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Circulatory system

The human circulatory system (simplified). Redindicates oxygenated blood carried in arteries, blue

indicates deoxygenated blood carried in veins.Capillaries, which join the arteries and veins, and

the lymphatic vessels are not shown.

Details

Identifiers

Latin Systema gavar

MeSH D002319 (https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2011/MB_cgi?mode=&term=Cardiovascular+System)

TA 12.0.00.000 (http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/2.0.00.000%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm)

FMA 7161 (http://xiphoid.biostr.washington.edu/fma/fmabrowser-hierarchy.html?fmaid=7161)

Anatomical terminology[edit on Wikidata]

Circulatory systemFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular systemor the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood tocirculate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids andelectrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cellsto and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment andhelp in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, andmaintain homeostasis. The study of the blood flow is calledhemodynamics. The study of the properties of the blood flow iscalled hemorheology.

The circulatory system is often seen to comprise two separatesystems: the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, andthe lymphatic system, which circulates lymph.[1] The passage oflymph for example takes much longer than that of blood.[2]Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, whiteblood cells, and platelets that is circulated by the heart throughthe vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients toand waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph isessentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filteredfrom the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to thelymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin wordsmeaning "heart" and "vessel") system comprises the blood, heart,and blood vessels.[3] The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymphvessels form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered bloodplasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.

While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closedcardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves thenetwork of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrategroups have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphaticsystem, on the other hand, is an open system providing anaccessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to theblood.[4] The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lackcirculatory systems.

Contents1 Structure

1.1 Cardiovascular system1.1.1 Arteries1.1.2 Capillaries1.1.3 Veins1.1.4 Coronary vessels1.1.5 Portal veins1.1.6 Heart

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Depiction of the heart, major veins andarteries constructed from body scans.

Cross section of a human artery

1.1.6 Heart1.1.7 Lungs1.1.8 Systemic circulation1.1.9 Brain1.1.10 Kidneys

1.2 Lymphatic system1.3 Physiology

2 Development2.1 Arterial development2.2 Venous development

3 Clinical significance3.1 Cardiovascular disease3.2 Measurement techniques3.3 Surgery

4 Society and culture5 Other animals

5.1 Other vertebrates5.2 Open circulatory system5.3 Absence of circulatory system

6 History7 See also8 References9 External links

Structure

Cardiovascular system

The essential components of thehuman cardiovascular system arethe heart, blood and bloodvessels.[5] It includes thepulmonary circulation, a "loop"through the lungs where blood isoxygenated; and the systemiccirculation, a "loop" through therest of the body to provideoxygenated blood. The systemiccirculation can also be seen tofunction in two parts–amacrocirculation and amicrocirculation. An averageadult contains five to six quarts(roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) ofblood, accounting forapproximately 7% of their total body weight.[6] Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, andplatelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs tokeep the heart pumping.[7]

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Relative percentages ofcardiac output deliveredto major organ systems

The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leavesthe network of blood vessels. In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the bloodvessel layers and enter interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the targetcells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite direction. The other component ofthe circulatory system, the lymphatic system, is open.

Arteries

Oxygenated blood enters the systemic circulation when leaving the left ventricle,through the aortic semilunar valve. The first part of the systemic circulation is theaorta, a massive and thick-walled artery. The aorta arches and gives branchessupplying the upper part of the body. after passing through the aortic opening of thediaphragm at the level of thoracic ten vertebra, it enters the abdomen. Later it descendsdown and supplies branches to abdomen, pelvis, perineum and the lower limbs.According to Difore's Atlas of Histology the walls of aorta are elastic. This elasticityhelps to maintain the blood pressure throughout the body. When the aorta receivesalmost 5 L of blood from the heart, it recoils and is responsible for pulsating B.P.Moreover, as aorta branches into smaller arteries, their elasticity goes on decreasingand their compliance goes on increasing.

