishinganalternativeeconomicmodelfrombelow.Toachieve

this,workersunitedinthecooperativerelyonthesupportofprogressivefarmersandcritical

consumerswithwhomtheysharevaluesof“sustainability,equityandconviviality”(SOSRosarno

andManieTerra2016).Jointly,theyformtheassociationSOSRosarno.Farmersexperiencean

incomesqueezeasaresultoftheirmarginalroleinmainstreambuyer-drivenfoodchains.Insearch

ofanalternative,theysubcontractthemanagementoftheharvestofolivesoforangesand

commercialisationoftheirproductstothecooperative.Inreturn,workersseetheirincomes

increaseandobtainafairerremunerationoftheirownwork.Asregardscriticalconsumers,their

roleintheestablishmentofthisalternativechainisequallycrucial.Ontheonehand,bypurchasing

orangesandotherproductsfromproducersata‘fairprice’,higherthantheoneimposedbybig

retailers,theyenableworkersandfarmerstoreceiveafairremuneration.Ontheotherhand,the

salestosolidaritygroupsarecurrentlytheonlysourceoffundingforthecooperative(SOSRosarno

andManieTerra2016).

ForthecollaborationinalliancesthatLucasBenitezcomparedtothedifferentrolesofplayersina

footballteam,itiscrucialthattherepresentationofworkers’interestisworker-driven,too.Myrtle

Witbooi,firstPresidentoftheIDWFsummarisedthissuccinctly:“TheILOdecidedtodosomething

forus.Unionstriedtotalkonourbehalf.Wesaidno,youdon’tknowourwork.Wespeakfor

ourselves.”

SharednormsprovidesacoalitionwithwhatChun(2008:446)terms‘symbolicleverage’as“[…]the

waysinwhichstructurallymarginalgroupsofworkersinvokenotionsofcollectivemoralityto

cultivatea‘positionaladvantage’overmorepowerfulsocialactorsandinstitutions”.Inafirststep,

suchsharednormshelptoextendtherangeofpossiblecoalitionpartners.TheCIW’ssynonymous

useoftheterm‘humanrights’and‘labourrights’illustratesthis.IthasallowedtheCoalitiontorope

inallies,suchasvariousgroupsoffaith,whichareunlikelytorallybehindlabourrights,butdoshow

practicalsolidaritywhenhumanrightsareatstake.Itisclearfromthisexamplethattheshared

normsthatsupportcoalition-buildinginvolveacertaindegreeofconstruction.Inthecaseofthe

AFWAlliance,thisconstructionisbasedonacertainmethodologytoestablishandagreeuponwhat

canbeconsideredalivingwage(Bhattacharjee2016).Thisagreement,subsequently,strengthens

thecoherenceofthecoalition’sagenda.

Brandvisibilityfacilitatesmobilisation

27

Thevisibilityofthedirectemployerorbrandsagainstwhichworkersstrugglecameoutasanother

externalcatalyticfactorforvariousmobilisationsrepresentedduringtheForum.Forinstance,the

CIW’ssuccessesinempoweringandprotectingsomeofthemostprecariousworkersintheUSA

haveemergedinacontextinwhichthebuyersofthetomatoestheypick,suchasMcDonald’sand

Walmart,arehighlyvisibletoconsumers.TheIndonesianFoAProtocolwasnegotiatedinasituation,

inwhichsportswearbrandslikeNikeandAdidaswerekeentoprotecttheirreputationas

corporationsthatare‘playingfair’regardingtradeunionrights(Siegmannetal.2016:113).

Especiallyinsectorswithastrongconsumerorientation,brands’reputationisanimportantfactor

fortheirabilitytocreateandcapturevalue(Franz2010:289).TNCssellinggoodsandserviceswitha

greatervisibilitytoconsumersare,therefore,morelikelytobeconcernedabouttheir‘reputational

capital’.Asaresult,theyaremoreeagertositaroundthenegotiatingtable.TheCGT’scampaign

againstunionrepressioningarmentcompanyFruitoftheLoom’sHonduransubsidiaryisacasein

point.FruitoftheLoomstartedtoapproachCGTafteranavalancheofthreatsandcontract

terminationsfromUS-AmericanuniversitiesthatwerepartofCGT’scoalition(Argueta2016).

Besides,companies’visibilityalsoattractsmediaattention.Ifmediaaresupportingworkers'

struggles,thiscanleadtopositivefeedbackloopsforacampaign.Indonesianworkers’struggles

duringtheSuhartodictatorship,forexample,hadanimpactbeyondthelocalandnationallevel

whenWesternmediabegantocovertheseevents,highlightingsweatshopconditionsatfamous

brandslikeNike,Adidasetc.(Siegmannetal.2014b).

