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CEI - Ground ReportVersion II, August 2002

Churches’ Social and Political Role in Europe after the Second World WarKaisamari Hintikka

Aila Lauha

1. Introduction to the project on Churches and European Integration The main task of the research project on Churches and European Integration (CEI) is to produce new knowledge onthe churches role in European political and social life during the cold war period, as well as in the recent past. Eachof the five European universities participating in the project have individual view points on the theme of the project,as well as a different emphasis on the research itself. All these themes form together a larger whole. Already at the preparatory stage of the project, it was obvious that the earlier research on the field was ratherdisconnected and its quality considerably uneven. The interest in and information about the role of the churches inEurope varied from country to another. Furthermore, a considerable number of the existing research seemed to beinfluenced by political interests. Such being the case, it was agreed that a mapping of these scattered research resultsand pieces of information should be brought together in a proper analysis of the present state of the art of knowledge. During the first year of the project, each partner has been studying the research tradition and situation in their owncountry and speech area, both from the view point of its own research theme as well as from the perspective of thewhole project. First, the aim was to collect a bibliography on the research dealing with the main topics, and second, to produce acritical commentary on the most important of these studies. In the commentary part of the report, each partnerevaluates the present state of knowledge; the quantity and quality of the research; the areas of interest it has managedto cover as well as the gaps which are left. The report analyses the picture given by research on the churches role inEurope, as well as values the reliability of the knowledge especially in proportion to the source material on which theresearch is based. Furthermore, the task of the commentary is to compare and analyse the themes which have becomecentres of attention in church social or political activities in different countries, as well as to what extent and underwhich criteria these activities have been valued or evaluated. One of the main aim is to assess the interpretation ofearlier research on the churches; their possible commitment or independence in relation to the European politicalpower structures. Furthermore, the report analysis the emphasis given by research on observing the churches stancetowards peace, national or international identity, and inclusion in the European level. The preliminary results of the mapping were discussed in the CEI’s six months workshop held in Helsinki in March2002. At that stage, also, the uniform structure of the report was agreed. The report is meant to support the work ofthe research carried out in the project, especially because it aims to fill the most obvious gaps as well as to offermore diversified standpoints in this field of research. Furthermore, the report will be useful also for other students ofthe churches in Europe, as well as for social and political decision makers and citizens, not to mention the churchesthemselves, both in national and international level. 2. Studies on Churches post–war social and political role Thus far, only few studies have been published concerning the churches role in or understanding of the Europeanintegration process. Furthermore, only few studies deal with the churches’ common political or social activities inEuropean level in general. However, church–state relations in various European countries, both east and west, havebeen analysed in a number of studies (Leisching 1973, State and Church in the European Union 1996, and from moreglobal viewpoint, Tergel 1995). Discussion about the role of the churches in Europe has been quite low key, yet it has been gradually growing duringthe last decade simultaneously with the external enlargement and internal strengthening of the European Union.Their role in Europe has been described by researchers from two perspectives: the first can be considered as aspiritual one: keeping Christian values and thus European spiritual heritage in the forefront; the second task, throughinter–church cooperation, is to support the building of a common Europe. In the latter case the churches seem tocommit themselves in their common past and in common social good, but take a critical stance towards the kind ofeconomic integration which could result further inequality both at a European and a global level. These viewpointshave been generally adopted by the researchers as well. (Robbers 1996, Peura 1999, Hallamaa 1999) Furthermore, itseems that thus far no major criticism has appeared but the churches role have been considered neutral or evenpositive as far it has been question of the European level in general. However, when one takes a look at moredetailed research dealing with churches’ political or social role in one particular area or country, for example in theNordic countries (Nordiske Folkekirker i opbrud 2001), or churches’ stance towards a particular event or period ofhistory, such as dealing with their past relations with the communist systems (Religion and Nationalism in Eastern

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Europe and Soviet Union 1987, Catholicism and Politics in Communist Societies 1990), the stance of research hasbeen far more critical. The churches’ participation in the CSCE process which was followed up by the Conference ofEuropean Churches has been observed as well (Kunter 2000). Furthermore, there has been surprisingly vivid production of studies or collection of articles dealing with thechurches in Europe which however has not managed to reach a wider audience because it has been published inminor European language, like Finnish or Swedish (Kirkot ja Euroopan murros 1996, Hallamaa 1999, Heikkilä 1999,Knuuttila 1999, Lauha 1999, Peura 1999). Most of these articles observe Europe and her churches from the viewpoint of Christian social–ethics, touching also the impact of main political changes on the churches’ teaching in thefield (Hallamaa 1999, Knuuttila 1999). 3. Primary sources and documents The churches themselves have tried to define their own understanding on their position in Europe and their role in itsintegration process. However, these collections of documents have mapped the topic mainly from the viewpoint ofone denomination, denominational family (Katolische Kirche und Europa 1980, Unterwegs nach Europa 2001) or alocal church (Kyrkorna och EU 1997). An exception is the joint project of the Conference of European Churches(CEC) and the Council of of Bishop’s Conferences of Europe (CCEE) which observes the churches joint activities inEurope from more diversified ecumenical point of view. The CEC’s working group on European Integration has alsopublished a discussion paper on Churches in the process of European integration (Churches in the Process ofEuropean Integration 2001). All these reports and collections should be considered as sources and documentsconcerning the self-understanding of the churches and their role in Europe, but not as objective studies. However,one has to keep in mind that producing a common statement, such as the CEC working paper, is a lengthy processthe result of which is more or less a compromise. The variety of unpublished sources on churches in European societies is wide: there are national, administrative andchurch archives in each country and for each church. In the level of the international inter–church organisations thearchives are more centralised. Many of these organisations keep their archives in the Ecumenical Centre in Genevawhere the documentation concerning the World Council of Churches, the Conference of European Churches, theLutheran World Federation, the World Alliance of Reformed Churches and the World Student Christian Federationcan be found. Even though all of these except the CEC work on a global level, all of these archives consist materialon European churches as well. Furthermore, the WCC has since XXX had a Europe secretary in its staff, whereas theWSCF has in its structure a European regional committee. The CEC founded in 1999 an office also to Brussels,where the Catholic Commission of the Bishops’ Conferences within the EU (COMECE) has its head quarters aswell. Published documents Katholische Kirche und Europa.

1980 Schwarz, Jürgen et al. (hg.) Katholische Kirche und Europa. Dokumente 1945-1979. Grünewald:Kaiser Verlag.

Kyrkorna och EU. 1997 Kyrkorna och EU. Sveriges Kristna Råds plattform för kyrkornas gemensamma arbete med EU-frågor.

[Churches and EU. Swedish Christian Council’s forum for common work on questions relating to EU.]Örebro:

Unterwegs nach Europa 2001 Hans Jürgen Luibl et al. (hg). Unterwegs nach Europa. Perspektiven Evangelischer Kirchen. Ein

Lesebuch. Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Otto Lembeck. Electronic documents Churches in the Process of European Integration. [http://www.cec_kek.org/English/IntegrationprocE.htm] May 2001. 4. Bibliography Catholicism and politics in Communist societies. 1990 Pedro Ramet (ed.) , Catholicism and politics in Communist societies. Christianity under Stress, Vol 2.

Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. Die Christen und die Entstehung der Europäischen Gemeinschaft

1994 Martin Greschat and Wilfried Loth (Hg.), Die Christen und die Entstehung der EuropäischenGemeinschaft. Konfession und Gesellschaft Band 5. Stuttgart Berlin Köln: W. Kohlhammer Verlag.

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Das Christentum und andere Religionen in Europa. 1995 Das Christentum und andere Religionen in Europa. LWB-Dokumentation 37. Genf: Christliches Ethos und der Widerstand gegen den Nationalsozialismus in Europa

1995 Joachim Mehlhausen (Hg.), Christliches Ethos und der Widerstand gegen den Nationalsozialismus in Europa. Konfession und Gesellschaft Band 9. Stuttgart Berlin Köln:W.

Kohlhammer Verlag. The Cold War and the university; toward an intellectual history of the postwar years.

1997 Noam Chomsky (ed.), The Cold War and the university; toward an intellectual history of the postwaryears. New York: The New Press.

Das Europa der Religionen.

1996 Otto Kallscheuer (Hg.), Das Europa der Religionen. Ein Kontinent zwischen Säkularisierung undFundamentalismus. Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer Verlag.

Europa zusammenführen und versöhnen. 1996 Europa zusammenführen und versöhnen. Hg. von Kirchenamt der EKD. Hannover: Heikkilä, Markku 1999 Uskonto, oikeus ja julkisuus Euroopan unionin maissa [Religion, rights, and publicity in the member

countries of the Europan Union], in Markku Heikkilä (ed.) Uskonto ja nykyaika. Yksilö jaeurooppalaisen yhteiskunnan murros [Religion and modern times. The individual and the change ofthe Europan society]. Jyväskylä: Atena, pp. 128–153.

Hallamaa, Jaana 1999 Kristinuskon kertomus ja Eurooppalainen sosialietiikka. [The Tale of Christianity and European

social–ethics.] in Jaana Hallamaa (ed.) Rahan teologia ja Euroopan kirkot: lopun ajan sosiaalietiikka.[The Theology of Money and the Churches of Europe: the Social Ethics of the End of Times.]Puheenvuoroja, 216. Jyväskylä: Atena, pp. 139–225.

Die Kirchen Europas 1994 Helmut Steindl (hg.), Die Kirchen Europas. Ihr ökumenisches Engagement. Die Dokumente der

Europäischen Ökumenischen Begegnungen (1978–1991). J. P. Bachem: Köln. Kirkkojen Eurooppa. 1997 Juha Auvinen (ed.), Kirkkojen Eurooppa. Puheenvuoroja uskosta, arvoista ja muutoksesta. [Europe of

Churches. Addresses on faith, values and change.] Helsinki: Kirjaneliö. Kirkot ja Euroopan murros

1997 Matti Kotiranta (ed.), Kirkot ja Euroopan murros. (Churches and the change of Europe). STKS:nsymposiumissa marraskuussa 1995 pidetyt esitelmät. Suomalaisen teologisen kirjallisuusseuranjulkaisu 204. Jyväskylä: Suomalainen teologinen kirjallisuusseura.

Knuuttila, Simo 1999 Eurooppa, kirkot ja aatteet [Europe, churches, and ideas], in Rahan teologia ja Euroopan kirkot: lopun

ajan sosiaalietiikka. Jyväskylä: Atena, pp. 11–32. Kunter, Katharina

2000 Die Kirchen im KSZE-Prozess 1968-1978. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag. Lauha, Aila 1999 Ekumenian anti Euroopalle [Ecumenism’s contribution to Europe], in Markku Heikkilä (ed.) Uskonto

ja nykyaika. Yksilö ja eurooppalaisen yhteiskunnan murros [Religion and modern times. Theindividual and the change of the Europan society]. Jyväskylä: Atena, pp. 90–127.

Leisching, Peter 1973 Kirche und Staat in den Rechtsordnungen Europas ein Überblick . Freiburg: Rombach.

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Nordiske Folkekirker i opbrud. 2001 Jens Holger Schjoerring (ed.) Nordiske Folkekirker i opbrud. National identitet og international

nyorientering efter 1945. [National identity and international reorientation after 1945] Århus : AarhusUniversitetsforlag.

Peura, Simo 1999 Kirkot ja yhteisen Euroopan rakentaminen [Churches and the building of a common Europe], in

Uskonto ja nykyaika, pp. 158–195. Rahan teologia ja Euroopan kirkot 1999 Jaana Hallamaa (ed.) Rahan teologia ja Euroopan kirkot: lopun ajan sosiaalietiikka. [The Theology of

Money and the Churches of Europe: the Social Ethics of the End of Times.] Puheenvuoroja, 216.Jyväskylä: Atena.

Religion and nationalism in Eastern Europe and Soviet Union. 1987 Dennis J. Dunn (ed.) Religion and nationalism in Eastern Europe and Soviet Union. Boulder, CO:

Rienner. Robbers, Gerhard 1996 State and Church in the European Union in Gerhard Robbers (ed.), State and Church in the European

Union. Baden-Baden: Nomos, pp. 323–333. Säkularisierung, Dechristianisierung, Rechristianisierung im Neuzeitlichen Europa 1997 Hartmut Lehmann (Hg), Säkularisierung, Dechristianisierung, Rechristianisierung im Neuzeitlichen

Europa: Bilanz und Perspektiven der Forschung. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. State and Church in the European Union 1996 Gerhard Robbers (ed.), State and Church in the European Union. Baden-Baden: Nomos. Sources for the History of European Integration 1980 Lipgens, Walter (ed.), Sources for the History of European Integration (1945-1955): A Guide to Archives in

the Countries of the Community. Leyden: Sijthoff, 1980. Tergel, Alf 1995 Church and Society in the modern age. Uppsala studies in Social Ethics 17. Uppsala: Acta

Universitatis Upsaliensis. Uskonnot maailmanpolitiikassa

1999 Heikki Palva, Juha Pentikäinen (eds.), Uskonnot maailmanpolitiikassa . [Religions in the internationalpolitics.] Juva: WSOY.

Uskonto ja nykyaika 1999 Markku Heikkilä (ed.), Uskonto ja nykyaika. Yksilö ja eurooppalaisen yhteiskunnan murros [Religion

and modern times. The individual and the change of the Europan society]. Jyväskylä: Atena. Series or periodicals European Journal for Church and State Research, Leuven: Peeters 1995– Journal of Cold War Studies, Cambridge, MA : MIT Press Journals, 1999– Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987– Religion, State and Society, Oxford: Keston Institute, Ökumenische Rundschau, Frankfurt: Verlag Otto Lembeck, 1951– WP-2

The Peace Issue in Ecumenical Dialogues during the Cold War and itsImplications on the Life of the Churches

Heiko Overmeyer

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The peace issue was part of every ecumenical bilateral theological dialogue during the Cold War era. After thepolitical “Wende” a debate in church historiography has started: researchers have tried to analyze the theologicaleffort of ecumenical activities and especially of ecumenical dialogues and have disputed the question whether theecumenical movements and especially the churches in Eastern Europe were highly influenced by the communistgovernments. It is surprising that today´s research mentions the peace-discussion in the Cold War but does notanalyze the Peace Issue in ecumenical dialogues. And what is more surprising is that today´s research does not takediscussions of social ethics in these dialogues into account. It is the aim of the project to close this gap in research.This will be done in two steps: First the published results of research concerning the ecumenical activities on andconcerning the peace discussion in the Cold War have to be analyzed. A methodical problem must be faced: is itmore important to see the document files or to hear the voices of contemporary witnesses? Secondly it will be askedfor the possibilities of today´s ecumenical activities concerning the questions of social ethics – especially for thosepossibilities which are given by the peace discussion in the Cold War era. This could be a kind of basis for today´ssocio-ethical efforts of churches in an ecumenical way. At the same time this could be a political contribution toEuropean integration.