Capillaries

Arteries branch into small passages called arterioles and then into the capillaries.[8] The capillaries merge to bringblood into the venous system.[9]

Veins

After their passage through body tissues, capillaries merge once again into venules, which continue to merge intoveins. The venous system finally coalesces into two major veins: the superior vena cava (roughly speaking drainingthe areas above the heart) and the inferior vena cava (roughly speaking from areas below the heart). These twogreat vessels empty into the right atrium of the heart.

Coronary vessels

The heart itself is supplied with oxygen and nutrients through a small "loop" of the systemic circulation and derivesvery little from the blood contained within the four chambers.

Portal veins

The general rule is that arteries from the heart branch out into capillaries, which collect into veins leading back tothe heart. Portal veins are a slight exception to this. In humans the only significant example is the hepatic portalvein which combines from capillaries around the gut where the blood absorbs the various products of digestion;rather than leading directly back to the heart, the hepatic portal vein branches into a second capillary system in theliver.

Heart

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View from the front

The pulmonary circulation as it passes from the heart. Showingboth the pulmonary artery and bronchial arteries.

The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenatedblood to the lungs. In the human heart there is one atrium and oneventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and apulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, leftventricle, right atrium and right ventricle. The right atrium is the upperchamber of the right side of the heart. The blood that is returned to theright atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the rightventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs forre-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receivesnewly oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary veinwhich is passed into the strong left ventricle to be pumped through theaorta to the different organs of the body.

The coronary circulation system provides a blood supply to the heartmuscle itself. The coronary circulation begins near the origin of theaorta by two arteries: the right coronary artery and the left coronaryartery. After nourishing the heart muscle, blood returns through the

coronary veins into the coronary sinus and from this one into the right atrium. Back flow of blood through itsopening during atrial systole is prevented by the Thebesian valve. The smallest cardiac veins drain directly into theheart chambers.[7]

Lungs

The circulatory system of the lungs is the portion ofthe cardiovascular system in which oxygen-depletedblood is pumped away from the heart, via thepulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned,oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein.

Oxygen deprived blood from the superior andinferior vena cava enters the right atrium of the heartand flows through the tricuspid valve (rightatrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, fromwhich it is then pumped through the pulmonarysemilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to thelungs. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, wherebyCO2 is released from the blood, and oxygen isabsorbed. The pulmonary vein returns the nowoxygen-rich blood to the left atrium.[7]

A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung.

Systemic circulation

The systemic circulation is the circulation of the blood to all parts of the body except the lungs. Systemiccirculation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which transports oxygenated blood away from the heartthrough the aorta from the left ventricle where the blood has been previously deposited from pulmonary circulation,to the rest of the body, and returns oxygen-depleted blood back to the heart.[7]

Brain

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An animation of a typical human redblood cell cycle in the circulatorysystem. This animation occurs at realtime (20 seconds of cycle) and showsthe red blood cell deform as it enterscapillaries, as well as changing coloras it alternates in states ofoxygenation along the circulatorysystem.

The brain has a dual blood supply that comes from arteries at its front and back. These are called the "anterior" and"posterior" circulation respectively. The anterior circulation arises from the internal carotid arteries and supplies thefront of the brain. The posterior circulation arises from the vertebral arteries, and supplies the back of the brain andbrainstem. The circulation from the front and the back join together (anastomise) at the Circle of Willis.

Kidneys

The renal circulation receives around 20% of the cardiac output. It branches from the abdominal aorta and returnsblood to the ascending vena cava. It is the blood supply to the kidneys, and contains many specialized bloodvessels.

Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system. It is a network of lymphatic vessels and lymph capillaries,lymph nodes and organs, and lymphatic tissues and circulating lymph. One of its major functions is to carry thelymph, draining and returning interstitial fluid back towards the heart for return to the cardiovascular system, byemptying into the lymphatic ducts. Its other main function is in the immune system.

Physiology

About 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthyhuman, breathing air at sea-level pressure, is chemically combined withhemoglobin molecules. About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the otherblood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin. The hemoglobin moleculeis the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species.