Howcanworker-driveninnovationbemadeeffectiveinthelong-term?

Onceworkers’mobilisationforchangehasbeensuccessful,howcantheeffectivenessoftheir

initiativesbeensuredinthelong-term?Giventhevarietyofinitiatives,theanswerstothisquestion

providedduringtheForumarenaturallydiverse.Keepingthisqualifierinmind,ourdiscussions

highlightedtheimportanceofmonitoringandenforcementmechanisms,flankedbythethreatwith

marketand/orstatesanctions.

Effectiveenforcementthrougheducatedworkers

Forumparticipantsunderlinedtheimportanceofenforcementmechanisms,especiallyforthose

initiativesthatinvolvesometypeofagreementwithworkers’directorindirectemployers.

Enforcementtypicallyincludesmonitoringandsanctioningmechanisms.EvangelinaArgueta(2016)

warnedthatintheabsenceofmonitoring,powerfulcompaniesareunlikelytocomplywith

28

agreementstheyhavesignedtoreducepublicpressureontheirreputation.Asaresult,workersdo

notfeelthattheyhaveachievedgreaterjustice.Toaddresstheserisks,theCGT’sCBAwithFruitof

theLoomincludes,amongothers,thesettingupofasupervisorycommitteetomonitorandenforce

allaspectsoftheagreement(Argueta2016).

Inordertobeeffective,enforcement,too,needstobedrivenbyworkers.TheFFP’seffectiveness

hasmuchtodowiththeCoalition’spresenceonthegroundwithatwodecades-longhistoryof

organisingandstruggle.AccordingtoLucasBenitez,thewholepointoftheFFPisthatitisleadby

workers.Therefore,itplacesthejobofmonitoringlabourrightssquarelyinthehandsofthosewho

workinthefields(CIW2016a).A24hourcomplaintlinethattheycancontactisanexampleof

farmworkers’centralroleintheFFP’senforcement.Itisbeingansweredlivebythemonitoring

organization,theFairFoodStandardsCouncil(FFSC).TheFFSCinvestigatesthecomplaints,ensures

thatworkers’inputisnotignoredandhelpsidentifyandeliminatethesourcesofcodeviolations

(CIW2016a).Besidesbeingmoreeffective,worker-drivenenforcementoftheFFPisalsomore

efficient.Otherwise,itwouldbedifficulttoimpossibletomarshalsufficientresourcestomonitor

violationsinthefields(CIW2016b).

AnnanyaBhattacharjeereinforcedthispointwhenshearguedthattheonlywaytoenforcetheAFW

isthroughunions,ratherthanseeingtheestablishmentofalivingwagebenchmarkasanalternative

forunionisation.Thatiswhy‘strategicunionisation’remainsoneofthemaingoalsoftheunions

involvedintheAFWAlliance(Bhattacharjee2016).

Workerscandrivetheenforcementofnewinitiativestoimprovetheirlabourconditionsonlyifthey

areawareoftheirrightsandentitlements.AgainstthebackdropofEastAsianlabourmovements,

ChrisChan(2016)arguedthatlaboureducationandthepromotionofworkers’self-organisationare

themostimportantstepstowardslong-termeffectivenessofworker-driveninnovation.IntheFFP,

worker-to-workereducationiscarriedoutregularlybyteamsofCIWmembersonfarmsaroundthe

state.TheCIW(2016a)arguesthat:“Theeducationprogram—combinedwiththedistribution(at

thetimeofhire)ofarightsbookletandtheviewingofavideoproducedbytheCIWexplainingthe

rightsundertheFairFoodcodeofconduct—isdesignedtoensurethateachandeveryworker

knowshisorherrightsandhowtoenforcethem“.

Followingthislogic,KaramatAliproposedsystematictrainingofshopstewardsinPakistan’sindustry

aboutlabourrights.Thiswouldensurethatthelabour-relatedstipulationsofPakistan’spreferential

tradeaccesstotheEUundertheGSP+couldbecomeaneffectiveleverfordecentwork.The

presenceofawareandempoweredworkersinPakistaniworkplacescouldrevertasituationinwhich

manyILOconventionshavebeenratifiedwithoutanyimplementation.Toachievethis,hesaw

29

supportbyunionsabroadasnecessaryinacontextofaweaktradeunionmovementand

governmentprioritiesinwhichsocialdevelopmentrankslow.