1. The Task The task of the WP is to analyze the discussion of peace in official theological dialogues between churches in thepolitical west and in the political east during the Cold War. The title itself implies the aspects that have to be takeninto account. By the keyword Peace Issue the emphasis is put on a question of social ethics. In this context thismeans the relationship between church and society in the Cold War. The headword Ecumenical Dialogues makesclear that the task has to be looked at from an ecumenical point of view. Finally the keyword Cold War limits theperiod of time to the conflict between east and west during the nuclear arms race. The expression Cold War will beused according to the project´s definition: the time between the Second World War and the fall of the communistsystem in Europe. In the first part ecumenical action in the Cold War has to be analysed. Especially the ecumenical discussion of thePeace Issue was the reason for conflicts between eastern European churches and their states. These conflicts lead toanother important question: how far did social and political pressure on the one hand and political interests as well associal circumstances on the other, influence ecumenical activities? From today’s point of view we have to find outwhether political circumstances pushed ecumenical activities more than theological aspects. If ecumenical effortswere only caused by political pressure, the theological and socio-ethical value of these efforts would be in doubt. This leads to the second part of the analysis: If ecumenical efforts are pushed through in times of politicalconfrontation (maybe even by means of political confrontation) it has to be asked of what political value the resultsare after the situation of confrontation changes. The special questions for the WP are: can the results of theologicaldialogues concerning the peace issue be used for today’s political discussion if the circumstances are very different?Can different churches keep up their ecumenical cooperation when one main reason for this cooperation – that is thepolitical pressure of the Cold War era – is no longer there? Moreover the question about a possible political andtheological legitimation for an ecumenical cooperation in social affairs has to be settled. One has to keep in mind that these dialogues were in danger of being instrumentalized: the churches as well as thegovernments were interested in the ecumenical contacts as they linked the political systems in a way. But one shouldnot forget that these dialogues probably did have a theological and social merit. If that is the case, the results can beuseful today. In order to analyse these problems the WP will concentrate on those dialogues, which took placebetween the German Protestant churches (in both parts of Germany) and Orthodox churches in Eastern Europe. Thisfocus makes sense for two reasons: first the German Protestant churches played an important role in the peacediscussion of the 1980s. And secondly these dialogues (and the Finnish dialogues, which will be analysed in anseparate WP) are regarded to have been the most effective theological dialogues. First of all the significance thedialogues had in the time they were held will be analysed. Moreover a methodological approach will be presentedwith the help of which the significance of the results for today can be worked out. 2. The State of the Art Not many results of research concerning the peace issue during the Cold War have been published. There is nomonographic study analysing these problems at all. One can only find a few studies that discuss the problem of theWP in scattered chapters. These texts can be classified into three groups: first of all there are texts that show differentopinions about the dialogues in general. The texts were written before as well as after the “Wende” (the politicalchange in Europe). Another group of texts deals with the ecumenical institutions and their aims. With the help ofthese texts the bilateral dialogues can be contextualized in the whole ecumenical movement. The third group of textsanalyses the ecumenical peace discussion and the discussion of social questions.

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Studies concerning the dialogues in general discuss their aims, their political dependence and their results. Adistinction has to be made between those voices from within the churches and those from outside, especially as far asthe aims of the theological dialogues are concerned. From an external point of view the aim of the theologicaldialogues is the support of the political dialogue. This opinion was especially popular in the 1970s (cp. Bopp). Onecan find a few theological statements that share this opinion and emphasize the aim of reconciliation between thenations (cp. Held 1997). On the other hand most voices from within the church do not put that much emphasis onpolitical aspects but on the necessity of knowledge about the other churches. The thesis that ecumenical relationship and especially theological dialogues depended on politics is undisputed.Therefore the contemporary conditions have to be taken into account (cp. Hintikka, Schwarz). These reflexions leadto important questions: were the similarities between ecumenical and political speeches about the peace issue mostlymotivated by the political situation? Did people want to pass on the good relationship between members of differentchurches to politicians of different communist countries? Or were the similarities between political and theologicalpositions merely coincidental? Were the discussions about the peace issue motivated by the church members –regardless of any political pressure? The fact for example that the ROC (Russian Orthodox Church) stressed thepeace issue because of its history and not only because of Soviet pressure (like Felmy pointed out) goes along withthe second position. These kinds of differences have to be found out by the WP. The value of the dialogues is highly disputed (cp. Schwarz). Often they are regarded as a form of communionbetween different churches but without any meaning from an dogmatical point of view. Getting to know each otherbetter seems to be the most important aim (cp. Felmy, Althausen, Damaskinos). The fact that hardly any reception ofthe results can be found is a reason for some authors to question the ecumenical value as a whole. In contrast to thisother authors mention that the bilateral theological dialogues were – and still are – an important part of theecumenical movement (cp. Ionita, Lilienfeld). Another point of interest in this aspect is the connection between theparticipants of the church meetings and their states. To what extent were they influenced by political institutions?Finally the fact that hardly anyone seems to really know the other churches (cp. Oeldemann) rises the question if thedialogues have really achieved their aim in the long run? After the “Wende” a big debate arose in German church-historiography concerning the ecumenical activities in theCold War. On the one hand the thesis is held (especially by Boyens 1999) that the ecumenical movement since the1970s acted in a one-sided way because the communists put a lot of pressure on it. On the other hand it is stressed(e.g. by Held 2000) that political circumstances also led to compromises. Listening to these different voices isimportant in order to work out which effect the political pressure had on the ecumenical efforts and what value theseefforts aimed at. There is no doubt about the fact that communist and even non-communist governments tried to influence theecumenical movement and that the churches nevertheless had their own concepts and ideas in spite of this. A fewauthors mention that it was necessary to make compromises with the communist governments in order to secure thebridges between the political systems. These bridges were one reason that contributed to the fall of the communistsystems in Europe. Generally speaking one always has to keep in mind that ecumenical activities do not take place ina vacuum but are in one way or another influenced by politics everywhere. Two aims of the ecumenical efforts of eastern churches are quite obvious: first there is the attempt (for example bythe ROC) to be protected against one’s own government by means of contacts to western churches. Secondly it is thevision of a socially acceptable way that differs from communism as well as from capitalism. This was the so-called“Third Way”. People within the churches had different opinions about the aim they wanted to achieve by taking partin the dialogues. These divergences of opinion are valued differently. Some authors (like Besier) think theyweakened the political power of the ecumenical movement, others (like Kunter) see the various opinions as thereason that prevented the churches from being totally controlled by the political system. These polarizations intoday’s research show that further analyses of the ecumenical movement, especially the ecumenical dialogues, arenecessary. A close analysis of the dialogue’s original wording will be helpful to do so. An important question comesup: in how far were the participants of the dialogues influenced by their knowledge, that they could not talk frankly?(This observation has its consequences on the WP’s methodological approach.) Researchers and contemporarywitnesses intensively discuss this question. Some researchers want to take the analyses of documents and archivefiles as the only basis of their research. Others stress the importance of interviews with contemporary witnesses. Thegroups seem to be equal in size, but as almost all contemporary witnesses can be found in the second it is obviouslymuch bigger. This group does not only want to look at the activities that really took place. It wants to find out whichopportunities there were under the difficult circumstances. This approach allows conclusions on how much wasachieved al all rather than stressing what did not take place. The WP tries to connect both concepts: the results willbe based on research in archives as well as on interviews with contemporary witnesses because neither the archivesnor the witnesses can show the whole truth. When talking about the peace discussion of the churches during the Cold War the following three aspects play animportant role: the ecumenical status of the peace discussion, the conflicts between political and theologicalimplications, and the importance of church statements in the entire peace discussion. When churches from the so

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called Third World appeared on the ecumenical stage it could be seen that the peace issue became more and more aEuropean problem because it was pushed only by European political circumstances. (cp. Dejung, Hogebrink, Weiler)Moreover Kvist suspects that it was only a problem for a certain period of time, especially from 1975 to 1982 thechurches’ contribution to the peace issue seemed to be important. Other authors (like Raiser) suggest that there couldbe an ecumenical contribution to the Peace Issue even after the end of the Cold War. Comparing the contribution ofchurches to that of communist institutions reveals the following tension: of communist institutions peace is the sameas military security. As far as this peace is guaranteed by the communist system every supporter of peace wasautomatically a protector of the communist system. Yet for the churches peace meant much more than just militarysecurity and silence of weapons. As far as the peace issue is concerned it was not possible for the dialogues to come to a shared doctrine.However, quite a few agreements were reached by the ecumenical movement in the Cold War. Yet if one wants towork out which significance the results have for today two problems have to be taken into account: comments fromthe eastern European churches are often seen with a lot of suspicion because these churches were quite close tocommunist systems. The only exception is the Protestant churches in East Germany: they did not have such closecontact. For this reason the WP concentrates on the dialogues of the East German churches. The second problemconcerns the status of the results for the churches today. The results do not have a dogmatic significance.Furthermore they can be interpreted quite differently. To sum up, the WP wants to contribute to the current research discussion by closely analysing the peace issue in theecumenical dialogues. It will take both the document files and the memories of contemporary witnesses into account.The WP will have to work on two different levels: the contemporary and the current one. On the contemporary level it is not enough to just read the available results. It is necessary to analyse how farpolitical or ecclesiastical pressure influenced the documents. In addition to that it has to be clarified which kind ofecclesiastical discussions disturbed the political influence and how the dialogues’ participants reacted to the pressurefrom the communist governments. Published volumes of documents do not only contain the wordings of the dialoguemeetings but also offer short introductions and descriptions of them. In addition to these published texts one can findvarious archive files that were opened after the German unification. Yet it is not only the contemporary but also the current point of view about the dialogues that is important for theWP. What significance do the results have today? On the one hand this concerns the ecclesiastical and ecumenicalsignificance. Perhaps the agreements in the peace issue can cause and legitimate ecumenical social action. But on theother hand this has a political significance, as well. If an ecumenical social activity is justified by those results thechurches could play an important part in today’s politics – for example in the process of integration in today’sEurope – as they contribute a lot of social integration across national borders. And analysing the questions of thisWP can give reasons why a kind of political action of churches is justified not only for political but also theologicalreasons. And this maybe could be reasons for churches to open to political problems. Generally speaking two aspectsof results of the WP can be expected: First a theological one concerning the importance of the results of ecumenicaldialogues for today’s churches, and secondly a political one concerning the possible role of churches in socialintegration. 3. Sources Published Sources can be found in: Bremer, Thomas / Oeldemann, Johannes / Stoltmann, Dagmar (Hg.) 1999 Orthodoxie im Dialog. Bilaterale Dialoge der orthodoxen und der orientalisch-orthodoxen Kirchen

1945-1997; eine Dokumentensammlung. Trier: Paulinus-Verlag.

4. Bibliography Albrecht, Paul 1991 Das ökumenische Nachdenken über gesellschaftliche Fragen in der Ära nach dem Kalten Krieg. in Karin

Bredull-Gerschwiller e. a. (Hg.), Ökumenische Theologie in den Herausforderungen der Gegenwart. LukasVischer zum 65. Geburtstag. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, pp. 52-65.

Althausen, Johannes 2000 „Mit einer Hand kann man nicht klatschen.“ Die „Budapest-Treffen“ zwischen 1975 und 1982 – ein Kapitel

„Ost-West-Politik“ des Ökumenischen Rates der Kirchen, Ökumenische Rundschau 49:1. Frankfurt amMain: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 52-40.

Avvakumov, Georg

1998 Ökumenische Utopie und gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit. Samuel P. Huntingtons Konzeptder Weltpolitik als eine Herausforderung für das ökumenische Engagement der katholischen Kirche

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im post-sowjetischen Raum, Münchener Theologische Zeitschrift 49. St. Ottilien: EOS Verlag, pp.197-214.

Badekis, Athanasios

1978 Die theologischen Gespräche zwischen der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland und derOrthodoxie, Ökumenische Rundschau 27. Frankfurt am Main: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 223-253.

Besier, Gerhard / Boyens, Armin / Lindemann, Gerhard

1999 Einleitung. In Gerhard Besier, Armin Boyens und Gerhard Lindemann (Hg.), NationalerProtestantismus und Ökumenische Bewegung. Kirchliches Handeln im Kalten Krieg (1945-1990).Berlin: Duncker &Humblot, pp. 15-26.

Bopp, Jörg

1971 Unterwegs zur Weltgesellschaft. Die Ökumene zwischen westlichem Führungsanspruchund universaler Verantwortung. Stuttgart e. a.: Kohlhammer-Verlag.

Boyens, Armin

1992 Die ökumenische Bewegung und die totalitären Ideologien des 20. Jahrhunderts. In MartinGreschat und Jochen-Christoph Kaiser (Hg.), Christentum und Demokratie im 20. Jahrhundert,Stuttgart – Berlin – Köln: Kohlhammer-Verlag, pp. 19-40.

1999 Ökumenischer Rat der Kirchen und Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland zwischen Ostund West. In Gerhard Besier, Armin Boyens und Gerhard Lindemann (Hg.), NationalerProtestantismus und Ökumenische Bewegung. Kirchliches Handeln im Kalten Krieg (1945-1990).Berlin: Duncker &Humblot, pp. 27-322.

Dejung, Karl-Heinz u. a.

2001 Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen im Kalten Krieg. Eine andere Sichtweise, Junge Kirche62:1. Hamburg: Verlag Junge Kirche, pp. 45-59.

Döpmann, Hans-Dieter

1991 Begegnung mit der Orthodoxie. Theologische Gespräche des Bundes der EvangelischenKirchen mit der Russischen Orthodoxen Kirche („Sagorsk“) und der Bulgarischen OrthodoxenKirche („Herrnhut“). In Matthias Sens und Roswitha Bodenstein (Hg.), Über die Grenzen hinwegzu wachsender Gemeinschaft. Ökumene in der DDR in den achtziger Jahren. Frankfurt am Main:Verlag Otto Lembeck, pp. 38-48.

Esser, Hans Helmut

1989 Die Verantwortung der Kirche für den Frieden (Schalom) der Menschheit und derSchöpfung unter dem Frieden mit Gott. In Kurt Aland (Hg.): Wissenschaft und Kirche. Festschriftfür Eduard Lohse. Bielefeld: Luther-Verlag, pp. 235-258.

Felmy, Karl Christian

1980 Die orthodox-lutherischen Gespräche in Europa. Ein Überblick. Ökumenische Rundschau29. Frankfurt am Main: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 504-519.

Gemeinsamer Bericht

1997 Geme insamer Bericht an die Leitungen der Russischen Orthodoxen Kirche und derEvangelischen Kirche in Deutschland über den Stand des bilateralen theologischen Dialogs.Ökumenische Rundschau 46. Frankfurt am Main: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 349-351.

Held, Heinz-Joachim

1995 40 Jahre Begegnungen EKD – Orthodoxie. Wege und Wertungen. Materialdienst desKonfessionskundlichen Instituts Bensheim 3. Bensheim: Konfessionskundliches Institut, pp. 47-54.

1997 Zum Stand des bilateralen theologischen Dialogs zwischen der Russischen OrthodoxenKirche und der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland. Ökumenische Rundschau 46. Frankfurt amMain: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 349-361.

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2000 Ökumene im Kalten Krieg: Wie war es mit der vielbeklagten politischen Einseitigkeit desÖkumenischen Rates der Kirchen in den Menschenrechtsfragen im kommunistischenMachtbereich? In Joppien, Heinz-Jürgen (Hg.): Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen in denKonflikten des Kalten Krieges. Kontexte – Kompromisse – Konkretionen. Frankfurt am Main: OttoLembeck Verlag, pp. 21-163.

2001 Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen im Visier der Kritik. Eine kritische Lektüre derForschungsarbeit „ÖRK und EKD zwischen Ost und West“ von Armin Boyens. Frankfurt amMain: Otto Lembeck Verlag.

Hintikka, Kaisamari

2000 The Romanian Orthodox Church and the World Council of Churches 1971-1977.Helsinki: Luther-Agricola-Society.

Hogebrink, Laurens

2000 Ökumene als Friedensarbeit: In Europa eine ambivalente Geschichte. In Joppien, Heinz-Jürgen (Hg.): Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen in den Konflikten des Kalten Krieges. Kontexte –Kompromisse – Konkretionen. Frankfurt am Main: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 222-233.

Huber, Wolfgang und Reuter, Hans-Richard 1990 Friedensethik. Stuttgart – Berlin – Köln: Kohlhammer-Verlag. Ionita, Viorel

1990 Zehn Jahre theologischer Dialog zwischen der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland undder Rumänischen Orthodoxen Kirche (1979-1989). Ökumenische Rundschau 39. Frankfurt amMain: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 322-327.

Kunter, Katharina

2000 Die politische Handlungsfähigkeit des ÖRK in Krisensituationen. Beiträge aus derDiskussion. In Joppien, Heinz-Jürgen (Hg.): Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen in den Konfliktendes Kalten Krieges. Kontexte – Kompromisse – Konkretionen. Frankfurt am Main: Otto LembeckVerlag, pp. 206-215.

Kvist, Hans Olof

1991 Die Bedeutung der Friedensproblematik im Dialog zwischen der Russischen OrthodoxenKirche und der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirche Finnlands. Kirchliche Zeitschichte 4:1. Göttingen:Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, pp. 241-249.

Lienemann, Wolfgang

2000 Frieden. Vom gerechten Krieg zum gerechten Frieden. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &Ruprecht.

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1975 Zum augenblicklichen Stand des Dialogs westlicher Christen mit der russischenOrthodoxie. Una Sancta 30. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, pp. 106-126.