DevelopmentThe development of the circulatory system starts with vasculogenesis in theembryo. The human arterial and venous systems develop from differentareas in the embryo. The arterial system develops mainly from the aorticarches, six pairs of arches which develop on the upper part of the embryo.The venous system arises from three bilateral veins during weeks 4 – 8 ofembryogenesis. Fetal circulation begins within the 8th week ofdevelopment. Fetal circulation does not include the lungs, which arebypassed via the truncus arteriosus. Before birth the fetus obtains oxygen(and nutrients) from the mother through the placenta and the umbilicalcord.[10]

Arterial development

The human arterial system originates from the aortic arches and from the dorsal aortae starting from week 4 ofembryonic life. The first and second aortic arches regress and forms only the maxillary arteries and stapedialarteries respectively. The arterial system itself arises from aortic arches 3, 4 and 6 (aortic arch 5 completelyregresses).

The dorsal aortae, present on the dorsal side of the embryo, are initially present on both sides of the embryo. Theylater fuse to form the basis for the aorta itself. Approximately thirty smaller arteries branch from this at the backand sides. These branches form the intercostal arteries, arteries of the arms and legs, lumbar arteries and the lateralsacral arteries. Branches to the sides of the aorta will form the definitive renal, suprarenal and gonadal arteries.

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Finally, branches at the front of the aorta consist of the vitelline arteries and umbilical arteries. The vitelline arteriesform the celiac, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries of the gastrointestinal tract. After birth, the umbilicalarteries will form the internal iliac arteries.

Venous development

The human venous system develops mainly from the vitelline veins, the umbilical veins and the cardinal veins, allof which empty into the sinus venosus.

Clinical significanceMany diseases affect the circulatory system. This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascularsystem, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system. Cardiologists are medical professionals whichspecialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas.Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system.

Cardiovascular disease

Diseases affecting the cardiovascular system are called cardiovascular disease.

Many of these diseases are called "lifestyle diseases" because they develop over time and are related to a person'sexercise habits, diet, whether they smoke, and other lifestyle choices a person makes. Atherosclerosis is theprecursor to many of these diseases. It is where small atheromatous plaques build up in the walls of medium andlarge arteries. This may eventually grow or rupture to occlude the arteries. It is also a risk factor for acute coronarysyndromes, which are diseases which are characterised by a sudden deficit of oxygenated blood to the heart tissue.Atherosclerosis is also associated with problems such as aneurysm formation or splitting ("dissection") of arteries.

Another major cardiovascular disease involves the creation of a clot, called a "thrombus". These can originate inveins or arteries. Deep venous thrombosis, which mostly occurs in the legs, is one cause of clots in the veins of thelegs, particularly when a person has been stationary for a long time. These clots may embolise, meaning travel toanother location in the body. The results of this may include pulmonary embolus, transient ischaemic attacks, orstroke.

Cardiovascular diseases may also be congenital in nature, such as heart defects or persistent fetal circulation, wherethe circulatory changes that are supposed to happen after birth do not. Not all congenital changes to the circulatorysystem are associated with diseases, a large number are anatomical variations.

Measurement techniques

The function and health of the circulatory system and its parts are measured in a variety of manual and automatedways. These include simple methods such as those that are part of the cardiovascular examination, including thetaking of a person's pulse as an indicator of a person's heart rate, the taking of blood pressure through asphygmomanometer or the use of a stethoscope to listen to the heart for murmurs which may indicate problemswith the heart's valves. An electrocardiogram can also be used to evaluate the way in which electricity is conductedthrough the heart.