Workers’institutionalpowerenhancesinitiatives’effectiveness

TheForumdiscussionsalsobroughttotheforethatsomeformofstatebackingofworker-driven

innovationscanbeanimportantfactorenhancingtheseinitiatives’effectiveness.Brookes(2013:

188)labelssuchstatebacking‘institutionalpower’.Shedefinesitas:“[…]thecapacityofworkersto

influencethebehaviorofanemployerbyinvokingtheformalorinformalrulesthatstructuretheir

relationshipandinteractions”.Thesepublicrulescanberootedinvariousspaces:innationalor

internationallegislation,inthecountryinwhichworkplacesarelocatedorinthoseinwhich

companiesareheadquartered.

Akeyroleofinstitutionalpowerisevidentinthecaseofthedomesticworkermovement’scampaign

foraninternationalDomesticWorkersConvention.MyrtleWitbooipointedoutthatnow,after

ratificationoftheConvention,domesticworkersneedtomobilisesothatstateswilltranslateand

applytheinternationalrulesenshrinedintheconventionintoeffectivenationallegislation.

USfarmworkersarenotcovered–andhencenotstrengthenedandprotected-bynationallabour

legislation,asLucasBenitezexplainedduringtheForum.Thisvoidandtheresultingprecarityof

farmworkers,infact,motivatedtheCIW’sCampaignforFairFoodandtheemergenceoftheFFP.

Still,institutionalpowermighthavearoletoplayfortheeffectivenessoftheFFP.Contractlaw

enforceablethroughprivatelitigationunderpinstheCIW’sagreementswithbuyersandtomato

growers.Thissanctioningmechanismhasworked-sofar,ithasnotbeennecessarytoactonthe

threattostopacontract.Thissuccesscanberelatedtothecorporatesector’sinternalisationofthe

legalnormsembodiedincontractlaw.ItmakesthemeffectiveinpreventingviolationsoftheFair

FoodCodeofConduct(Siegmannetal.2016:123-4).

Thereareothercases,inwhichstatelawunderpinsinitiatives,signallingthatinstitutionalpower

couldbeleveraged,ifnecessary.TheAFWAlliancehighlightsthattheirfloorwageconceptisbased

onwidelyacceptednormsthatareinstitutionalizedinexistingpolicies,laws,andpracticesinAsian

countries(Bhattacharjee2016).Furthermore,onecanarguethatthecompositionofthetripartite

committeethatoverseestheimplementationoftheCGT’sCBAwithFruitoftheLoom’ssubsidiary

Russellinvolvessomeformofinstitutionalpower,too.BesidesrepresentationoftheCGTandFruit

oftheLoom,thiscommitteealsoincludesapubliclawyer(Argueta2016).Thisrepresentationcanbe

30

relatedtoexistinglegalsanctions,bothbasedonHonduranandUSlaw.Itcanbeconsideredan

invocationofthestate,whichhasbeenabsentinthisprocessotherwise.

Theflipsideofthisroleofinstitutionalpoweristhattheabsenceofflankinglegalenforcement

mechanismscastsdoubtontheeffectivenessofsomeoftheinitiativesweengagedwith.For

instance,KaramatAliobservedthat,todate,theGermanretailerKiKTextilienhasnotfulfilledtwoof

thethreecommitmentsitagreedtointheMoUwithPILER.TheGovernmentoftheSindhprovince

ofPakistanannouncedaflanking‘JointActionPlanforPromotingWorkplaceSafetyandHealthin

Sindh’in2013(GovernmentofSindhetal.2013),butthisplan,too,stillremainstobeimplemented.

ThelackoflegalenforcementmechanismswasalsobroughtupasanimportantcritiqueoftheDutch

covenantsforsupplychainresponsibilitythatwediscussedattheFNV.FredPolhout,managerFNV

FinanceandCommercialServices,introducedFNV’sroleinthedevelopmentofsector-based

covenantsandzoomedinonthenegotiationsofacovenantforthebankingsector6.SeveralForum

participantsflaggedthattheydidnotperceivedifferencesbetweenthecovenants’approachand–

largelyineffective-CSRinitiatives.ChrisChanconcludedthisdiscussionbysummarisingthat:“We

knowthatthebesttoolsforworkersarestatelaws.”

Marketincentivescanofferanalternativeorcomplementarymechanismtoenforcelabourrights

enshrinedintheagreementsworkershavemade.Forinstance,intheabsenceofstatepower

enforcing(undocumentedmigrants')labourrights,theFFPstandardsarebackedbymarket

consequences.Thisinvolvesthatparticipatingbuyerscommittobuytheirproduceonlyfrom

growersingoodstandingwiththeFFP,toceasepurchasesfromgrowerswhofailorrefuseto

complywiththeprogram(CIW2016).