Oeldemann, Johannes

2002 Die Komplementarität der Traditionen. Grundlagen, Problemfelder und Perspektiven desökumenischen Dialogs mit der Orthodoxie, CATHOLICA 56:1. Münster: Aschendorff, pp. 44-67.

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1994 Wir stehen noch am Anfang. Ökumene in einer veränderten Welt. Gütersloh: GütersloherVerlags-Haus.

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1993 Dialoge der EKD mit orthodoxen Kirchen. In Hermann Brandt und Jörg Rothermundt(Hg.), Was hat die Ökumene gebracht? Fakten und Perspektiven. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlags-Haus, pp. 61-81.

Slenczka, Reinhard

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1985 25 Jahre theologische Gespräche zwischen Evangelischer Kirche in Deutschland und Moskauer Patriarchat,Ökumenische Rundschau 34. Frankfurt am Main: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 446-467.

WP-3 Churches in the Context of Recent Political and Economic Changes in Europe:

European Churches and Globalisation. Pauliina Arola

This work package offers an European argumentative analysis on the contemporary normative social teaching ofEuropean churches through selected case studies. The paradigm through which the European churches viewglobalisation and its implications on European societies are sought. Issues such as current state-churchrelationships, future of politics, role of nation state, secularism, liberalism, ethics of economy, the role of church andthe future construct of Europe will be addressed in this study. The cases chosen are the contemporary social ethics ofRussian Orthodox Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, Church of England, Evangelical Church ofGermany/Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Germany and Commission of the Bishops’ Conferences of the EuropeanCommunity. Through the study it will become apparent how the chosen churches bridge the gap when the Europeansocieties are struggling with both the elements of modernity and post modernity.

1. The Task Changes in Europe and in the world have prompted a variety of socio-ethical reactions in the churches. The nationaland military conflicts have been in the focus of the churches contemporary teaching on war and peace. Dramaticeconomic changes, neo-liberal capitalism, growing unemployment as well as the disappointments in the role ofpolitics and nation states to solve these problems have been critically studied in many recent social statements of theEuropean Churches. The accelerated process of globalisation – and especially its implications to national economies– have also created worries in European churches. The aim of this work package is to offer an European argumentative analysis on the contemporary normative socialteaching of European churches. A case approach is chosen with a selected, comparable material. The material athand allows to search for the paradigm through which the European churches view globalisation and its implicationson European societies. Issues such as current state-church relationships, future of politics, role of nation state,secularism, liberalism, ethics of economy, the role of church and the future construct of Europe is addressed in thisstudy. The case chosen are the contemporary social ethics of Russian Orthodox Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church ofFinland, Church of England, Evangelical Church of Germany/Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Germany andCommission of the Bishops’ Conferences of the European Community. By comparing these case studies a usefulregional and denominational balance will be achieved. Through the study it will become apparent how the chosenchurches bridge the gap when societies are struggling with elements of both modernity and post modernity.

2. The State of the Art When viewing the literature and sources to study European Churches and Globalisation it is perhaps accurate todivide the existing material into four. (1) In the last ten years many prominent European and North Americanpolitical scientists have published studies and polemic writings where they discuss post-modernity and social change,which is intertwined into globalisation. (2) Some researchers – mainly those interested in study of religions – haveexplored the impact of globalisation and the change in world systems in religions. The writings often carry asociological perspective into religion and discuss topics such as secularisation, plurality and the importance ofmyths, signs and symbols. (3) As the Christian churches and theologians have more actively engaged themselves inthe impacts of globalisation for Christianity and Christian churches in the last five to ten years a small number ofpublications have emerged to tackle the topic. These publications are often aimed to facilitate the debate in thechurches themselves and contain often a critical view on the current project of globalisation with its social andenvironmental problems. (4) As a result of these study papers and publications some churches and Christianorganisations have issued declarations and statements which define their approach to globalisations. Theseapproaches to globalisation are often viewed through the future of welfare state/social market economy and nationstate, or while discussing secularisation, human rights and global politics. It is noteworthy that there are only fewpublications, which study what the churches say on globalisation and how the churches view globalisation in generalor in Europe in particular.

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Perhaps the most prominent sociologists who have written on globalisation in such a manner that it is helpful whenstudying the approach of the churches to globalisation are Zygmunt Bauman, Ulrich Beck, Manuel Castells andAnthony Giddens. In their writings they aim to understand global processes and to define various terminologysuitable when discussing globalisation. While Bauman and Beck often approach globalisation from the perspectiveof social change and citizens, Castells is tempted with his approach to information society attract those networked tothe global systems and Giddens to find (third) ways to reform political processes. Martha Nussbaum, Saskia Sassenand Amartya Sen offer perhaps a less mainstream approaches when discussing the discontents of globalisationwhether being the living conditions of those in the third world or of women. Roland Robertson has been surely the most prominent writer in exploring the impacts of globalisation on religion.With his writings on the sacred and the changing face of religion he discusses the social and religion theory in theglobal culture. His invention of the term “glocalisation” with which he refers to the interdependence of the local andthe global in the globalised world has often been used in wider sociological debates too. Other prominent writersinclude Peter Beyer, Marcel Gauchet and Peter Merkel. In this sociology of religion approach topics often addressedinclude plurality, authority of religion, individualism vs. collectivism as well as the relation of religion and politics. It is fairly difficult to say something in general on those more theological approaches on globalisation, ethics andchurches published in the last ten years. These books and study documents as well as other materials are rarelywritten in scientific purposes but rather with a more practical approach in mind. The approaches vary from eachother and therefore the context into which the publication or the document has been produced is relevant. Examplesin publications advocating a certain approach to globalisation, which the churches are expected to take (advocated bythe author) can be seen in the works of Ulrich Duchrow, Robert J Schreither and Joerg Rieger. D.J.Bosch has writtenwith a focus on a specific theme: mission. This kind of literature is available where the approach on globalisation canbe viewed as a side topic. Anna Karin Hammar, Karen Bloomquist, Bas de Gaay Foortman, Berma Klein Goldewijkand Julio De Santa Ana have written more general publications and articles aiming to help the churches to establishand debate their points of view on globalisation. Are examples of the study papers produced by the churchesthemselves the example of Lutheran World Federation “Engaging Economic Globalisation as A Communion” can bementioned. 3. Sources Last but not least the bibliography contains documentation issued by the churches and international and ecumenicalchurch organisations where the churches themselves establish their approaches to globalisation. From thesedocuments – which are normally normative social statements issued by the authorities of a given church or an churchrelated organisation – we have chosen to study the approaches of the Russian Orthodox Church, EvangelicalLutheran Church of Finland, Church of England as well as the joint statement of the Evangelical Church in Germanythe German Bishops’ Conference. In order to establish the views of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe thestatements of COMECE are to be studied. Similarly in all these statements the churches discuss the future of welfare,the role of nation state and often make remarks on economic ethics, secularisation and individualism.

4. Bibliography Arola, Pauliina & Saarinen, Risto

2002 ”In Search of Sobornost and ”New Symphony – The Social Doctrine of the RussianOrthodox Church”, Ecumenical Review, 54:1.

Bauman, Zygmunt 1996 Morality in the Age of Contingency in Heelas, Paul- Lash, Scott Morris, Paul (ed), Detraditionalization –

Critical reflection on Authority and Identity. Oxford: Blackwell.

1997 Schwache Staten, Globalisierung und die Spaltung der Weltgesselschaft in Kinder derFreiheit edited by Ulrich Beck. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag.

1998 Globalisation . The Human Consequences. Cambridge: Polity Press. Beck, Ulrich

1997 Was ist Globalisierung? Irrtümer des Globalismus – Antworten auf Globalisierung .Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag.

1994 Reflexive Modernization. Politics, Tradition and Aesthetics in the Modern Social Order.Cambridge: Polity Press.

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Bent, Ans J van der 1986 Christian Response in a World of Crisis: A Brief History of the WCC’s Commission of theChurches on International Affairs. Geneva: WCC Publications.

Berg, Aart van den 1990 Churches speak out on Economic Issues. A Survey of Several Statements. Geneva: WCC.

1995 Commitment to God’s World. A Concise Critical Study of Ecumenical Social Thought.Geneva: WCC Publications.

Beyer, Peter 1994 Religion and Globalisation . London: Sage. Bloomquist, Karen L 2001 “Engaging Economic Globalization as Churches”, Ecumenical Review 53:4. Castells, Manuel

1997 The Rise of the Network Society. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Power of Identity. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers.

1998 End of Millennium. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Chaves, Mark 1994 Secularisation as Declining Religions Authority. Social Forces 72:3. Chaplin, Vsevolod

2002 “Remaining Oneself in a Changing World. The Bases of the Social Concept of the RussianOrthodox Church”, Ecumenical Review, 54:1.

De Gaay Foortman, Bas & Klein Goldewijk, Berma

1998 God and the Goods. Global Economy in a Civilizational Perspective. Geneva: WCCPublications.

1999 Where Needs Meet Rights. Economomic, Social and Cultural Rights in a New Perspective.Geneva: WCC Publications.

De Santa Ana, Julio 1998 Sustainability and Globalisation . Geneva: WCC Publications. De Santa Ana, Julio & Raiser, Konrad & Duchrow, Ulrich 1990 The Political Economy of the Holy Spirit. Geneva: WCC Publications. Dickinson, Richard

1999 Economic Globalisations: Deepening Challenge for Christians. World Council ofChurches. Unit III. Geneva: WCC Publications.

Drimmelen, Rob

1992 Economics and Christian Faith in the Ecumenical Context. Svenska kyrkans forskningsråd.Uppsala: Tro & Tanke.

1998 Faith in a global economy: a primer for Christians. Geneva: WCC Publications. Duchrow, Ulrich 1989 Global Economy. A Confessional Issue for the Churches. Geneva: WCC Publications.

1995 Alternatives to Global Capitalism. Drawn from Biblical History, Designed for PoliticalAction. Utrecht: International Books/Kairos Europa.

Featherstone, Mike – Lash, Scott – Robertson, Roland

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1995 Global Modernities. London: Sage Publications. Gerle, Elisabeth 1999 Contemporary Globazalition and its Challenges”, Ecumenical Review 52: 2. Giddens, Anthony 1991 Modernity and Self-Identity. Cambridge: Polity Press. 1999 Third Way – Renewal of Social Democracy. Cambridge: Polity Press. Gorringe, Timothy J

1994 Capital and the Kingdom. Theological Ethics and Economic Order. New York: OrbisBooks Maryknoll.

Habgood, John 1983 Church and Nation in a Secular Age. London: Darton, Longman and Todd. Hammar, Anna Karin

2000 Globalisering: ett problem för kyrkan? Svenska kyrkans forskningsråd. Uppsala: Tro &Tanke.

Hanson, Eric 1987 The Catholic Church in World Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Hallamaa, Jaana (ed.)

1999 Rahan teologia ja Euroopan kirkot. Lopun ajan sosiaalietiikka. Sitra 216. Juva: AtenaKustannus.

Held, David, McGrew, Anthony, Goldblatt, David & Perraton, Jonathan 2000 Global Transformations. Politics, Economics and Culture. Cambridge: Polity Press. Held, David

1995 Democracy and the Global order From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance.London: Polity Press.

Hinkelammert, F.J

1986 The Ideological Weapons of Death: A Theological Critique of Capitalism. New York:Orbis.

Juergensmeyer, Mark

1993 The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State. Berkeley:University of California Press.

Koshy, Ninan 1984 Religious Freedom in a Changing World. Geneva: WCC Publications. 1994 Churches in the world of nations. International politics and the mission and ministry of the church. Geneva:

WCC Publications. Küng, Hans 1997 A Global Ethic for Global Politics and Economics. New York: Oxford University Press. Mathewes, Charles T 2002 “Reconsidering the role of mainline churches in public life”, Theology Today 2002: 1. McIntyre, Robert

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2001 “Globalization and the Role of the State: Lessons from Central and Eastern Europe”. Ecumenical Review53: 4.

Meeks, M. Douglas 1988 God the Economist. The Doctrine of God and Political Economy. Minneapolis: University Press. Medhurst, Kenneth & Moyser, George 1988 Church and Politics in a Secular Age. Oxford: Clarendom. Merkel, Peter & Smart, Ninian 1992 Religion and Politics in the Modern World. New York: New York University Press. Messner, Donald E 1984 Christian Ethics and Political Action. Valley Forge: Judson Press. Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad 2001 “The Orthodox Church in the Face of World Integration: The Relations between Traditional and Liberal

Values”, Ecumenical Review 53: 4. Mudge, Lewis S & Wieser, Thomas 2000 Democratic Contracts for Sustainable and Caring Societies. What Can Churches and Christian

Communities Do? Geneva: WCC Publications. Mulholland, C (ed.) 1988 Ecumenical Reflections on Political Economy. Geneva: WCC Publications. Nussbaum, Martha C 2000 Women and Human Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Preston, Ronald 1983 Church and Society in the late Twentieth Century. London: SCM Press. 1988 “Convergence and Divergence in Social Theology: The Roman Catholic Church and the WCC”,

Ecumenical Review 40:2. 1991 Religion and Persistence of Capitalism. London: SCM Press. 1994 Confusions in Christian Social Ethics: Problems for Geneva and Rome. London: SCM Press. Rieger, Joerg 1998 Liberating the Future. God, Mamon and Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Robbers, Gerhard 1995 Staat und Kirche in der Europäischen Union. European Consortium for Church State Research. Baden-

Baden: Nomos Verlag. Robertson, Roland 1989a The Sacred and the World Systems. London: Sage Publications. 1989b Globalisation, Politics and Religion in Beckford, James Luckmann, Thomas (eds.), TheChanging Face of Religion. London: Sage Publications. 1991 Religion and Global Order. New York: Paragon House. 1992 Globalisation: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage Publications. 1994 “Religion and the Global Field”, Social Compass 41:1.

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1995 Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity in Lash, Scott and Roberson, Roland (eds),Global Modernities. London: Sage Publications.

Sassen, Saskia 1984 Globalisation and its Discontents. New York: The New Press. Schambeck, Herbert 1992 Kirche, Staat und Demokratie – ein Grundthema der Katolischen Soziallehre. Berlin: Dunker und

Humboldt. Schreiter, Robert J 1997 The New Catholicity. Theology between the Global and the Local. New York: Orbis Books Maryknoll. Sheldon, Garrett Ward 1990 Religion and politics – major thinkers on the relation of church and state. American university studies:

10:28. New York: Lang. Srisang, Koson 1998 Perspectives on political ethics. An ecumenical inquiry. Geneva: WCC Publications. Stackhouse, M & Paris P.J & Browning, Don S. & Obenchain, Diane B 1999 God and Globalisation. Religion and the Powers of the Common Life. Volume 1. Harrisburg: Trinity Press

International. 2001 God and Globalisation. The Spirit and the Modern Authorities. Volume 2. Harrisburg: Trinity Press International. 2002 God and Globalisation. Christ and the Dominion of Civilization. Volume 3. Harrisburg: Trinity Press International. Stackhouse, Max L 1984 Creeds, Societies and Human Rights. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. 1987 Public Theology and Political Economy. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. 1995 Christian Social Ethics in a Global Era. Nashville: Abingdon. Tiryakian, Edward A 1993 “From Modernization to Globalisation”, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 31:3. Webster, John 2000 Theology after liberalism. A Reader. Malden, Mass: Balckwell. Westerlund, David 1996 Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics. London: I.B. Tauris. Wuthnow, Robert 1996 Christianity and Civil Society: The Contemporary Debate. Valley Forge: Trinity Press International. Wuthnow, Robert & Evans, John H 2002 The Quiet Voice of God: Faith-Based Activism and Mainline Protestantism. San Francisco: The University

of California Press. 5. Selected Sources A Continuing Journet Towards Covenanting/Confessing Movement for Economic Justice and Life on Earth.Covenanting for Justice in the Economy and the Earth (processus confessionis). WARC. 2001. Bases of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church. Jubilee Bishops’ Council of the Russian OrthodoxChurch. August 13-16, 2000, Moscow. [http://www.russian-orthodox-church.org.ru/sd00e.htm].