Other more invasive means can also be used. A cannula or catheter inserted into an artery may be used to measurepulse pressure or pulmonary wedge pressures. Angiography, which involves injecting a dye into an artery tovisualise an arterial tree, can be used in the heart (coronary angiography) or brain. At the same time as the arteriesare visualised, blockages or narrowings may be fixed through the insertion of stents, and active bleeds may be

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Magnetic resonance angiography ofaberrant subclavian artery

Two-chambered heart of a fish

managed by the insertion of coils. An MRI may be used to image arteries,called an MRI angiogram. For evaluation of the blood supply to the lungs aCT pulmonary angiogram may be used.

Ultrasound can also be used, particularly to identify the health of bloodvessels, and a Doppler ultrasound of the carotid arteries or Dopplerultrasound of the lower limbs can be used to evaluate for narrowing of thecarotid arteries or thrombus formation in the legs, respectively.

Surgery

There are a number of surgical procedures performed on the circulatorysystem:

Coronary artery bypass surgeryCoronary stent used in angioplastyVascular surgeryVein strippingCosmetic procedures

Cardiovascular procedures are more likely to be performed in an inpatient setting than in an ambulatory caresetting; in the United States, only 28% of cardiovascular surgeries were performed in the ambulatory caresetting.[11]

Society and cultureA number of alternative medical systems such as Chinese medicine view the circulatory system in different ways.

Other animals

Other vertebrates

The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, as well as of annelids (forexample, earthworms) and cephalopods (squids, octopuses and relatives) areclosed, just as in humans. Still, the systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, andbirds show various stages of the evolution of the circulatory system.

In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumpedthrough the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the bodytissues. This is known as single cycle circulation. The heart of fish is,therefore, only a single pump (consisting of two chambers).

In amphibians and most reptiles, a double circulatory system is used, but the heart is not always completelyseparated into two pumps. Amphibians have a three-chambered heart.

In reptiles, the ventricular septum of the heart is incomplete and the pulmonary artery is equipped with a sphinctermuscle. This allows a second possible route of blood flow. Instead of blood flowing through the pulmonary arteryto the lungs, the sphincter may be contracted to divert this blood flow through the incomplete ventricular septuminto the left ventricle and out through the aorta. This means the blood flows from the capillaries to the heart andback to the capillaries instead of to the lungs. This process is useful to ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals in theregulation of their body temperature.

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Flatworms, such as this Pseudocerosbifurcus, lack specialized circulatoryorgans

Above is a diagram of an opencirculatory system. An opencirculatory system is made up of aheart, vessels, and hemolymph. Thisdiagram shows how the hemolymph,fluid present in most invertebratesthat is equivalent to blood, iscirculated throughout the body of agrasshopper. The hymolymph is firstpumped through the heart, into theaorta, dispersed into the head andthroughout the hemocoel, then backthrough the ostium that are located inthe heart, where the process isrepeated.

Birds, mammals, and crocodilians show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heartchambers; it is thought that the four-chambered heart of birds and crocodilians evolved independently from that ofmammals.[12]

Open circulatory system

The open circulatory system is a system in which a fluid in a cavity called the hemocoel bathes the organs directlywith oxygen and nutrients and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid; this combined fluid iscalled hemolymph or haemolymph.[13] Muscular movements by the animal during locomotion can facilitatehemolymph movement, but diverting flow from one area to another is limited. When the heart relaxes, blood isdrawn back toward the heart through open-ended pores (ostia).

Hemolymph fills all of the interior hemocoel of the body and surrounds all cells. Hemolymph is composed ofwater, inorganic salts (mostly sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and calcium), and organic compounds(mostly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). The primary oxygen transporter molecule is hemocyanin.

There are free-floating cells, the hemocytes, within the hemolymph. They play a role in the arthropod immunesystem.

Absence of circulatorysystem

Circulatory systems are absent insome animals, including flatworms(phylum Platyhelminthes). Theirbody cavity has no lining orenclosed fluid. Instead a muscularpharynx leads to an extensivelybranched digestive system thatfacilitates direct diffusion ofnutrients to all cells. The flatworm'sdorso-ventrally flattened body shape

also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or theexterior of the organism. Oxygen can diffuse from the surrounding waterinto the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently, every cellis able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transportsystem.