Howcanworker-driveninnovationbebroughttoscale?

OneoftheguidingquestionsfortheForumwashowtobringworker-driveninnovationtoscale.

Withthis,weaimedatidentifyingwaysformakingimprovementsinlabourconditionseffectivefor

asmanyworkersaspossible.ManieTerraformulatesthisobjectivebeautifullyasgoingbeyond

‘happyislands’(SOSRosarnoandManieTerra2016).Thequestionhadalsobeenmotivatedbya

possibletrade-offbetweeneffectivenessandscalethathadbeenperceivedinotheranalysesofcivic

innovation(Biekartetal.2016:12).Ourdiscussionsledtosurprisinganswersbothtothequestion

abouttheformsthatupscalingofworker-driveninnovationtakesandregardingfactorsenablingit.

6ThiscovenantwassignedinOctober2016.Thefulltextcanbefoundhere.

31

Seeingsuchinitiativesasstrategicresponsestoaspecificeconomicandpoliticalcontextofworking

povertyandprecarityimpliesthattherearenoblue-printsavailableforupscaling.Instead,adapted

replicationandtrans-localcollaborationwereidentifiedasalternativewaystomakeworker-driven

initiativesrelevantformorethanthe‘happyfew’workers.

SeveralForumparticipantsproposedadaptedreplicationinsteadofinitiatives’economicgrowthin

ordertoensurethatworker-driveninnovationsdoplaymorethanasymbolicrole.ManieTerra,for

instance,isengagedinthebuildingofanation-widenetworkofotherworker-driveninnovations

inspiredbythesamevaluesandpoliticalvision–thenetworkFuoriMercato(Outsidethemarket).

TheCIWhascollaboratedwiththedairyworkerorganizationMigrantJusticeinVermontinaneffort

toreplicatetheFFPwithintheirMilkwithDignityProgram(CIW2016).Basedontheirexperience,

theCIWturnsthetrade-offperceivedinBiekartetal.(2016)upsidedownwhenitarguesthat

becausetheFFPcanbebroughttoscale,itiseffective(CIW2016).LucasBeniteztherefore

confidentlyasked:“UpscalingtothelevelofWalmartshouldbearisk?Sofar,nobodychangedthe

operationsofbigcorporations.Wedid.”

OrganisingworkersalongthegarmentvaluechaininPakistanassuggestedbyKaramatAliindicates

anotherwaytoexpandinitiativeshorizontally.Thisformofupscalingaddressestheriskthat

workers’organisationsgetcomplacentwhentheyhaveachievedtheorganisationofonesector,a

possibilitythatAnnanyaBhattacharjeehighlightedduringourdiscussions.

Horizontalexpansionpavesthewaytochangedominantnormsthatgovernaparticularindustry.

FinnemoreandSikkink(1998:895)arguethatbroadnormacceptanceor‘normcascading’by‘norm

leaders’,suchasstatesorcompanies,leadstoaninstitutionalisationofnewnorms.Suchchangeis

theresultof‘normentrepreneurs’’lobbying.AnnanyaBhattacharjeedescribedsuchaprocessof

‘normcascading’asaresultoftheAFWcampaign.Shepointedoutthat,whenthecampaignwas

initiated,garmentbrandswoulddenytheirresponsibilityforwagesandworkingconditionsalong

theirsupplychain.Now,sheargued,brandsareashamedtosaythattheyarenotpayingaliving

wage.Nowtheystate:“Wearetrying.”EvangelinaArguetadescribedthatindustrialrelationsin

othergarmentcompaniesinHondurashavechanged,too,asarippleeffectoftheCGT’sinnovative

agreementwithFruitoftheLoom.Today,largesocialhousingprojectsforworkersarebeing

developed,projectssuchaschildcarecentres,healthprogrammesatwork,tradeuniontrainingand

wagenegotiationsalltakeplace(Argueta2016).Thesedynamicsareindicativeofasimilarprocess

ofnormcascadingasaresultoftheCGT’scampaign.