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Christian Faith and Economic Life. A Study Paper contributing to a Pronouncement for the 17th General Synod.United Church of Christ. New York. 1987. Christian Faith and Economic Justice. Resolution. Presbyterian Church of USA. 1987. Christian Faith: Economic Life and Justice. A Pronouncement from the 17th General Synod. United Church ofChrist. New York. 1989. Christian Faith and the World Economy Today. A Study Document from the World Council of Churches. Geneva:WCC Publications 1992. Churches and Transnational corporations. An Ecumenical Programme. WCC. Geneva. 1983. Churches, Christians and Economic Systems: A Call for Obedient Discipleship. WCC. Sao Paulo. 1987. Consequences of Economic Globalization. The report on the Symposium at Bangkok. November 12-19 1999 and theSymposium in Seoul November 9-11 1000 together with six messaged from Bangkok. WARC. 2000. Development matters – Christian perspectives on globalization, Charles Reed (ed.), Archbishops Council. Church ofEngland. London. 2001. Drop the Debt – Towards a New Deal on Debt. Report by the International and Development Affairs Committee ofthe Board for Social Responsibility. Church of England. London. 2001. Economics: A Matter of Faith. Commission on the Churches’ participation in Development. CCPD Documents:Justice and Development. No. 11. Geneva: WCC. 1988. Economic Justice for all: A Pastoral letter on Catholic Social Teaching and the U.S Economy in Building EconomicJustice. National Conference of Catholic Bishops. Washington DC. 1987. Engaging Economic Globalization as A Communion. Lutheran World Federation. Department for Theology andStudies. The Church and Social Issues. Geneva. 2001. European social market economy – an alternative model for globalisation? A discussion paper for the Consultationby Western European churches on globalisation and financial system. Utrecht, 2002. Faith in the City. A report of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Commission on Urban Priority Areas. London: ChurchHouse Publishing. 1985. Faith in a Global Economy? for the General Synod. Report from the Board for Social Responsibility. GS MISC538. General Synod. Church of England. London. 1997. For a Future Founded on Solidarity and Justice. A Statement of the Evangelical Church in Germany and theGerman Bishops’ Conference on the Economic and Social Situation in Germany. Global Governance – Our responsibility to make globalisation an opportunity for all. COMECE. 2001,Responsabilités de l’Europe pour ke développement mondial: Marchés et institutions après Seattle, COMECE. 2000. Globalisation and Humanity: Ethical and Institutional Dimensions. The Seventh Plenary session of the PontificalAcademy of Social Sciences 2001. Democracy – Reality and Responsibility. The Sixth Plenary session of thePontifical Academy of Social Sciences.2000. God, Not Mammon. Message from the Joint Consultation on Globalisation in Central and Eastern Europe: responsesto the ecological, economic and social consequences. 24.-28.6.2001, Budapest. [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/jpc/buda-statement.html] Holy Father ‘s Address to Business and Tra-Union Leaders on the Ethical Dimension of the Global Economy .[http://www.Vatican.va/holy_father] Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation. Ecumenical Review 38:3. 1986.

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Kessler, Diane 2000 Together on the Way. Official Report of the Eight Assembly of the World Council of Churches. Geneva: WCC Publications. Processus Confesionis. Process of Recognition, Education, Confession and Action regarding Economic Injustice andEcological Destruction. Background Papers No. 1,Geneva.1998. Report of the Committee on Unit II: Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation in Central Committee, Minutes andReports of the Thirty-Eight Meeting. 16.-24.1.1987 . Geneva. WCC. Responsibility in Arms Transfer Policy. Report by the Board for Social Responsibility. General Synod. Church ofEngland. 1994. Rika och fattiga. Ett brev från Svenska kyrkans biskopar om rättfärdighet och moral i global ekonomi. Biskopsmötet1993. Svenska kyrkan. Shaping the global economy with responsibility. Declaration of the Synod of the Evangelical Church in Germany.2001. The Final Document on Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation. Seoul. Republic of Korea. 5.-12.3.1990.Geneva. WCC. 1990. The Common Good. The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales. 1996. The Gospel confronts Economic Injustice and the Destruction of the Earth. A Call to Confess our Faith. WorldAlliance of Reformed Churches. Geneva. 1998. Towards the Common Good. Statement on the Future of the Welfare Society by the Bishops of the EvangelicalLutheran Church of Finland, March 1999. [http://www.evl.fi/English/towardscg.htm] WP-4

The Political Commitments of Western Christianity. Surveys on Finland and on International Ecumenism.

Kaisamari Hintikka Aila Lauha

The WP 4 is observing the churches role and place in European integration through two independent sub-themes;the politics of the World Council of Churches (WCC) and the Conference of the European Churches (CEC) duringthe Cold War, and the political commitments of the Finnish Church during the 1960s and the 1970s. Even though theview point of these subthemes are different – the other one observing the work of international multi church and theother, a majority church of a rather homogenous small nation – they are, however, linked through similar framingsof question. In the world divided in two ideological blocks, most of the international ecumenical organisationswanted to serve as independent meeting points for church leaders coming from different denominations, socialsystems, and cultures. A similar task devolved upon Finland on the basis of its geo-historical situation between thewestern and eastern cultural, political and religious traditions. Because the CEC and the WCC did not openlycriticise the socialist governments on their human rights violations, and the Finnish Church did not take up theSoviet religious policy despite of its close contacts with the Moscow Patriarchate, they have all been criticisedafterwards on being communist minded. However, thus far there has not been proper academic research observingthe political stance and role of the ecumenical world organisations, or those of the Finnish Church, which wouldrely on critical analysis of diversified archival sources. The task of the WP 4 is to fill this gap in the field.

4. The Task The general task of the WP4 is bipartite. On the one hand, the WP is observing the international definitions of thechurches, particularly in the context of two international ecumenical organisations: the World Council of Churches(WCC) and the Conference of European Churches (CEC), during the Cold War. On the other hand, it views theposition in one individual country, Finland, and particularly in its Lutheran majority church. These two case studies

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have several features in common: During the cold war years, both the ecumenical organisations and the church ofFinland shared the mutual experience of being between the east and the west, as well as the reluctance to beidentified as part of either of the blocks. In Finland and in its church, this attitude was based on geographical facts,even though it was affected by other – at the moment less known – motives. For the ecumenical movement, beingbetween east and west was more conscious definition of policy: their representatives had to find the way betweenthese two camps in order to avoid being branded as the representative of either of the two political camps. To whatextend they succeeded in their quest of political neutrality, has not yet properly been solved by research. Secondly, these two objects of study shared the intention to serve as a forum for positive east–west encounter. InFinland, this emphasis was primarily seen in the state’s foreign policy, but it found support also among ecclesiasticalcircles. The same tendency can be seen in the ecumenical organisations as well where dialogues and consultationswere organised in order to bring the representatives of eastern and western churches together to discuss for examplechurch–state relations. The third fact in common for both these objects of research is the later reputation of their eastern relations inparticular. Especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union, both the Church of Finland and the ecumenicalmovement have been accused of Finlandization. The ideological defeat of communism strengthened the ridiculeabout those churches and organisations which had not represented the politically correct pure anti–communismduring the cold war years. Even though these accusations seem to include plenty of after wisdom, it is necessary toobserve in the light of the existing documentation whether they are correct. There is a reason to believe that, after aproper analysis of the still unused archival material, a picture more faithful to the truth can be perceived. Both the WCC and the CEC are of inter confessional nature. They were also the international ecumenicalorganisations which most often were facing the east–west problematic in European soil. This means, that thetensions arising within the organisations have since their creation (the WCC in 1948 and the CEC in 1959) been boththeological and political. The political stance of both organisations is observed especially in the points ofculmination in the international political tension which reflected primarily to the European politics, such as theHungarian uprising (1956), the building of the Berlin Wall (1961) and the occupation of Czechoslovakia (1968).Besides the moments of crisis, also the main acts or processes of détente will be included here, i.e. the EuropeanSecurity and Cooperation process, the Helsinki CSCE meeting (1975), and finally the change in Eastern Europe in1989. The second task of the WP4 is to view religion and the society in the Finnish context during the Cold War period andespecially in the 1960s and 1970s. The emphasis is laid on the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland whichcomprises of about 85 % of the population. The central points of view are the church’s political role and its influencein the Finnish society. Special interest will also be paid to its attitudes and courses of action in relation to theinternational political reality of the Cold War, peace questions, as well as worldwide responsibility. 5. The present art of knowledge Officially both the international ecumenical organisations mentioned above were, and are, non political and nongovernmental organisations. In practice, however, they lived and acted in a world of political actions, tensions andcooperation. Furthermore, their decisive organisations were formed by people who did not only represent their ownchurch or denomination, but were also, sometimes in a more hidden way, affected by the social and political systemwhere they came from. The power balance between these systems within the respective decisive organs affected thestance and actions taken by the organisations more than has necessarily been admitted. Thus far, the research on the political orientations of the international ecumenical organisations have been only few.The accusations on these, however, have been various. In the late 1960s, the evangelical wing of the WCC’s or the CEC’s member churches began to blame especially theleadership of the WCC about communist sympathies. For many years this discussion remained only within theecumenical circles. The accusations presented by the Readers Digests in 1971 – and later in 1982 and 1993 – aboutthe World Council of Churches abandoning its original ethos and replacing it with revolutionary Marxist sympathiesbrought this kind of critical speculation to wider western audience. This was also the stage where the WCC began topay more serious attention in defending its reputation in public, even though it was still not ready or able to produceresearch of its own which would have filled the academic standards. In the international level, these attitudes did notappear only after the collapse of the Soviet system, but at least occasional pieces of study appeared also before that. Most of the accusations concerning the political sympathies of the ecumenical organisations were presented in morepopular forums than in academic studies. In most of the cases, these publications were produced by private researchinstitutions which worked in order to spread among the western Christianity information about the conditions underwhich the Christians were living in the socialist countries. These reports were usually burdened by lack of reliableprimary sources as well as by biassed way of treating the topic. Furthermore, their stance towards the internationalecumenical organisations was notably critical, blaming them about indifference to the human rights violations in theEastern Europe. The WCC in particular was a target of this criticism, but also the CEC, particularly because of itsstriving to bring together the European churches from both sides of the iron curtain. In order to make the poitive

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east–west encounter possible among the churches, the organisations had to choose a way of ecumenical diplomacywhich would not hinder the participation of the East European churches which were highly dependent on the stateauthorities in their international relations. In the course of the years, the ecumenical organisations themselves has produced some studies examining their ownhistory, most important of which is the latter part of the history of the ecumenical movement first published by theWCC in 1970 covering the years between 1948 and 1968 (Ecumenical Advance 1993). Because most of the thesepublications however lack objectivity and generally overlook the political and social context in which the ecumenicalactivities have appeared, they should be considered as surveys rather than critical historical studies. Furthermore,these are very often based partly on the author’s personal notes and published documents, but not on primary sources(Koshy 1994). Some of these, especially the memoirs of leading ecumenists, serve however as useful sources forresearchers. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Soviet led East European political sphere, an increasing number ofpublications and articles have appeared dealing with the postwar contacts between the international ecumenicalorganisations and the East European churches. Some of these, even though based on sufficient archival material, arerather biassed and tendentious. After the publication of the results of Professor Gerhard Besier’s German researchteam, the accusations expressed in the book – especially a chapter observing the WCC contacts with the GermanEvangelical churches (Besier, Boyens & Lindemann 1999, Boyens 1999) – caused enormous irritation in ecumenicalcircles. The ecumenical organisations are presented in the book as nonchalant to human rights violations behind theiron curtain. Furthermore, western church men were accused of deliberately closing their eyes from seeing thegrowing problems which the East European churches were facing under the socialist governments. In relatively shortperiod of time, both the WCC and the CEC produced articles – both for public and for restricted circulation – whichwere meant to prove Besier’s group’s accusations false (Der ÖRK in den Konflikten des Kalten Krieges 2000, Held2001). In some cases these reactions slipped into apologist and rather subjective style, and thus cannot be consideredas proper academic research – though, interesting documents of a hectic discussion. Only recently, there has appeared studies which have managed to observe the stance of the international ecumenicalorganisations in the Cold War international politics with more objective style (Greschat 2000, Hintikka 2000, Kunter2000a, 2000b). All of these are based both on published sources and unpublished archival material and tend topresent the European churches’ political stances and the factors behind them from more diversified points of viewthan has been the custom. The fact that all these studies mentioned above have been prepared simultaneously indicates that there is widerinterest on observing the political role of the international ecumenical organisations during the Cold War years for amore profound way. The discussion about the topic and the studies dealing the question are however known onlywithin rather limited circles in the ecumenical or academic circles. The sources used thus far are can be found mainly in the archives of the ecumenical organisations. In some cases(Besier, Boyens & Lindemann 1999, Hintikka 2000, Kunter 2000a) national state and church archives have beenused as well. However the international research agencies – such as Institut G2W in Switzerland or the KestonInstitute in the UK – were rather critical towards the ecumenical organisations’ eastern policies and thus collectedmaterial relating to this as well. Radio Free Europe and other profane western research agencies may also have intheir archives documentation that could be used as comparative material by the students of the Cold War Europeanecumenism. However, the most important research material can be found in Geneva, in the archives of the WCC, theCEC, as well as those of the Lutheran World Federation and the Reformed World Alliance. The Christian PeaceConference of Prague which served primarily as the cooperation organ for the east European churches, does not existanymore, but its archives still remain in Prague. The archives consist of unpublished material, such as thecorrespondence between these organisations and their member churches, internal memorandums and personal motesof their staff. Furthermore, they also have a selection of official published minutes, reports and statements producedby each organisation. Besides the possible political commitments, the ecumenical world organisations should also be observed from theviewpoint of the theological research produced in the sphere of the organisations themselves, especially thoseconcerning the questions of society, revolution and justice. In the Finnish context, before the 1990s, the churches and religion in general have hardly been an object of interestfor historians operating with the national postwar years. This reflects the researchers’ attitudes and can be seen as apart of a rebellion against authorities and outdated institutions, typical especially to the 1960s and 1970s. On thebasis of this research, it seems as if the role and importance of the church was minimal both in political life, in thesociety in general as well as in the everyday life of the people. Neither have the Finnish church historians published many studies relevant to the project. What exists is mainlygeneral surveys on the development and activities of the church, based on the church’s own reports and documents.Without a doubt, research on the background of the church’s policies and its political connections is insufficient. The