Some animals, such as jellyfish, have more extensive branching from theirgastrovascular cavity (which functions as both a place of digestion and aform of circulation), this branching allows for bodily fluids to reach theouter layers, since the digestion begins in the inner layers.

HistoryThe earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus (16th century BCE), anancient Egyptian medical papyrus containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual. Inthe papyrus, it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians thought air came in through

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Human anatomical chart of bloodvessels, with heart, lungs, liver andkidneys included. Other organs arenumbered and arranged around it.Before cutting out the figures on thispage, Vesalius suggests that readersglue the page onto parchment andgives instructions on how to assemblethe pieces and paste the multilayeredfigure onto a base "muscle man"illustration. "Epitome", fol.14a. HMDCollection, WZ 240 V575dhZ 1543.

the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled toevery member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatorysystem is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts ofscientific thought.

In the 6th century BCE, the knowledge of circulation of vital fluids throughthe body was known to the Ayurvedic physician Sushruta in ancientIndia.[14] He also seems to have possessed knowledge of the arteries,described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007).[14] The valves of theheart were discovered by a physician of the Hippocratean school around the4th century BCE. However their function was not properly understood then.Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancientanatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were fortransport of air.

The Greek physician, Herophilus, distinguished veins from arteries butthought that the pulse was a property of arteries themselves. Greekanatomist Erasistratus observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed.He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery isreplaced with blood that entered by very small vessels between veins andarteries. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow ofblood.[15]

In 2nd century AD Rome, the Greek physician Galen knew that bloodvessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighterand thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth andenergy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle,while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originatedin the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the bodywhere it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart orliver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked bloodin during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.

Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right bypassing through 'pores' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the leftside of the heart. As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via thepulmonary artery to be exhaled.

In 1025, The Canon of Medicine by the Persian physician, Avicenna, "erroneously accepted the Greek notionregarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled between the ventricles."Despite this, Avicenna "correctly wrote on the cardiac cycles and valvular function", and "had a vision of bloodcirculation" in his Treatise on Pulse.[16] While also refining Galen's erroneous theory of the pulse, Avicennaprovided the first correct explanation of pulsation: "Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and twopauses. Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause. [...] The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries ...which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction."[17]

In 1242, the Arabian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, became the first person to accurately describe the process ofpulmonary circulation, for which he is sometimes considered the father of circulatory physiology.[18] Ibn al-Nafisstated in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon:

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Image of veins from WilliamHarvey's Exercitatio Anatomica deMotu Cordis et Sanguinis inAnimalibus

"...the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no directpathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible poresas some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber mustflow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, bemingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber ofthe heart and there form the vital spirit..."

In addition, Ibn al-Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the capillary circulation. Hestated that "there must be small communications or pores (manafidh in Arabic) between the pulmonary artery andvein," a prediction that preceded the discovery of the capillary system by more than 400 years.[19] Ibn al-Nafis'theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the entire body.

Michael Servetus was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although hisachievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons. He firstly described it in the "Manuscript ofParis"[20][21] (near 1546), but this work was never published. And later he published this description, but in atheological treatise, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on medicine. Only three copies of the book survived butthese remained hidden for decades, the rest were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecutionof Servetus by religious authorities.

Better known discovery of pulmonary circulation was by Vesalius's successor at Padua, Realdo Colombo, in 1559.

Finally, William Harvey, a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius (who had earlierdescribed the valves of the veins without recognizing their function),performed a sequence of experiments, and published Exercitatio Anatomicade Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628, which "demonstratedthat there had to be a direct connection between the venous and arterialsystems throughout the body, and not just the lungs. Most importantly, heargued that the beat of the heart produced a continuous circulation of bloodthrough minute connections at the extremities of the body. This is aconceptual leap that was quite different from Ibn al-Nafis' refinement of theanatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs."[22] This work, with itsessentially correct exposition, slowly convinced the medical world.However, Harvey was not able to identify the capillary system connectingarteries and veins; these were later discovered by Marcello Malpighi in1661.