ForMyrtleWitbooi,upscalingtotheinternationallevelwasthewaythroughwhichthedomestic

workers’movementbecamesuccessfulinthefirstplace.LookingbackattheForum,sheargued

32

(WitbooiandSiegmann2016):“Ifwelookatdomesticworkers’struggleatthelocallevel,wefind

thattheyhavelittlepower.Butifdomesticworkersatthelocallevelcanconnecttoformanational

organization,theyaremuchstrongertospeakoutforthemselvesandtakethevoiceofdomestic

workers’rightsfurther.[…]Youhavemuchmorepowerandmuchmorevoiceinanationalor

internationalsetting.”This‘boomerangpattern’alloweddomesticworkerstoputpressureon

nationalgovernmentsbasedonthediscursive,ratherthanmaterialpoweroftheILODomestic

WorkersConvention.

Proximitywasidentifiedasanimportantfactorcatalysingdifferentformsofupscaling.ManieTerra

emphasisesthatconnectionsbetweensubalternsmustbebasedonrealandmaterialties(SOS

RosarnoandManieTerra2016).ChrisChan'ssuggestedthatopportunitiestomeetandexchange

withotherworkersoutsidetheirowncontextcanstimulatenewideas(Chan2016).Inthislight,the

experienceofinternationalnetworkingattheForumitselfmighthaveanimportantroletostimulate

worker-driveninnovation.

4.Towardsworker-driventradeunions

Tradeunionshavehadakey,yet,ambiguousroleintheworker-driveninnovationsrepresented

duringtheForum.

Severalinitiativesemergedfromlocalunions’struggles,suchastheCGT’sFruitoftheLoom

campaigninHondurasandtheFoAProtocolinIndonesia.Howtocounterunionoppressionand

guaranteefreedomofassociationwerekeyconcernsofbothcampaigns.Thedemandforaliving

wageintheAsiangarmentindustry,too,emergedfromaprocessofconsultationandconvergence

amonganallianceledbyunions.

TheAFWAlliance’scampaignforaregionalfloorwageisanexampleforhowtradeunions’regional

networkingenabledbymovesfromcompetitiontocollaborationamongworkersindifferent

countries.WhilethestructuresofgarmentGVCspromoteanintenselevelofcompetitionbetween

workers,andbyextensionalsoofnationaleconomiesinattractingforeigninvestors,theAFWisa

caseofastrategicshiftofunions’strategiestowardsregionalandinternationalsolidarity.

ThestrategyoftheAFWmatchesandcounterstheabilityoffootloosecorporationstorelocate

relativelyeasily-enabledbylowsunkcostsandtheabilitytomoveacrossnationalborders-by

33

transnationalnetworkingwithotherworkerorganisationsandallies.EvangelinaArguetawas

fascinatedbythisapproachtodisableproducersandbuyerstoblackmailworkerorganisations.It

respondedtoherquestion:“IfyouareworkingtoimproveconditionsinHonduras,theproblemis

thatcorporationsrelocatetoothercountries.Howcanwemakesurethatthereisgeographical

extension?”

Yet,tradeunions’limitedpresenceinworkplacesandthefactthatcoverageofinitiativesis

sometimeslimitedtotheuppertierofcomplexvaluechains,raisesthequestioninhowfar

innovationisunion-ratherthanworker-driven:Howmuchdoesitcomefromcadresandleadership

ratherthanfromtheworkersthemselves,therankandfileofunions?Inthisregard,theGermanIG

Metall’scampaignforunionrenewalembodiesaninterestingcontradiction:Whileaimedatreaching

outtothevastgroupofmetalworkersnotrepresentedintheorganisation,thestrategyfortheIG

Metall’scomebackwasdesignedinatop-downfashion.

ThedynamicinGermany’slargestandmostpowerfultradeunionexemplifiesawidespreadcrisisof

representationinthegloballabourmovement,whichhasbeenslowtoacknowledgethattheranks

oftheworkingclassarefilledwithamorediversecrowdthanpermanent,male,industrial

employees.Forinstance,duringtheForum,ThierrySchaffauserhighlightedthatprecaritymoreand

morecomesintheshapeofself-employmentratherthanwagelabour,whileSandraClaassen

pointedtotheabsenceofmigrantworkers’voiceinunioncampaignsintheNetherlands.

Paradoxically,themoreprecariousthework,thelesslikelyworkersaretobeunionised.

Representingsexworkersasthe‘ultimateprecariouslabour’(SandersandHardy2013),Thierry

Schaffauser(2015)thereforeurgedtradeunionstowelcomeallworkerstojoinlabourorganisations.