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same can be said about the research concerning the social and political influence of the church on the national leveland on the attitudes of individuals. Only recently, some specific works have slightly improved the research situation. The dissertation of Pekka Niiranenreveals interesting aspects of the long-time president Dr. Urho Kekkonen’s (president in 1956-1982) outlook of theworld and modifies the former picture of him as an almost anti church or even unreligious politician (Niiranen 2000).New information has recently been gained also on the religious thinking of Dr. Mauno Koivisto (president in 1982-1994). The deep religiosity revealed in his memoirs based on letters from his youth and the wartime surprised thepolitical elite of the 1990s (Koivisto XXX). In addition, sociologist Susan Sundback has dealt with the position of the religion and the church in the Finnishsociety in her study about the seceding from the Finnish Lutheran Church (Sundback 1990). The dissertation of MattiHelin gave interesting information about the changes in the church policies of the leftist the People’s DemocraticLeague in 1944-1961 (Helin 1993). The role of churches and religion in modern European societies, specifically in the Finnish society, has also beenstudied in a compilation written by five Finnish researches (Uskonto ja nykyaika 1999). Their essays provide newinsights to the problems which the European churches have faced in the 20th century, especially during the pastdecades. Professor Aila Lauha analyzes in her article the impact of ecumenical movement in encouraging the socialawareness among European churches (Lauha 1999). Professor Juha Seppo analyzes in his essay the church-staterelations in Finland since 1917 (Seppo 1999). Without a doubt, this concise compilation opens new perspectives forfurther research. At the end of the 1990s, a Nordic research project was created to observe the Lutheran “folkskyrkor” and theirchange in the post war society till the end of the 1960s. The project had two subthemes which contribute the CEIwork as well: the Nordic churches’ socio–political role and their ecumenical interaction. The results of this projectwhich ended in 2000, has been published (Nordiske Folkekirker i opbrud 2001). Besides the actual research, there are plenty of contemporary pamphlets as well as memoirs of bishops and leadingtheologians of the time. Although these publications do not qualify as research, they add notably to the picture oftimes when used critically. Judging from the research available for the time being, it is obvious that some of the basic features typical to theposition of the Lutheran Church in the Finnish society have reliably been identified. Since the early years ofindependence, the image of the church had been patriotic, conservative and most apprehensive and even hostile inrelation to Communistic ideas. This heritage continued well past the Second World War. This right-wingconservative image disturbed even the church’s contacts to the social–democratic movement. In addition, after thewar the church was often criticized for German sympathies from the 1920s onward. For many decades a semi–fasciststamp was easily given to the church, especially by the political left and its press. This picture has been furtheradopted by some younger Finnish historians reluctant to understand the political realities which made even thechurch leaders positive to the alliance with Germany. As late as in the 1990s, the media tried to find documentsabout the Lutheran clergy’s antisemitic attitudes and to find ideological Nazi–collaborators among them. Yet theseclaims have not been verified in reliable research. In a similar way, after the collapse of Soviet Union, there has been lively discussion about the church’s possiblecollaboration with the Soviet regime and the KGB. The theological negotiations between the Finnish LutheranChurch and the Russian Orthodox Church which started in 1970 were understood as an expression of this policy.Real evidence of the church leaders’ uncritical collaboration with the Soviet or maybe with Stasi, not to mentiontreason, is still lacking. Future research in the Finnish, Soviet and German archives is needed to clear the picture. The role and policies of the Lutheran church after the Second World War has until now received little attention andthe present state of knowledge is insufficient. Nevertheless, the fact is clear that the Lutheran Church did keep itscentral position among the Finnish people during the entire period of Cold War although the membership slightlydeclined. According to the present knowledge, it is also obvious that in the 1960s and 1970s the church and religionfaced hard ideological pressure especially from the leftist or neoliberal political movements. Even inside the church,demands for modernization of the church were raised mainly by the younger generation. By many active churchmembers, these demands were seen as leftist radicalism, unsuitable for the church. At the same time, the FinnishLutheran Church faced a number of new theological, social and even political challenges in international andecumenical cooperation. While the political situation in Europe and worldwide was often critical, making the peacequestion utmost actual, the Finnish Lutheran Church was challenged to review its social and political role. Becauseof the conservative and anti–communist heritage of the Lutheran Church of Finland, this process was not easy. Howfar and in which aspects the church actually changed remains to be studied. During the last five years, a research group led by Professor Aila Lauha in the Department of Church History,University of Helsinki have begun to pay increasing attention to the fundamental questions described above, both onthe national and on the international level. Some studies, both in the graduate and postgraduate level have alreadybeen finished. The WP 4 will partly be able to build on this foundation.

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6. The Sources Documentation on international ecumenical relations

C The archives of the WCC and the CEC. The documents (minutes, statements, documents) and periodicalspublished by these organisations.

C Archives and periodicals of the western research institutions specialised in Christian churches or on humanrights in socialist societies, e.g. the Keston Institute, Institut Glaube in der 2. Welt, Radio Liberty / RadioFree Europe

Documentation on the Church of Finland

Most of the archival material available for the WP4’s Finnish theme is collected to the publication: Lähetystyö ja ekumenia arkistojen valossa 1999 Mirja Härkönen, Antti Raunio, Timo Vasko (toim.) Lähetystyö ja ekumenia arkistojen valossa kristillisen

lähetystyön ja ekumeenisen toiminnan arkistolähteitä Suomessa 1800_ ja1900_luvulla [Summary: Archiveson the Missions and Ecumencial Activities in Finland. Archival sources from the 19th and 20th centuries onChristian missionary work and ecemenical activities in Finland.] Suomen kirkkohistoriallisen seurantoimituksia, 182. Helsinki : Suomen kirkkohistoriallinen seura.

4. Bibliography Althausen, Johannes 2000 “„Mit einer Hand kann man nicht klatschen.“ Die „Budapest-Treffen“ zwischen 1975 und 1982 - ein

Kapitel, „Ost Politik“ des Ökumenischen Rates der Kirchen”, Ökumenische Rundschau 49:1. Frankfurt amMain: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 52-70.

Arnold, John R. 1999 ”Europe, the churches and the conference of European churches”, Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte 12:2, pp. 473-

487. Besier, Gerhard, Boyens, Armin and Lindemann, Gerhard 1999 Nationaler Protestantismus und Ökumenische Bewegung. Kirchliches Handeln im Kalten

Krieg (1945-1990). Mit einer Nachschrift von Horst-Klaus Hoffmann. Zeitgeschichtliche ForschungenBand 3. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.

Dejung, Karl-Heinz 2001 “Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen im Kalten Krieg: eine andere Sichtweise”, Junge Kirche, 62:1. Hamburg: Junge Kirche, 45-58. The Ecumenical Advance 1993 Harold E. Fey (ed.), The Ecumenical Advance: A History of the Ecumenical Movement, Vol. 2: 1948-1968.

3rd ed. Geneva: WCC Publications. Ekumenia ja teologia 1993 Antti Saarelma (toim.), Ekumenia ja teologia. [Eceumenism and Theology.] Suomalaisen Teologisen

Kirjallisuusseuran vuosikirja 1993. Suomalaisen teologisen kirjallisuusseuran julkaisuja 188. Vammala:Suomalainen Teologinen Kirjallisuusseura.

Greschat, Martin 2000 “Ökumenisches Handeln der Kirchen in den Zeiten des Kalten Kriegs”, Ökumenische Rundschau 49:1. Frankfurt am Main: Otto Lembeck Verlag, pp. 7-25.

Held, Heinz-Joachim 2001 Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen im Visier der Kritik: eine kritische Lektüre der

Forschungsarbeit “Ökumenischer Rat der Kirchen und Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland zwischen Westund Ost”. Frankfurt am Main: Otto Lembeck Verlag.

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Kinnunen, Mari 1991 Euroopan kirkot liennytyksen asialla: Euroopan turvallisuus- ja yhteistyökonferenssin teemat Euroopan

kirkkojen konferenssissa vuosina 1967-1986. [The European Churches for détente: The European Securityand Cooperation Conference’s themes in the Conference of the European Churches, 1967–1986].Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Helsinki.

Koshy, Ninan 1994 Churches in the world of nations. International Politics and the Mission and Ministry of the Church.

Geneva: WCC Publications. Kunter, Katharina 2000a Die Kirchen im KSZE-Prozess 1968-1978. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag. 2000b “Die Schlussakte von Helsinki und die Diskussion im ÖRK um die Verletzung der Religionsfreiheit in Ost- und Mitteleuropa 1975-1977”, Ökumenische Rundschau 49:1. Frankfurt am Main: Otto Lembeck Verlag, 43-51. Lehtonen, Risto 1998 Story of a Storm: the Ecumenical Student Movement in the Turmoil of Revolution, 1968 to 1973.

Publications of the Finnish Society of Church History 1974. Helsinki: Finnish Society of Church History. Metso, Ari-Pekka 1989 Kriisistä uusien korostusten kauteen: Prahan kristillinen rauhankonferenssi 1971-1978.

[From Crisis to New Emphasis: the Christian Peace Conference of Prague, 1971–1978.]UnpublishedMaster’s thesis, University of Helsinki.

Niiranen, Pekka 2000 Kekkonen ja kirkko tasavallan presidentti Urho Kekkosen ja Suomen evankelis_luterilaisen kirkon suhteet

vuosina 1956_1981. Helsinki : Kirjapaja, Reinikainen, Simo 1984 Ajan ja tilan ekumenian dilemma – ortodoksisten kirkkojen kritiikki Kirkkojen

maailmanneuvostoa kohtaan vuosina 1961-1975. [The Dilemma of Vertical and Horizontal Ecumenism –Orthodox Churches’ Criticism towards the World Council of Churches, 1961–1975.] Unpublished Master’sthesis, University of Helsinki.

Weingärtner, Erich 1983 Human Rights on the Ecumenical Agenda: Report and Assessment. Background information.Commission

of the Churches on International Affairs 1983/3. Geneva: World Council of Churches. Wieser, Thomas 2000 “Reviewing ecumenical history”, Ecumenical Review 52:2. Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen in den Konflikten des Kalten Krieges

2000 Heinz-Jürgen Joppien (Hg.), Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen in den Konflikten desKalten Krieges: Kontexte, Kompromisse, Konkretionen. Frankfurt am Main: Otto LembeckVerlag.

Helin, Matti 1996 Päästä meidät pahasta: uskonto Skdl:n politiikassa 1944-1961. Diss. Turku: Turun yliopisto. Nordiske Folkekirker i opbrud. 2001 Jens Holger Schjoerring (ed.) Nordiske Folkekirker i opbrud. National identitet og international

nyorientering efter 1945. Århus: Aarhus Universitetsforlag. Ripatti, Jaakko

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1990 Suomen kirkon ulkomaansuhteet ja kansainvälinen politiikka 1944-1946 (Summary: Finnish Church foreignrelations and international politics 1944-1946.) Publications of the Finnish Society of Church History 149.Jyväskylä: Finnish Society of Church History.

Rusama, Jaakko 1999 Kohti ykseyttä. Suomen ekumeenisen neuvoston synty ja toiminta 1917-1997. Kirkon

tutkimuskeskus sarja A nro 75. Jyväskylä: Suomen ekumeenisen seuran julkaisuja LXI. Sundback, Susan 1990 Utträdet ur Finlands lutherska kyrka: kyrkomedlemskapet under religionsfrihet och sekularisering. Åbo: Åbo Academy Press. Uskonto ja nykyaika 1999 Markku Heikkilä (ed.) Uskonto ja nykyaika: yksilö ja eurooppalaisen yhteiskunnan murros [Religion and

the present: The individual and the change in European society.]. Sitra 217. Jyväskylä: Atena. Ylönen, Kaarina 1997 Inkerin kirkon nousu kommunistivallan päätyttyä. [The rise of the Ingrian church after the fall of the

communist era.] Kirkon tutkimuskeskus sarja A nro 70. Jyväskylä: Kirkon tutkimuskeskus.

WP-5

Identity, the British Churches, and European Integration, 1940 – 1963

Philip Coupland Work Package Five (WP5) reconstructs and analyses the thinking and practice of the British Churches in relation tothe question of the United Kingdom’s political, socio-economic, cultural, and legal relationship to the rest ofEurope, in the years after the end of the Second World War. The War marked the breakdown of the internationalpolity and its aftermath saw the necessary reconstruction of international relations. This investigation will focus onthe part that Christians played during the war years, and the immediate post-war decades, in the intellectual debatesand domestic politics related to that issue. In so doing, the social theology and interventions of the Churches on thequestion of Britain’s relationship to integration in Western Europe and, additionally, the Cold War separation of theEast of the continent from its West are considered. In approaching this topic, WP5 makes particular use of conceptsof ‘identity’ and ‘narrative’. In general terms, it examines in the discourse and practice of the Churches therelationship between, on one hand, the universalism of Christian religious identity and the ecumenical movementand, on the other, the particularism of Christian models of national community and identity. The specific nature andfunction of national identity are also investigated in relation to, firstly, the Eurocentic identity and narrative whichlinked Britain to the historical tradition and consciousness of European ‘Christendom’ and, secondly, the global,extra-European focus of constructions of national history and identity which associated Britishness, and thereforeBritain as a political community, with the British Commonwealth and/or an ‘English-speaking’ or ‘Anglo-Saxon’Atlanticist community. Given that the post-war reconstruction of Britain’s relations vis-à-vis continental Europe, theCommonwealth and North America was a crucial moment in that nation’s recent history, WP5 will hereby assess therole of a then influential, but since largely ignored, social institution—the Churches—at a pivotal historic moment.

1. Historiography: The State of the Art A report of 1924 described the ‘Christian doctrine of International Relationships’ as the ‘dark continent of Christianethics’. A bibliography of scholarly writing on the Churches’ engagement with inter-national relations in Europe–-incommon with the history of the Churches in British society during the twentieth century more generally—alsoresembles an early map of a new found land: Some major features are visible, here and there patches of detailindicate the penetration of intrepid pioneers into the interior, but otherwise great spaces of uncharted territory strikethe eye. The British Churches and European Integration. Adrian Hastings (1991), in what might be described as the‘standard’ history of the Churches in England in the twentieth century, whilst recognising that Britain’s relationshipto ‘Europe’ was a key problem facing the nation, has nothing to say about the Churches’ part in those debates.Historical writing on specific denominations, when it touches on the question at all, has not gone beyond a cursory

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treatment. Similarly, Grace Davie’s (1994) widely read sociological text on post-war religion recognises theexistence of a ‘European dimension’ to that topic but does not have the space to investigate it further. KennethMedhurst (2000) provides a useful short overview of the relationship of Christianity to the past and future of Europe,but does not comment on the British churches in any depth or detail. Similarly, whilst European integration as apolitical and cultural process has generated a considerable literature, its stress has been overwhelmingly on thesecular. This general neglect is in contrast to Jurgen Zeilstra’s (1995) valuable, but difficult to obtain study, European Unityin Ecumenical Thinking, 1937-1948. Zeilstra emerges from the archives to provide a substantial, carefully researchedchapter detailing and analysing the thinking of the major British players in the World Council of Churches (information) on the future of Europe. Although achieving a major advance, Zeilstra leaves much scope for furtherwork. In particular, his decision to conclude the British part of his study at 1945 neglects the immediate post-warperiod. Furthermore he admits (p. xiv) that the sources employed were selective rather than comprehensive. Not onlydoes this leave considerable material unexamined but it also results in a somewhat exclusive focus on the—admittedly highly important—circle of British World Council of Churches (WCC) pioneers, whilst neglectingChristian opinion in Britain more widely. Heather Warren (1997) also provides a scholarly account of Americanecumenical Christians’ treatment of inter-national relations over the same period, including US contacts with theBritish churches. The Churches and National Identity. The general neglect of this topic is in strong contrast to the attention paid tothe relationship between religion and—what for WP5 is a key concept—identity. Since the late 1980s ‘identity’ in general, and national identity in particular, have become major preoccupations inthe humanities, and ‘Britishness’ and the historical relationship of the UK to continental Europe have received muchattention. On the role of religion in the history of Britishness, Linda Colley’s (1992; 1996) work has been highlyinfluential and other contributions have come from Tony Claydon and Ian McBride (1998), David Hempton (1996),Keith Robbins (1988, 1993, 1998), and John Wolff (1994). Aside from his vital contribution to the generaltheorisation of nationhood and nationalism—by recovering the role of religion from unjustified neglect—AdrianHastings (1997) has much to say about the formation of England as a nation. National identity and religion in theindividual nations of the Union has also benefited from research by Joseph Bradley (1995), Robert Pope (2001),Dorian Llywelyn (1999) and Ian McBride (1998). However, except for the brief treatments of the post-war period inthe volume edited by Stuart Mews (1982) and John Kent’s (1998) work on Archbishop William Temple, therelationship between religion, British identity and European integration over the crucial period since 1945 has beenlargely neglected. The Churches and Politics in Britain. Moving on to examine work related to other themes of WP5 there is someevidence of increasing interest. Among the prerequisites for a significant ecclesiastical role in the secular processesof integration was a socially orientated theology, particular interpretations of the church-state relationship and themeans to exert influence in the public sphere and polity. Concerning the first of these, G.I.T. Machin (1998) hasprovided an invaluable survey of the evolving attitudes of the Churches on key social issues in the twentieth centuryand Reginald Ward (1988) has also surveyed the fortunes of protestant social activism. The collections edited byGeorge Moyser (1985) and Paul Badham (1989) deal with the relationship between the Churches and the polity, andChurch and state in contemporary Britain. In regard to specific Christian political activism, Chris Bryant (1996) deals with perhaps the most significant radicalChristian critique of society in his ‘personal history’ of Christian socialists. There is also material on this subject inJohn Cort’s (1988) study and David Ormrod (1987) deals somewhat uncritically with the beginnings of ‘Christian-Marxist’ dialogue. History writing on political radicalism of the 1930s and the 1940s has almost completely ignoredthe role of Christians in the debates of those years. Thus, the collection of essays edited by Marjorie Reeves (1999) isa welcome supplement to Zeilstra’s work on the Peace Aims Group. Taking in a range of subjects hitherto ignored,Christian Thinking and Social Order includes chapters on the Christian News-Letter and J.H. Oldham’s ‘Moot’,topics also included in Keith Clements’ (1999) biography of Oldham. In some ways the biographical literature is the richest source on this subject. Clements’ exemplary treatment ofOldham should be read alongside Eleanor Jackson’s (1980) effective study of William Paton. John Kent’s (1992)thematic study of Temple, which includes a section of the ‘church in politics’, supplements F.A. Iremonger’s (1948)biography. Alan Suggate (1987) seeks inspiration for the present in Temple’s social ethics but also includes a veryuseful summary and analysis of his approach to inter-national affairs. Although a little dated in their style andapproach, Ronald Jasper’s (1967, 1960) volumes on bishops George Bell and Arthur Cayley Headlam are essentialreading, as is Owen Chadwick’s (1983) Hensley Henson. Edward Carpenter’s (1991) biography of Geoffrey Fisherprovides a factually useful, if over-long, account but is unsatisfyingly bland in its assessment of Temple’s successor. All these biographical treatments touch at different points on the themes being pursued by WP5. However, DianneKirby’s (1993, 1995, 1997, 1999a, 1999b, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2000d, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c) combination of a