In 1956, André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards were awarded the Nobel Prizein Medicine "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatorysystem."[23]

See alsoCardiologyVital heatCardiac muscleMajor systems of the human bodyAmato Lusitano

References

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External linkshttp://cnx.org/content/m46646/latest/The Circulatory System (http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookcircSYS.html)Reiber C. L. & McGaw I. J. (2009). "A Review of the "Open" and "Closed" Circulatory Systems: NewTerminology for Complex Invertebrate Circulatory Systems in Light of Current Findings". InternationalJournal of Zoology 2009: 8 pages. doi:10.1155/2009/301284 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1155%2F2009%2F301284).Patwardhan K. The history of the discovery of blood circulation: unrecognized contributions of Ayurvedamasters (http://advan.physiology.org/content/36/2/77.long). Adv Physiol Educ. 2012 Jun;36(2):77–82.Michael Servetus Research (http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html) Study on theManuscript of Paris by Servetus (1546 description of the Pulmonary Circulation)

1. "circulatory system (http://web.archive.org/web/20090616022448/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/dorland/nine/000951445.htm)" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary

2. http://www.cancerresearch.uk3. "cardiovascular system (http://web.archive.org/web/20090616022448/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_do

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10893-1.5. Cardiovascular System (https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2011/MB_cgi?mode=&term=Cardiovascular+System) at the

US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)6. Pratt, Rebecca. "Cardiovascular System: Blood". AnatomyOne. Amirsys, Inc.7. Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2000). Guyton Textbook of Medical Physiology (10 ed.). ISBN 072168677X.8. National Institutes of Health. "What Are the Lungs?". nih.gov.9. State University of New York (February 3, 2014). "The Circulatory System". suny.edu.

10. Whitaker, Kent (2001). "Fetal Circulation". Comprehensive Perinatal and Pediatric Respiratory Care. Delmar ThomsonLearning. pp. 18–20. ISBN 978-0-7668-1373-1.

11. Wier LM, Steiner CA, Owens PL (April 17, 2015). "Surgeries in Hospital-Owned Outpatient Facilities, 2012". HCUPStatistical Brief #188. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.

12. "Crocodilian Hearts". National Center for Science Education. October 24, 2008. Retrieved October 3, 2015.13. Bailey, Regina. "Circulatory System". biology.about.com.14. Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). "History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence"

(http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf), Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci Vol.49 pp.243-4, National InformaticsCentre (Government of India).

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16. Shoja, M. M.; Tubbs, R. S.; Loukas, M.; Khalili, M.; Alakbarli, F.; Cohen-Gadol, A. A. (2009). "Vasovagal syncope inthe Canon of Avicenna: The first mention of carotid artery hypersensitivity". International Journal of Cardiology 134 (3):297–301. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.02.035. PMID 19332359.

17. Hajar, Rachel (1999). "The Greco-Islamic Pulse". Heart Views 1 (4): 136–140 [138].18. Reflections, Chairman's (2004). "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting". Heart Views 5 (2): 74–

85 [80].19. West, J. B. (2008). "Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age". Journal of Applied Physiology

105 (6): 1877–1880. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008. PMC 2612469. PMID 18845773.20. Gonzalez Etxeberria, Patxi (2011) Amor a la verdad, el – vida y obra de Miguel servet [The love for truth. Life and work

of Michael Servetus]. Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department ofInstitutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra. ISBN 8423532666 pp. 215–228 & 62nd illustration(XLVII)

21. Michael Servetus Research (http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html) Study with graphical proofon the Manuscript of Paris and many other manuscripts and new works by Servetus

22. Pormann, Peter E. and Smith, E. Savage (2007) Medieval Islamic medicine Georgetown University, Washington DC, p.48, ISBN 1589011619.

23. "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1956". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.

6/21/2016 Circulatory system - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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