Hearguedthat:"[…]tradeunionsmustunderstandindustrialchanges,andacceptthatworkersare

thewaytheyareandnotthewayunionswishthemtobe.”BothheandMyrtleWitbooirejectedthe

classicalargumentthatreproductivelabour,suchasthatprovidedbysexanddomesticworkers,is

notpartoftheproductiveeconomy.MyrtleWitbooicountered:“Unionsargued:youarenotpartof

theeconomy.Tryandseewhathappenstotheeconomyifmillionsofdomesticworkersdonotgoto

work!”

34

MyrtleWitbooiteachesusasongaboutdomesticworkersaspartoftheworkingclass

5.Researchthatworksforworkers

AcademicsandacademicinstitutionsemergeaskeyalliesinwhatChrisChanlabelled‘pro-labour

civilsocietynetworks’(Chan2016).Ourdiscussionsbroughttothefore,however,thatthetypeof

knowledgethatscholarscontributeandthewaytheygenerateitmattersfortheroleofresearchin

worker-driveninnovation:Forumparticipantsinsistedonknowledgegenerationwithworkersrather

thanaboutthem.

Academicsasalliesinworker-driveninnovation

Generatingevidenceonworkers’needsandviolationsoftheirrightshasbeenanimportantstepin

thedesignofmanyoftheinitiativesintroducedduringtheForum.Forinstance,incaseoftheAFW

Alliance,need-basedsurveysinIndia,China,Bangladesh,SriLankaandIndonesiawereusedto

developtheformulatoestimateadequatelevelsofalivingwageforAsiangarmentworkers

35

(Bhattacharjee2016).Similarly,intheprocessofunionrenewaloftheIGMetall,systematicworker

surveysbecameparticipationinstrumentsthatofferedfeedbackpossibilities(Schmalz2016).The

processleadingtotheMoUwithKiKTextilienafterthe2012Karachifactoryfirestartedwithafact-

findinginvestigation.Thisincludedasurveyoffactoryworkersonoccupationalsafetyandhealthin

thefactories(PILER2016).

Researchhasalsobeeninstrumentalasacampaignormonitoringtool.InthecaseoftheFruitofthe

Loomcampaign,e.g.,thedocumentationofviolationsofworkers’freedomofassociationinthe

company’sHonduranfactoriesbytheWorkerRightsConsortiumandtheUniversityofMichiganwas

keytoinformthepublicandputpressureonthecompany(Argueta2016).Duringourdiscussionof

theDutchcovenantsforsupplychainresponsibilityatFNV,FredPolhoutemphasisedthesignificance

ofinformationonhowcompaniesfareonlabourrightscomplianceinthecovenants’

implementationprocess.Whenhecalledontotheparticipantstokeepworkingtogetherwithboth

workerrepresentativesandresearcherstofilltheknowledgegaponlabourrightscompliancein

supplychains,EvangelinaArguetapointedoutthatconsultationaboutinvestmentdecisionswith

relevantlocalorganisationsisrequiredtopreventthatrightsviolationstakeplaceinthefirstplace.

Doingresearchwithratherthanaboutworkers

EvangelinaArgueta’sresponseindicatesthatthetermsonwhichworkersareinvolvedinknowledge

productionandthebroaderagendaforactionarekey(Sethia2016).Expostconsultationwith

workersmightjustbeatooltolegitimatecorporations’decisions.Forumparticipantscriticisedthat

datacollectionforresearchhasoftenbeenatop-downprocess,withacademicsdefiningthescope

andmethodforcollectinginformation(Sethia2016).ThierrySchaffauser,inparticular,expresseda

deepdistrusttowardsresearchthatextractsknowledgefromactivistswithoutcontributingtotheir

movement.Hedeclared:“Wedon’twanttoberesearched.Researcherscomewithquestionnaires,

whichareuselessforus.Sometimes,theyareevenusedagainstus.Theystudypeople,fromthe

questionsyouseethatthisisnotgoingveryfar.”LucasBenitezemphasisedhowthemostimportant

thingincollaborationwithacademicsisthattheydonotimposetheirideasonworkers’initiatives.

Rather,workers’shouldbeinthedriver’sseat.