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‘personal’ approach to history—she has written extensively on Cyril Foster Garbett, Archbishop of York—with herfocus on the overlap between the Church and politics during the opening years of the Cold War is a welcomedeparture in historiography and particularly germane to this work. Regarding the post-war years as a whole, it ispuzzling that despite the not insignificant part that the British Churches played in the Cold War a comprehensivemonograph detailing that story has yet to appear. Despite its title, Owen Chadwick’s The Christian Church in theCold War (1992) devotes only a proportion of its space to that topic, without any specific treatment of the Churchesin Britain. In contrast, the Roman Catholic Church in the Cold War and in world politics generally has been well served byhistorians, although British Catholics receive a very limited treatment by Dennis Dunn (1979), Hansjakob Stehle(1981), Eric Hanson (1987) and Anthony Rhodes (1992). In contrast, Thomas Moloney (1985) blends the personaland political in a study of Cardinal Hinsley’s career as an ecclesiastical statesman working between church and state,also touched on by Chadwick (1986). Moloney includes a chapter on the wartime organisation The Sword of Spirit(SoS), which is also examined by Stuart Mews (1983) and, in conjunction with its successor organisation, theCatholic Institute for International Relations, by Michael Walsh (1980, 1982). Catholic political attitudes andactivism in domestic British politics are usefully summarised by Tom Buchanan (1996) and Joan Keating (1994,1996) discusses the uneasy relationship between British Christian Democrats and the British left, including thetensions surrounding the issue of European integration. Ecumenism. The ecumenical movement, representing as it does an integrative religious movement paralleling effortsto reformulate inter-national relations, a crucial resource for Christian intervention in foreign affairs, and anemerging model of a community transcending national divisions, represents an important element in this account.The official history (Payne, 1972) of the first three decades of the British Council of Churches deals briefly withquestions relating to European integration. However, there have been no detailed treatments of the specificecumenical role of the British Churches although many of the works referred to above do deal with persons involvedor aspects of this question, as do the ‘standard’ works on the WCC edited by Ruth Rouse and Stephen Neill (1954)and Harold Fey (1970) (later collected in one volume: Rouse and Neill, 1994). Similarly, both Darril Hudson’s(1969) study of the ecumenical movement’s engagement with international affairs up to 1948 and Edward Duff’s(1956) analysis of the early thinking of the WCC on international relations adopt a general approach. The tentativeengagements of the British churches with Conference of European Churches (CEC) are discussed by John Arnold(1999a, 1999b) in the short official history of the CEC (Gurney, c.1999) and else-where. Brief reference to Britishattitudes also appears in Hans Hebly’s (1986) more incisive examination of the career of the CEC. We might add inpassing that the fact that contributors to these volumes are themselves largely insiders in the ecumenical movementinevitably raises historiographical issues. Obviously all histories are personal and partial, but the extent to whichtexts dealing with the Churches have been written by activists or, at the least, by authors who share a similarreligious worldview, cannot be without implications for the reader. This brief survey, whilst not claiming to be exhaustive, clearly indicates the considerable scope for WP5 to open upnew and fruitful avenues of research in Britain’s—and so Europe’s—recent history. 3. Primary Sources Contemporary published sources. To chart the nature and development British Christian thinking on this topic theconsiderable volume of contemporary monographs and collected works, pamphlets, denominational newspapers andperiodicals are a key resource. Archival. Although the otherwise useful guide edited by Walter Lipgens (1980) only makes passing reference toarchival collections relating to the Churches, very considerable holdings of unpublished papers of official churchbodies, Christian pressure groups and individuals exist for the British Churches. In common with the contemporarypublished material, these archives have not received the attention they deserve and have been, to-date, relatively littleused by historians. The archives of the British state held at the Public Record Office and the private papers of Britishpoliticians also contain much material relating to the political activism of the Churches. 4. Bibliography Arnold, John

[1999a] Britain and Ireland – reluctant Europeans”, in Robin Gurney (ed.), CEC at 40:Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Conference of European Churches (CEC) 1959-1999.Geneva: CEC, pp. 50-53.

1999b “Europe, the Churches and the Conference of European Churches”, KirchlicheZeitgeschichte, 12:2, pp. 473-487.

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Buchanan, Tom

1996 “Great Britain”, in Tom Buchanan and Martin Conway (eds.), Political Catholicism inEurope. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Bryant, Chris

1996 Possible Dreams: A Personal History of the British Christian Socialists. London: Hodderand Stoughton.

Bradley, Joseph M.

1995 Ethnic and Religious Identity in Modern Scotland: Culture, Politics and Football.Aldershot: Avebury.

Carpenter, Edward

1991 Archbishop Fisher: His Life and Times. Norwich: The Canterbury Press. Chadwick, Owen 1983 Hensley Henson: A Study in the Friction between Church and State. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1986 Britain and the Vatican during the Second World War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1992 The Christian Church in the Cold War. Harmondsworth: Allen Lane The Penguin Press. Claydon, Tony, and Ian McBride 1998 Chosen people?: Protestantism and National Identity in Britain and Ireland, c.1650-c.1850. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. Clements, Keith 1999 Faith on the Frontier: a Life of J.H. Oldham. Edinburgh: T.T. Clark. Colley, Linda 1996 Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837. London: Vintage. (first published: 1992). Cort, John C. 1988 Christian Socialism: An Informal History. New York: Orbis. Davie, Grace 1994 Religion in Britain since 1945. Oxford: Blackwell. Duff, Edward, 1956 The Social Thought of the World Council of Churches. London: Longman. Dunn, Dennis J. 1979 Detente and Papal-Communist Relations, 1962-1978 . Boulder, Co.: Westview Press. Gurney, Robin (ed.) [1999] CEC at 40: Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Conference of European Churches (CEC) 1959-1999.

Geneva: CEC. Hanson, Eric O. 1987 The Catholic Church in World Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princetop UP. Hastings, Adrian 1991 A History of English Christianity, 1920-1990. 3rd ed. London: SCM. 1997 The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. Hebley, J.A. [Hans],

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1986 “The Post-War Ecumenical Dream in Europe”, pp. 17-39 in Eastbound Ecumenism: A Collection of Essayson the World Council of Churches and Eastern Europe. New York and Amsterdam: University Press ofAmerica and Free University Press.

Hempton, David 1996 Religion and Political Culture in Britain and Ireland: From the Glorious Revolution to the decline of

empire. Cambridge: CUP. Hudson, Darril 1969 The Ecumenical Movement in World Affairs . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Iremonger, F.A., 1948 William Temple – Archbishop of Canterbury: His Life and Letters. Oxford: OUP. Jackson, Eleanor M. 1980 Red Tape and the Gospel: A Study of the Significance of the Ecumenical Missionary Struggle of William

Paton (1886-1943). Birmingham: Phlogiston/Selly Oak Colleges. Jasper, Ronald C.D. 1960 Arthur Cayley Headlam: Life and Letters of a Bishop. London: Faith Press. 1967 George Bell: Bishop of Chichester. London: OUP. Keating, Joan 1994 “The British Experience: Christian Democrats Without A Party”, in David Hanley (ed.) Christian

Democracy in Europe: A Comparative Perspective. London: Pinter, pp. 168-181. 1996 “Looking to Europe: Roman Catholics and Christian Democracy in 1930s Britain”, European History

Quarterly, 26:1, pp.57-79. Kent, John 1992 William Temple: Church, State and Society in Britain, 1880-1950 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998 “William Temple, the Church of England and British National Identity”, in R. Weight and A. Beach, (eds.),

The Right to Belong: Citizenship and National Identity in Britain, 1930-1960. London : Tauris, pp. 19-35. Kirby, Dianne, 1993 “The Church of England and the Cold War Nuclear Debate”, Twentieth Century British History, 4:3. 1995 “Responses Within the Anglican Church to Nuclear Weapons, 1945-1961”, Journal of Church and State,

37, pp. 599-622 1997 “Truman’s Holy Alliance: The President, the Pope and the Origins of the Cold War”, Borderlines: Studies

in American Culture, 4:1, pp. 1-17. 1999a Church, State and Propaganda. Hull University Press. 1999b “The Archbishop of York and Anglo-American relations during the Second World War and early Cold

War, 1942-55”, The Journal of Religious History, 23:3, pp. 327-345. 1999c “William Temple, Pius XII, Ecumenism, Natural Law and the Post-war Peace”, Journal of Ecumenical

Studies, 36: 3-4, pp. 318-39. 2000a “The Church of England and Religions Division during the Second World War: Church-State relations and

the Anglo-Soviet Alliance”, Journal of International Relations, 1:1. 2000b “Divinely Sanctioned: The Anglo-American Cold War Alliance and the Defence of Western Civilisation

and Christianity, 1945-48”, The Journal of Contemporary History, 35:3, pp. 385-412.

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2000c “Christian Faith, Communist Faith: Some aspects of the Relationship between the Foreign OfficeInformation Research Department and the Church of England Council on Foreign Relations, 1950-1953”,Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte, 13:1, pp. 217-241.

2001a “Christian co-operation and the ecumenical ideal in the 1930s and 1940s, European History Review, 8:1,

pp. 37-60 2001b “Anglican-Orthodox Relations and the Religious Rehabilitation of the Soviet Regime During the Second

World War”, Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique, 96:1-2, pp. 101-23. 2001c “Harry S. Truman's International Religious Anti-Communist Front, the Archbishop of Canterbury and the

1948 Inaugural Assembly of the World Council of Churches”, Contemporary British History, 15:4, pp. 37-70.

Llywelyn, Dorian 1999 Sacred Place, Chosen People: Land and National Identity in Welsh Spirituality. Cardiff : University of

Wales Press. Machin, G.I.T. 1998 Churches and Social Issues in Twentieth-Century Britain . Oxford: Clarendon Press. McBride, Ian 1998 Scripture Politics: Ulster Presbyterians and Irish Radicalism in the late eighteenth century. Oxford:

Clarendon Press. Medhurst, Kenneth, N. 2000 “Christianity and the Future of Europe”, pp. 169-188 in Martyn Percy (ed.), Calling Time: Religion and

Change at the Turn of the Millennium. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. Mews, Stuart 1982 Religion and national identity: papers read at the nineteenth Summer Meeting and the twentieth Winter

Meeting of the Ecclesiastical History Society. Oxford: Published for the Ecclesiastical History Society byBasil Blackwell.

1983 “The Sword of the Spirit: A Catholic Cultural Crusade of 1940”, Studies in Church History, 20, pp. 409-

430. Moloney, Thomas, 1985 Westminster, Whitehall and the Vatican: the role of Cardinal Hinsley, 1935-43. Tunbridge Wells: Burns &

Oates. Moyser, George 1985 Church and Politics Today: Essays on the role of the Church of England in Contemporary Politics.

Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Ormrod, David 1987 “The Christian Left and the beginnings of Christian-Marxist dialogue, 1935-45”, pp. 435-450 in Jim

Obelkevich, Lyndal Roper and Raphael Samuel (eds.), Disciplines of Faith: Studies in Religion, Politicsand Patriarchy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Payne, Ernest A. 1972 Thirty Years of the British Council of Churches 1942-1972. London: BCC. Pope, Robert 2001 Religion and National Identity: Scotland and Wales c.1700-2000. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Reeves, Marjorie (ed.) 1999 Christian Thinking and Social Order. London: Cassell.

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Religion, State and Society in Modern Britain 1985 Badham, Paul (ed.) Religion, State and Society in Modern Britain. Lampeter: Mellen Press. Rhodes, Anthony 1992 The Vatican in the Age of the Cold War. Norwich: Michael Russell. Robbins, Keith 1988 Nineteenth-century Britain: Integration and Diversity: the Ford Lectures. Oxford: Clarendon. 1993 History, Religion and Identity in Modern Britain. Hambledon and London. 1998 Great Britain: Identities, Institutions and the Idea of Britishness (Present and the Past). London: Longman. Rouse, Ruth. and Neill, Stephen C. (eds.), 1954 A History of the Ecumenical Movement, 1517-1948. London: SPCK. 1994 A History of the Ecumenical Movement, 1517-1968. Geneva: World Council of Churches; fourth edition. Stehle, Hansjakob 1981 Eastern Politics of the Vatican, 1917-1979 . Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1981; first published in

1971 as Die Ostpolitik des Vatikans 1917-75. Verlag: Piper. Suggate, Alan M., 1987 William Temple and Christian Social Ethics Today. Edinburgh: T and T Clark.

Walsh, Michael J., 1980 From sword to ploughshare: Sword of the spirit to Catholic Institute for International Relations 1940-1980.

London: Catholic Institute for International Relations. 1982 “Ecumenism in War-time Britain. The Sword of the Spirit and Religion and Life, 1940-1945 (1 and 2)”,

The Heythrop Journal: A Quarterly Review of Philosophy and Theology, 23, pp. 243-258, 377-394. Ward, W. Reginald 1988 “The Way of the World: The Rise and Decline of Protestant Social Christianity in Britain”, Kirchliche

Zeitgeschicte, 1:2, pp. 283-305. Warren, Heather A. 1997 Theologians of a New World Order: Reinhold Niebuhr and the Christian Realists, 1920-1948. New York:

OUP. Wolffe, John 1994 God and Greater Britain: Religion and National Life in Britain and Ireland 1843-1945 . London:

Routledge. Zeilstra, Jurjen A. 1995 European Unity in Ecumenical Thinking, 1937-1948. Zoetermeer: Uitgeverij Boekencentrum. Note: The current author was also grateful to refer to Derek Ford’s ‘An analysis of the response by the Christian UKchurches to the involvement of Britain in the European institutions 1967–1997’ (Unpublished MA Thesis, AngliaPolytechnic University, 1999). However, as this work is neither catalogued nor available publicly, it has not beenincluded here. WP-6

The Cultural and Social Impact of the Nordic Churches on European Integration

Anders Jarlert In this work-package we are observing and analyzing the role and importance of the Churches for the integrationprocess in Sweden. This will be done in four distinct sections, studying the problem from four different angles: 1.Swedishness, Catholicism and European integration, investigating the activity of the Roman Catholic Church in

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Sweden from 1945 up to the present time, in a Nordic and European perspective, 2. The Church of Sweden andSocial Democratic Church politics in the Welfare State, 1944-1973, mainly how Swedish Social Democracy hasplayed a key role for the transformation and conformity of the Church of Sweden to the democratic order on thebasis of a ‘secularized Lutheranism, 3. The contacts between the Church of Sweden and international society, mostlyEurope, on an informal level, starting from the organisation Church of Sweden Abroad (SKUT), and continuing witha study of the individual as a representative of every entity she/he is a part of, and 4. The transformation of theSwedish Christian Democratic Party from its founding as an isolated, confessional group between the political blocsin 1964, to a party in the European Christian Democratic tradition, firmly established in the non-Socialist bloc, withconservative, social values, in the 1990s and onwards. All four studies will deal with the question for the role ofChurches and denominations in the transformation of the attitudes towards Europe and integration in the Swedishsociety since the Law of religious freedom was established in 1951.