Suchworker-drivenresearchdoesresearchwithworkersinsteadofaboutthem.Insteadof

attemptingtobe‘neutral’observers,forThierrySchaffauser,respectandsupportforthelabour

movementshouldformstartingpointsforcollaboratingresearchers.Examplesforsuchalternative

formsofcollaborationmentionedduringtheForumincludedthecomplementaryroleofLucas

Benitez’owntestimonyandsupportiveresearchfindingspresentedbyjournalistandauthorEric

36

SchlosserduringaUSSenatehearingonfarmworkerexploitation.KarinAstridSiegmannsharedhow

herISScolleagueHelenHintjensandherselftrainedundocumentedmigrantworkerstoconducta

studyonundocumentedpeople’saccesstohealthcareinTheNetherlands.Throughthatapproach,

the‘researched’becameresearchersthroughallstagesoftheprocess(BiekartandSiegmann2016:

239).Inhindsight,forMyrtleWitbooi,theForumitselfembodiedamomentofanalternative

university:oneinwhichthereisdialoguewithandextensivelearningfromtheexperiencesof

informalworkersaswellasjointreflectionhowworkers’strategiescouldbemoreeffective(Witbooi

andSiegmann2016).Moregenerally,however,inherreflectionsontheForum,ShikhaSethia

(2016),raisescriticalquestionsaboutthepossibilityofacademicspacesthataremoreinclusiveof

workers’movements:“Towhatextentdoesacademiaallowworkersthemselvestosettheterms,

e.g.identifytheresearchquestionsandmethodsandvalidatethefindings?”

OneoftheworkinggroupsontheForum’sconcludingdaybrainstormedonresearchgapsthat

informalworkers’movementsperceive.Thegapstheyidentifiedinclude,e.g.,studiesaboutthe

needsofworkerswhowanttojoinunions,thatinvestigatethepossibilitiesofsocialsecurity

provisions-suchaspensions,socialinsurance,maternitybenefits-forinformalworkersorwhich

identifythepracticalrelevanceoftheDomesticWorkConventionC189.ISSstudentswho

participatedintheForumwerekeentoensurethattheresearchtheyundertakeaspartoftheir

traininghavearealimpactforworkersandlabourmovements.Theysuggestedtoalsocommunicate

identifiedgapstofuturegenerationsofISSstudents.

6.Learningaboutworker-driveninnovation

TherearemanyanddifferentlearningsfromthreeexcitingdaysoftheForum.Anysummarywill

thereforeremainpartial.Havingsaidthat,forus,somekeylessonsincluded:

• Worker-driveninnovationhappensbothwithinandoutsidecapitalistlabourrelations.Yet,it

alwaysaimstotransformthestructuresmarginalisingworkers,basedonworkersfirst-hand

understandingofthesestructures.

• Organisingisthebasisforworkers’initiativesforchange.Buildingworkers’confidencethat

theyaresomeone,thattheyhaverights,thattheycanachievechangeisastartingpointfor

organising.

37

• Forgingcoalitionsiskeyinworker-driveninnovation.Thisisimportantespeciallyinthe

contextofaglobalisedeconomy,whereworkers’strugglesconnectotherwiseseparate

spacesofproductionandconsumption.Coalitionpartnersplayaspecificrole–often

exertingpressureascriticalcitizensandconsumers-,aimingforthesamegoalwhileceding

‘teamcaptainship’toworkersthemselves–tostayinLucasBenitez’metaphorofafootball

match.

• Enforcementmechanismsguaranteetheeffectivenessofworker-driveninnovation.While

workersshouldbetheprimarywatchdogsinmonitoring,statebacking,e.g.through

differenttypesoflegalnormscanamplifythethreatwithsanctions,shouldworkers’rights

beviolated.

• Upscalingmightbeasolutionratherthanariskfortheeffectivenessofworker-driven

innovation:Wheninitiativesthatcounterworkers’povertyandprecarityarenolonger

‘happyislands’,theycanchangethewaysocietyseesandrecognisesworkers’claimsfor

rightsandrespect.

• Finally,upscalingworker-driveninnovationthroughadaptedreplicationrequiresphysical

proximity.MeetingspacesliketheForumthereforehaveanimportantrole.KaramatAli

concludedhisevaluationoftheForumwiththankstotheISS,yet:“ThenextForumshould

gototheglobalSouth!”.

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Annexure

Annex1:Listofexternalinvitees,speakersandorganisers

ExternalInvitees

Name Organisation Country E-mailaddress

Anannya

BhattacharjeeAsiaFloorWageAlliance India [email protected]

ChrisKing-ChiChan CityUniversityofHongKong

People's

Republicof

China

[email protected]

EvangelinaArguetaCentralGeneraldeTrabajadores

(CGT)HondurasHonduras [email protected]

JeroenMerk ISS Netherlands [email protected]

KaramatAliPakistanInstituteofLabour

EducationandResearch(PILER)Pakistan [email protected]

LucasBenitezCoalitionofImmokaleeWorkers

(CIW)USA [email protected]

MaurizioAtzeni

CentreforLabourRelations,

NationalResearchCouncilof

Argentina

Argentina [email protected]