1. Task Christianity has, with certain qualifications, always played a unifying role in European society. Theological, cultural,ideological, and political ideas, expressions and techniques have diffused throughout the continent with the Church,and – as time went – the churches, as a medium. As late as in 1860, the liberalization of religious legislation made it possible for Swedish citizens to becomemembers of other, recognised religious bodies without having to leave the country. Up to the Law of religiousfreedom of 1951, Swedish citizenship was normally regarded as identical to membership of the Lutheran Church ofSweden. Since 1950 there has been a great change of attitudes towards other churches and denominations. Thischange of attitudes can be seen as the result of a successful process of integration, which on one hand is due totheological reorientations of the churches, on the other hand is due to a radical change of Swedish society. An important prerequisite for the integration of refugees from other countries has been that religious dissenter groupshave tried to form national identities on a religious ground. Thus, a pluralisation of Swedish national identity wasmade possible before the arrival of the new refugee groups. This pluralisation of national identities is an importantfactor in the global process of modernization. Another important prerequisite has been the development of a mutual respect, since integration is a process of mutualintegration between different social and ethnical groups and society. Associate Professor Yvonne Maria Werner studies Swedishness, Catholicism and European integration from theexample of the Roman Catholic Church in Sweden after 1945. Her aim is to investigate the Catholic activity inSweden in a Nordic and European perspective from 1945 up to the present time. Her question is how the NordicCatholic culture – moulded out since 1860 - was manifested after 1945, and in what way it changed as a result of thereforms after Vatican II, which paved the way for Catholic commitment to the Ecumenical movement and thus for amore open form of Catholicism. She will concentrate her study in three major fields, namely 1) the Catholic Churchand the refugee and immigrant question, 2) the reforms following the Second Vatican Council, and the ecumenicaldiscussions between Catholics and Lutherans in Sweden, 3) the commitment of the Swedish Catholic Church in theEuropean Catholic co-operation, its activities regarding the European question, and its relation to the Swedish state. Stages important to this study are the Swedish law of religious freedom in 1951 and the establishment of diplomaticrelations between Sweden and the Vatican in 1982. A highpoint in the ecumenical relations between the Church ofSweden and the national Catholic Church was the visit of Pope John Paul II in Sweden in 1989, and the ecumenicalvespers in the Church of St. Peter in Rome in 1991 and 1999, with the Pope presiding at the High altar together withthe Lutheran archbishops of Sweden and Finland. A hypothesis is that the ecumenical dialogue has contributed to create a more positive opinion regarding Europeanintegration. Ecumenism can thus be regarded as an important step toward europeanization. Prof. Werner will alsopay attention to the work of the Scandinavian Catholic Episcopal Conference, which surely has contributed tointegrate the Nordic Catholic Churches in the European Catholic structures. Of special interest are the Conference’srelations with the German Episcopal Conference, since a great part of the economical aid to Catholic activities inScandinavia has come from Germany. Theories and models developed within recent sociological and cultural-historical research will serve as a theoretical frame for this study. Doctoral Student Daniel Alvunger will write his dissertation in History on the Secular Lutheran Kingdom of SwedishNation, that is the Church of Sweden and Social Democratic Church politics in the Welfare State, 1944-1973. Hisaim is to provide an understanding of how Swedish Social Democracy has played a key role for the transformationand growing conformity of the Church of Sweden to the democratic order on the basis of a ‘secularizedLutheranism‘. The dissertation will focus on conflicts in relation to this process of establishment and in particular onhow the reforms of State authority was answered by advocates of an orthodox Lutheran faith within the Church ofSweden. Three central issues will be studied: the relation between Church and State, Educational politics concerningreligious education, and Family politics concerning the issue of abortion and sexual-ethical issues. The Churchpolitics and the notion of the Church in the Social Democratic Labour party is polarized against the notion of the

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Church represented by the orthodox Lutheran front in the Church of Sweden, and this from both functional andsubstantial aspects – thus, what the Church does/ought to do, and what the Church is/ought to be, respectively. Theissues of conflict are elucidated with an outlook to connections concerning European integration, internationallegislation, and ecumenicalism. The theoretical outline of this disseration brings to the fore problems concerningsecularization, confessionalism, modernization, national identity, power, and integration. Mr. Alvunger’s studies arenot being financed by the project, but by the Faculty of Humanities, though his work is carried out in full fellowshipwith the WP. Doctor Martin Bergman studies the diffusion and contacts between the Church of Sweden and international society,mostly Europe, on an informal level. The impact of art, literature, music, and customs from other churches andcountries since World War II and, especially since the 1960s, has been unsurpassed. For example, Carmelite mystics,songs from Taizé, or postcard icons have for some members of the Church of Sweden become everyday parts of theirspirituality. Dr. Bergman takes his starting-point in the official organisation Church of Sweden Abroad (SKUT), anorganisation that recognises as a part of its mission to be a vehicle for practical ecumenics, and serving as a meeting-place for individuals from different traditions. This organisation also recognises as a task for its representatives togather information and methods that might be useful in the Church of Sweden. In the post-World War II situation we find an increasing number of individuals travelling abroad or living in morethan one country. Thus the forms of diffusion are changing, and, especially in the form of personal contacts, candisplay manifold forms. Such a mixture might be of special relevance for Churches in the situation of the NordicLutheran Churches. Among casual, occasional, or regular contacts, based on curiosity, friendship, or quest ofknowledge or spiritual inspiration and enrichment, pilgrimage is one of the most long-lasting that has continued inspite of periods of official resentment and prescription. The Porvoo agreement has made official contacts on lowerlevels such as interchanges of clergy between Lutheran and Anglican Churches in different countries much easier,while, on the other hand, the Schengen treaty has made contacts with Churches in other parts of the world somewhatmore difficult. Dr. Bergman opens for studying the individual as a representative of every entity she/he is a part of. Professor Anders Jarlert is the organizer and leader of the WP work, its seminars, and its external information. Healso studies the transformation of the Swedish Christian Democratic Party from its founding as a very small, mostlyFree Church confessional group as a reaction against secularization, between the political blocs, in the 1960s, to aChristian Democratic Party in the European tradition and fellowship, firmly established in the non-Socialist bloc,with even practising Jewish members, and with a conservative attitude to social values, in the 1990s and onwards.What makes this transformation especially interesting is that it reflects the great change of attitudes within severalChristian Churches and denominations towards Europe, the European Union, and European integration. An important prerequisite for this study is the construction of national identities on religious ground, which, togetherwith the growing openness to Ecumenical dialogue from different Christian bodies, including the Roman CatholicChurch, has opened up for the change of attitudes towards Europe and European matters. This development is partlydependent on the process studied by Mr. Alvunger, with a growing integration between the Church of Sweden andSocial Democracy. 2. The State of the Art Since 1950, Churches and denominations have experienced a development of conformation and integration in thecommon value-system of the Swedish Welfare State. This have to a certain extent been the case of several academicstudies, almost everyone written in Swedish, and thus not open to European readers. International theories on confessionalism and national identity (Hugh McLeod, Olaf Blaschke), and on religion andmodernization (Peter van der Veer, Karl Gabriel, Frans-Xaver Kaufmann) are of general use to the whole WP. In her own research, Professor Werner has shown how the Nordic Roman Catholics in the period before 1945 tried tocreate a distinguished Nordic Catholic culture and identity. In previous research it has also been stressed that thepresence of the Catholic Church in Sweden has contributed to delay the Swedish accession to the convention onHuman Rights and the European Court. Otherwise, not much research has been done on the Cahtolic Church inSweden after 1945. Some of the older studies are chronological surveys rather than scientific works. The debate onSwedish membership in the European Union revealed a similar tendency, where some of those who were against amembership used anti-Catholic sentiments. On the other hand there has been a growing interest in adopting Catholicforms of piety, from devotional candles and pictures of Mary to Catholic liturgical practices. The same ambiguitycan be observed regarding Catholic moral teaching. Here the development of Swedish family politics since the 1960shas widened the gap between the Catholic and the mainstream Swedish veiw, but at the same time many ProtestantChristians sympathize with the Catholic standpoint, which has created new opportunities for co-operation acrossconfessional borders. Mr. Alvunger builds on the ground of previous research made by some of the authors in the Nordic research volume,Nordiske folkekirker i opbrud, as well as on Kjell Blückert’s dissertation (in English), and on books (in Swedish) byCarl-Eber Olivestam, Karl-Göran Algotsson, and Gunnar Richardson - these three concerning the change of religious

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education. Generally, this research stresses the change of religious education from a normative and ethical-evangelical upbringing subject to a descriptive and ethical theoretical subject, while the fundamental aspects of howthis development affected the Church has been neglected. Research regarding the Social Democratic Church politicsand its relation to the conformation of the Church of Sweden to the common value-system of the Swedish WelfareState is generaly lacking. Neither has the importance of Social Democracy for the conformation and integration ofthe Church of Sweden been investigated. Dr. Bergman uses the dissertation on the Church of Sweden Abroad (SKUT) by Ingemar Bergmark. However, thisbook deals with this organisation in the early period of 1911-1933, when it was mostly concerned with the care forseamen abroad. He also makes use of a report edited by David Holm on Church and tourism, The Porvoo CommonStatement, and the 2001 report on the future of the SKUT. Also literature on the changing context of the Churchesaround the Baltic Sea, as well as on Nordic Integration politics will be used (Haskel, Lindgren, Solem, Sundelius).These books include research on low-level contacts on a political level, but there is a lack of research concerning thepersonal contacts that changes and deepen the relationships between Churches, cultures, and nations. Professor Jarlert – like Mr. Alvunger – makes a start in the research volume, Nordiske folkekirker i opbrud, of whichhe is one of the authors. He will also use some academic research on the Christian Democratic party in Sweden(Attefall & Holmström, Johansson) as well as literature on Christian Democratic parties in Europe (Fogarty, Hanley,Hahn & Lucker, Irving, Kalyvas). Further, political writings on European politics from the Swedish ChristianDemocratic party (Arböl) will be used as well as biographical literature (Svensson). 3. The existing sources Professor Werner’s sources are partly primarily source material from the Swedish National archives, partly printedsources such as Catholic magazines, official Cahtolic statements and reports, and private memoirs. The material fromthe Vatican archives is not accessible after 1922, but there are copies of the reports to Rome in the Catholic Diocesanarchive at the National archivs in Stockholm. Mr. Alvunger’s material consists mainly of parliamentary and synodal records, but also of records from the nationalconferences of the Social Democratic party. Together with this comes articles in periodicals and newspapers, mainlySocial Democratic or ecclesiastical ones. In Dr. Bergman’s work, sources to the diffusion and personal contacts are themselves diffused, and therefore notalways easy to find, or even preserved, limitations and approaches into the problem and the sources are ofimportance. Specific sources are found in the publications and archives of the Church of Sweden Abroad (SKUT), inspecially constructed questionnaires, a well as in interviews on a local level. Professor Jarlert’s sources are mainly printed and unprinted material from the Christian Democratic Party, as well asinterviews and comparative material from other political sources such as parliamentary records and periodicals, incomparison with material from European political bodies. An important methodical point is the commoncomparative work in the project, primarily together with the tasks of Prof. Werner and Mr. Alvunger. 4. Bibliography Algotsson, Karl-Göran

1975 Från katekestvång till religionsfrihet. Debatten om religionsundervisningen i skolanunder 1900-talet. [From compulsive catechesis to religious freedom. Discussion on religiouseducation in the school under 20th century.] Rabéen och Sjögren: Stockholm.

Arbøl, Niels 1990 Ett ny Europa – kristdemokraterna visar vägen. [A New Europe – Christian Democrats show the way.]

Samhällsgemenskap: Stockholm. Attefall, Stefan & Holmström, Göran

1997 Partiernas förändrade villkor – kristdemokraternas partinätverk i Europa och dessinflytande på svensk krisedemokrati [Unpubl. paper, Umeå University, May, 1997].

Bergmark, Ingemar 1974 Kyrka och sjöfolk, en studie i Svenska kyrkans sjömansvård 1911–1933. [The church and the seafarers, a

study on the Church of Sweden’s seamen’s mission.] Verbum: Stockholm. Blaschke, Olaf 2000 ”Das 19. Jahrhundert. Ein zweites konfessionelles Zeitalter?”: Geschichte und Gesellschaft 2000:1.

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Blückert, Kjell 2000 The Church as Nation. A Study in Ecclesiology and Nationhood. Lang: Frankfurt am Main. Cavallin, Lars, Åberg, Alf, Lindqvist, Barbro 1983 Bygga kyrka. Katolska kyrkan i Sverige 1783-1983. En återblick . Katolska bokförlaget: Uppsala. Churches around the Baltic Sea 2002 Churches around the Baltic Sea– their contribution to the region in a changing context, Report Theobalt V

2001. Visby. Fogarty, Michael P. 1957 Christian Democracy in Western Europe, 1820-1943. Routledge: London. Gärde, Johan 1999 Från invandrarkyrka till mångkulturellt samfund. En kyrkosociologisk analys av katolska kyrkan i Sverige

från 1970-tal till 1990-tal . Uppsala universitet: Uppsala. Towards a New Understanding of Conversion.

1999 Görman, Ulf (ed.) Towards a New Understanding of Conversion. Teologiskainstitutionen: Lund.

Christian Democracy in Europe. 1994 Hanley, David (ed.) Christian Democracy in Europe. A comparative Perspective. Pinter: London. Hahn, Karl Josef & Lucker, Hans August 1987 Christliche Demokraten bauen Europa. Europa Union: Bonn. Hessler, Carl Arvid 1964 Statskyrkodebatten. Almqvist & Wiksell: Uppsala. Holm, David (ed) 1982 Church and tourism, report on an international conference in Stockholm,Sweden, on nov 2-6, 1981.

Uppsala. Irving, R.

1979 “The Christian Democracy and European Integration”, in R. Irving (ed.) , The ChristianDemocratic Parties of Western iurope. Allen & Unwin: London.

Jansen, Thomas 1996 Die Entstehung einer Europäischen Partei – Vorgeschichte, Gründung und Entwicklung der EVP. Europa

Union: Bonn. Jarlert, Anders

1999 ”Schweden. II. Reformation bis Neuzeit, III. Gegenwärtige Verhältnisse”, inTheologische Realenzyklopädie, Bd XXX, pp. 649–676. Walter de Gruyter: Berlin.

Johansson, Göran V. 1985 Kristen Demokrati på svenska – studier om KDS tillkomst och utveckling 1964-1982. Liber: Lund. Kalyvas, N. Stathis 1996 The Rise of Christian Democracy in Europe. Cornell University Press: Ithaca. Klevenås, L. 1993 “Den katolska kyrkan och EG” [The Catholic Church and the EC], in L. Gröning (ed.) Det nya riket? 24

kritiska röster om Europaunionen . Stockholm. McLeod, Hugh 2000 “New perspectives on Religious History of Western and Norther Europé 1815–1900”: Kyrkohistorisk

årsskrift 2000 .

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Olivestam, Carl-Eber 1977–1989 Idé och politik I–III. Svenska kyrkohistoriska föreningen: Uppsala. Pridham, Geoffrey & Pippa 1981 Transnational Party Co-operation and European Integration. Allen & Unwin: London. Richardson, Gunnar

1983 Drömmen om en ny skola. Idéer och realiteter i svensk skolpolitik 1945–1958. [A dreamabout a new school. Ideas and realities in Swedish schoolpolicy 1945–1958] Liber: Stockholm.

Rosamond, Ben 2000 Theories of European integration. Macmillan: Basingstoke. Nordiske folkekirker i opbrud. 2001 Schjørring, Jens Holger (ed.) Nordiske folkekirker i opbrud. National identitet og international

nyorientering efter 1945. Aarhus Universitetsforlag: Aarhus. St. Ansgar St. Ansgar. Jahrbuch des St. Ansgarius-Werke., 1948-2001. Svenska kyrkan i utlandet – organisation och uppgifter 2001 Betänkande från 1998 års SKUT-utredning, [Church of Sweden Abroad– organisation and tasks, report

from the SKUT-enquiry of 1998] Svenska kyrkans utredningar 2001:1, Uppsala. Svensson, Alf 2001 Här kommer Alf Svensson [Here comes Alf Svensson]. Bonnier: Stockholm. Thidevall, Sven 2000 Kampen om folkkyrkan [Fight for folkchurch]. Verbum: Uppsala.. Van der Veer, P

1996 ”Introduction”: Conversion to Modernities. The Globalization of Christianity. Routledge,New York.