MohamedRassoulou

(Lamine)NiangManieTerra Italy [email protected]

MyrtleWitbooiInternationalDomesticWorkers

Federation(IDWF)SouthAfrica [email protected]

NataliRodriguezCoalitionofImmokaleeWorkers

(CIW)USA [email protected]

43


SandraClaassen FairWork Netherlands [email protected]

SannevanderWalSOMO(CentreforResearchon

MultinationalCorporations)Netherlands [email protected]

StefanSchmalz UniversityofJena Germany [email protected]

ThierrySchaffauser

InternationalCommitteeonthe

RightsofSexWorkersinEurope

(ICRSE)

[email protected]

m

Speakers


KarenBrouwer MondiaalFNV Netherlands [email protected]

AnneWijers FNV Netherlands [email protected]

FredPolhout FNV Netherlands [email protected]

NaïmaelMoussati FNV Netherlands [email protected]

Organisers


KarinAstrid

SiegmannISS Netherlands [email protected]

GiulioIocco ISS Netherlands [email protected]

ShikhaSethia ISS Netherlands [email protected]

DanieleRossi-Doria ISS Netherlands [email protected]

RaulFernandez

BarrigasISS Netherlands [email protected]

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Annex2:Forumprogramme

13June:Learningfromexamples–dialoguesaboutworker-driveninnovations

Objectives:

1. mutualintroductionsparticipants&introductionCIRI

2. introduction&discussionworker-driveninnovations&analyticalapproachestothem,

focussingonkeyquestionslistedabove,inorderto

3. inspiremutuallearningonthe‘how’ofworker-driveninnovation

Location:ISSAttic

8.30hrsRegistration(ShikhaSethia)

9.00hrsWelcome(KarinAstridSiegmann)

9.15hrsOpening(PeterKnorringa)

9.30hrsIce-breaker(GiulioIocco)

10.00hrs‘Worker-driven’experimentinparticipatoryvideotaping(DoroteaPace)

10.15hrsIntroductionsinnovationsthroughWorldCafé(round1)(KarinAstridSiegmann)

11.00hrsCoffee/teabreak

11.15hrsIntroductionsinnovationsthroughWorldCafé(rounds2&3)(GiulioIocco&KarinAstrid

Siegmann)

12.45hrsLunch

13.45hrsConnectingparticipantswithISSstudents(ShikhaSethia)

14.00hrsLogistics(SanneHuesken)

14.15hrs‘Fishbowl’discussion:Howcanupscalingofworker-driveninnovationbeachieved?


Location:ISSAtrium

16.30hrsCIRIbookcelebration“ExploringCivicInnovationforSocialandEconomicTransformation”

(WendyHarcourt)

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18.00hrsdrinksinISSButterflyBar

19.15hrsDepartureforthebeach

20.00hrsDinneratthebeach(DeKwartel,Zuiderstrand7-Slag9,2566SBDenHaag)

14June:Learningfromexperiences–fieldvisits

Objectives:

1. Learningaboutworker-driveninnovationbydiscussingconcreteexamples

2. Bonding

9.00hrsDepartureforfieldvisit(FNV,Naritaweg10,1043BXAmsterdam)

10.30hrsFNVonsector-widecovenants(FredPolhout)

12.30hrsLunch

14.00hrsIntroductionMondiaalFNV(KarenBrouwer)

14.30hrsCampaign‘Young&United’forabolitionofyouthminimumwageintheNetherlands(Anne

Wijers)

15.30hrsSchipholairportcampaign(NaïmaelMoussati)

16.30hrsDepartureforTheHague

19.30hrsDinner

15June:Learningfromencounters–waysforwardregardingworker-driveninnovation

Objectives:

1. discussing&planningformsoffuturecollaborationindifferentways(wholegroup/sub-

groups)

Location:ISSAttic

9.00hrsDe-briefing:WhathavewetakenfromthefieldvisitatFNV?

9.45hrsParticipatoryagenda-setting(KarinAstridSiegmann&GiulioIocco)


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11.00Groupsaroundprioritiesidentifiedduringagenda-setting

12.00‘Harvest’groups

13.00hrsLunch

14.00hrsMeet&GreetTreeconnectingparticipantswithISSstudents(ShikhaSethia)

15.00hrsIdeasforwayforward(KarinAstridSiegmann&GiulioIocco)

16.00hrsEvaluation(FreekSchiphorst)

17.00hrsClosure(KarinAstridSiegmann&GiulioIocco)

17.30hrsFarewelldrinksinISSButterflyBar

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