Werner, Yvonne Maria

2000 Rätt, religion och katolsk motkultur: nordiska katoliker mellan katolsk och nordiskrättstradition” [Rights, religion and Catholic counter culture: the Nordic Catholics and Nordictradition of rights], in Rätten. En festskrift till Bengt Ankarloo. Historiska Media: Lund.

1998 ”Schweden”: Kirche und Katholizismus seit 1945. Bd 1. Mittel-, West- und Nordeuropa.Schöningh: Paderborn. Churches and European Integration

WP-7 The political commitments of East European Christianity since the Cold War.

The Estonian case Lea Altnurme

Riho Altnurme During Communist rule, East European Christians had either to become martyrs or make compromises in their lives.Martyrology and political history containing accusations against those who collaborated are at present the favouritegenres for depicting the church history of Eastern Europe in the second half of the 20th century. History reflectingother aspects of church life is as yet virtually non-existent. There is still a lot of unused material available forresearch, both in the archives and in the form of memoirs. From the point of view of the topic Churches andEuropean integration, it is important to describe the contacts with the Western world during this difficult period andat the very end of it that have facilitated reintegration. Estonia was a mostly Lutheran country that had to be a partof the Soviet Union at that time. Yet ties with Western churches were maintained through ecumenical organisationsfrom the 1950s onwards. The true nature of these contacts should be made clear. The end of 1980s brought

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enormous new opportunities for bonds of friendship with the West. The influence on Estonians of friendship churchesand Christian organisations, and the popularity among Estonian youth of the Taizé movement are uninvestigatedphenomena that could clarify the picture of the reopening of Eastern Europe.

1. Task This work package seeks to promote a deeper understanding of the situation of the East European churches underSoviet rule. People in Western and sometimes also in Eastern Europe still have a relatively limited knowledge of theactivities of the churches in these difficult years. To some extent, relations with the Western world were stillpreserved through the churches, among other channels. It is possible to speak of uninterrupted ties in these yearsthrough contacts within ecumenical organisations and between individuals. On the other hand, the Christian culturethat is one of the cultural foundations of present-day European integration, was kept alive in the churches. In presenttimes, a better understanding of these topics should help towards the future integration of the new Eastern Europeancandidate states into the European Union. Estonia is taken as a case study from Eastern Europe for various reasons. The activity of church leaders inecumenical organisations and in establishing contacts with the West in general is one reason. The present-dayreligious situation in Estonia can be described as a local particularity in this context. Estonia has been particularlysuccessful in reintegration with Western Europe after the political shift that took place, despite the fact that it wasonce a part of the Soviet Union. There may be some ties between those phenomena. In Estonia the Evangelical Lutheran Church has traditionally been the majority church and the Orthodox Church theminority church (78% and 19% of population respectively before WWII). Today only 14% of the population seethemselves as Lutheran, whereas 13% are orthodox (this is also a sign of Russian identity). All other confessionswere and have remained under 1%. This shows the organisational weakness of the established churches. Latvia andLithuania are quite different. Latvia has had two major churches – the Lutheran and the Roman Catholic, and todaythe Roman-Catholic church is demonstrating signs of growth. Lithuania has remained a Roman Catholic country,with small Protestant and Orthodox minorities. The churches in the latter countries were also influenced by theatheist regime, where the protestant churches proved to be easier to defend. Two levels are examined in the work package. First, the official contacts between churches in East and West, mostlythrough ecumenical organisations. The Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church (EELC) will be examined as anexample, starting from the 1950s, when official contacts with Western Churches were re-established. The leaders ofthe EELC have been quite active in international ecumenical organisations, especially Jaan Kiivit Sen., who was oneof the first presidents of the Conference of European Churches (CEC). The hypothesis of the influence of socialdemocratic thinking through Western theologians and the possibility of “Christian socialism” in the Soviet systemwill be investigated. One particular question is contacts with the exile church – the church of refugees, who wereclearly anti-communist. Whether it was indeed useful for the churches to be in contact with the West (paying theprice of making compromises with the Soviet authorities) or should the churches have remained in open oppositionto Communist rule (which could have prevented them from having any contact with the outside world)? What werethe theological grounds for compromise with the authorities? The nature of the contacts should be examined:whether they were dictated by the Soviet state or in the interest of the churches? The answers to these questions willnot be altogether clear-cut . The second is the individual level. The influence of Western culture on the Estonian mentality through contacts withWestern church members became increasingly possible at the end of the 1980s. The Estonian case permits anexamination of the issue of how communication between Christians of different countries may contribute to theprocess of integration in Europe. Sociological polls have revealed the low level of religiosity, particularly in terms of affiliation with religiousinstitutions, among Estonians. At the same time, the foundations of Estonian culture lie in Western Christianity,which is seated deep in the Estonian national psyche - a fact that is known yet not much acknowledged in the currentpost-Soviet society. The Estonian self-concept also includes a firm conviction of its place in European culture, whichunderscores the need for Estonians to re-discover their cultural roots. Since Christianity is still the intellectual basisfor European integration, despite the secularisation of society on the continent, the re-Christianisation of Estoniamight be viewed as one part of the integration process. Interest in the role of personal cross-border contacts in thisrespect has given rise to the main point of this level: how did churches contribute to European integration, both at theindividual and congregational level, in Estonia in the 1990s? The two phenomena that would presumably lead to the best answers to the questions posed are the aid provided byand the influence on the re-Christianisation of Estonians of friendship churches and Christian organisations, and theTaizé movement’s popularity among and the influence on Estonian youth. It is intended for these two studies to bejoined into an analysis of the influence of international contacts at the individual level on Estonians’ re-Christianisation and reintegration into Europe.

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The hypothesis of the WP7 is that although the people of Estonia were practically in isolation, integration took placethanks to the culture and mentality maintained by the Churches, among others. Moreover, external isolation was notabsolute. Therefore, it is easily possible to proceed to more comprehensive integration nowadays. 2. The State of the Art Soviet-era historiography. Since the beginning of the Soviet occupation in Estonia, analyses of Soviet religiouspolicy, including those dealing with relations between the EELC and the Soviet authorities, have been publishedabroad. Mainly based on word of mouth and information obtained from the Soviet propagandistic sources, these didnot provide a precise representation of reality. One can find examples of an extremely emotional and anti-communistanalysis based on limited source material (Võõbus 1984). One of the most objective studies (although also based onindirect sources) issued abroad during the occupation era covered relations between the state and the churches from1940-1974 (Salo 1974). In Estonia itself, the only works published on religion during that time were atheisticallybiased publications and atheistic propaganda, as well as propagandistic writings and books aimed at the foreignreader. One could only get a glimpse of the real situation from unpublished writings (Salumaa). Historiography from 1991. As the occupation ended, archives were opened, giving access to source materials foracademic research. In the last decade, studies of the Soviet regime’s religious policy were published both in Estoniaand elsewhere. The studies included those examining relations between the Lutheran church and the Soviet state inEstonia; however, they failed to achieve a comprehensive and systematic treatment of the topic. The first moreextensive wave of publications came in 1995-1997. A brief synopsis of the period opened the line (Kiivit 1995).Censorship as a weapon in the war against religion was surveyed, dealing also with the broader context of church-state relations (Lotman 1995). There were some treatments of particular developments in relations between churchand state (Paul 1996). All of the articles also tried to give an overview of the period and failed to concentrate on oneparticular problem. This was a period in which a completely new area and materials were discovered. Indrek Jürjo’s book, which revealed many KGB contacts of publicly known Estonians, using archival documents ofthe KGB and the local Communist Party (Jürjo 1996) caused a sharp discussion in the whole society. One chapterwas devoted to the EELC “in the Grip of the KGB”. It claimed that all church leaders and also some pastors were inone way or another connected with the KGB. The archival evidence was partly indirect, as only some limitedcollections of materials from the KGB archives in Estonia still existed. The reaction from the church circles wasambivalent – this research confirmed facts that had been partly known (or suspected) in the church. The tone of theaccusations and the fact that the unpleasant past was revealed to the public was probably the cause of the irritationevident in church circles. Nobody tried to refute the fact of collaboration, the issue was its extent. The mostimportant question in this context was and remains: whether collaboration was really necessary and in the interest ofthe church and its members? In 1997 it was claimed that there was still a lack of interest among church historians in contemporary church history(Paul 1997). As a common feature for this period, one can mention the unbalanced use of the archival sources. Manyauthors also relied on their personal memoirs, and with few exceptions (Viise 1995) neither used interviews norcollected memoirs . New studies were published in the new millennium. These were based on their predecessors from the mid-1990s, andtheir endeavour was to provide a more detailed and systematic analysis of the archival records, as well as to broadenthe base of source materials. There came a study of the formative years 1944-1949 in Soviet-era church-staterelations based on an in-depth analysis of the archival records (Altnurme 2000, 2001). Another doctoral dissertation,which according to its title claimed to describe the religious situation in only a small part of Estonia, provides anoverview of Soviet-era church life in Estonia as a whole, improving first and foremost on the statistics publisheduntil that time (Plaat 2001). Religiousness in a society in transition was described in one of the few studies onreligion in Estonia to be performed in the 1990s (Liiman 2001). Mikko Malkavaara has made the most recent well-documented attempt to write about the foreign relations of the EELC (Malkavaara 2001). Research on the history of individual congregations in the Soviet period has been conducted by students of theFaculty of Theology of the University of Tartu and of the Institute of Theology (IT) of the EELC (in manuscript).Some findings from these works add valuable brushstrokes to the overall picture. Another topic is martyrology.There is a proposal to prepare initial material for the publication of a relevant reference book about Lutherans (Vaher1997) and also several articles about the martyrdom of the representatives of other churches in Estonia. A common difficulty for the foreign researcher (and reader) is the fact that most of the materials and research onthese topics is published in Estonian. Also, some research about this period in Estonian church history is still done byforeigners (although their research is often not as well known in Estonia). There were some remarkable works by USpolitical scientist Robert F. Goeckel, a specialist on church-state relations in Eastern Europe, particularly in theformer DDR. In the 1990s he focused his research on the influence of Soviet government policy on the Balticchurches (Goeckel 1993, 1995). He offers relatively innovative approaches to local issues, and tries to compare theBaltic states. His primary emphasis is on the late 1980’s, namely on the relationship of the Lutheran churches to the

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democratisation process taking place in society at large. He concludes that the church’s role has been more that of anoutsider in society and has consisted in using the benefits of change, instead of creating the change itself. Goeckel isevidently the only foreigner to have made use of the materials stored at the Estonian National Archives. Nor can the useful comparative information from the other Baltic States be overlooked (Das Gute behaltet 1996,Talonen 1997). Most problems still arise, however, with material in local languages, which makes it difficult forBaltic researchers to work with comparative studies. To date, several systematic studies of church life under Communist regimes have also been published in WesternEurope. In general, however, these are fairly superficial, and occasionally even misleading. As a rule, the churches ofthe Baltic countries are studied as a whole; a non-Estonian researcher would normally not perform a study of theEstonian Evangelical Lutheran Church alone. There are, however, also exceptions (Hart 1993). The role of theLutheran church in the development of Estonian nationalism has generally been small, general thanks to the long-term Baltic German dominance in the Lutheran church. Hart’s view about the Lutheran church as a latent church thathelped to create an atmosphere for the struggle for independence seems to offer a more positive approach towardsthe situation today, when the church is rather weakly manifested in society. In general, the most investigated topic in this period has been the relationship between church and state (especiallyintriguing has been the topic of the church and the KGB). Other aspects of church life have been underestimated.Foreign contacts have also been investigated from only one, political aspect (if at all). The influence of the church insociety must be further researched. A great deal of unused material is available, especially in the archives. Moredetailed research remains to be conducted.

3. The existing sources Archival sources. The archival sources for this research topic can be found mostly in the archives in Tallinn, but alsoin Moscow, Geneva, Stockholm, etc. The Estonian State Archives (Tallinn) holds voluminous files from the archiveof the Estonian representative of the Council for the Religious Affairs. The representative was the most importantstate official dealing strictly with the matters of the churches (until 1965 there were two such officials in Estonia –one for the Russian Orthodox Church and the other for all the other religious organisations). His materials include,among others, annual files about the foreign contacts of the church leaders (starting from 1955). These files includemost of the correspondence of the church leaders with their foreign colleagues as well as the texts of their speechesheld abroad. The Branch of the Estonian State Archives (Tallinn), which was formerly the archive of the Communist Party ofEstonia, preserves documents from the party archive as well as the files that were left behind by the Soviet securityservices (MGB, KGB etc.). In addition, it contains files concerning the work of those organisations with religiouscommunities and the police investigation files on the repressed persons. Control over foreign contacts was always ahigh priority for security services. Personal reports from clergymen about their trips abroad are preserved. In the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church (EELC) Consistory Archive one can find additional material reflectingthe church’s point of view. However, the personal opinions of church leaders and pastors are available from securityagents’ reports rather than from the official documents of the church. The State Archives of the Russian Federation provides valuable information on the overall religious policy of theSoviet Union in that period. Correspondence with the Estonian representative of the Council for Religious Affairs isalso preserved there. The Swedish State Archives hold the materials about the EELC in exile up to the middle of the 1970s (later materialsare in Toronto). The attitudes of the exile church towards the church at home and also information about the contactsbetween them can be obtained there. Archives in Geneva (the Lutheran World Federation etc.) as well as at different deaneries of the exiled church inCanada, the USA and elsewhere are still to be investigated. The problem with the archives of the church in exile seems to be the division of materials between many locations.All of the archives used until this point had free access, except for the collection of the exile church in Stockholm,which required permission, although this was easily obtained from the church authorities. As there are very fewpublished sources available, work in the archives is of great importance. “Soft sources”. Many persons involved in church activities in that period are still alive. Therefore many memoirsand interviews could be used. The Estonian Literary Museum holds a collection of biographies collected in the lastfew years. One of its sub-collections contains religious biographies (by now 72 records, collected by Lea Altnurme).In addition, the museum holds a collection of pastors’ biographies. In the last two years, an occasional questioning ofelderly church members and pastors about the church life in the Soviet period (including the foreign relations of thechurches) has been conducted by Riho Altnurme and students of the Faculty of Theology of the University of Tartu.The results are preserved by the Faculty of Theology.

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4. Bibliography Altnurme, Riho

1998 “Die Estnische Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche in der Sowjetunion (bis 1964)”, SiretRutiku, Reinhart Staats (Hgg.), Estland, Lettland und westliches Christentum. Estnisch-deutscheBeiträge zur baltischen Kirchengeschichte. Kiel: Friedrich Wittig Verlag, S. 219–246.

2000 Eesti Evangeeliumi Luteriusu Kirik ja Nõukogude riik 1944-1949 (Summary: TheEstonian Evangelical Lutheran Church and the Soviet State 1944-1949). Dissertationes TheologiaeUniversitatis Tartuensis 5. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus /Second edition 2001/.

2001 “The Form of Piety, the Theology and the Political Attitudes of the Clergy of the EstonianEvangelical Lutheran Church in the 1940’s”, Riho Altnurme (Hg.), Estnische Kirchengeschichteim vorigen Jahrtausend / Estonian Church History in the Past Millennium. Kiel: Friedrich WittigVerlag, pp.157-165.

Das Gute behaltet

1996 Hans-Christian Diedrich, Gerd Stricker, Helmut Tschoerner (Hgg.), Das Gute behaltet.Kirchen und religiöse gemeinschaften in der Sowjetunion und ihren nachfolgestaaten. Erlangen:Martin-Luther-Verlag.

Goeckel, Robert F.

1993 “Soviet Policy Toward the Baltic Lutheran Churches and their Role in the LiberalizationProcess”, Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte, 6:1, pp.120–138. 1995 “ The Baltic Churches and the Democratization Process”, Michael Bourdeaux (Ed.), ThePolitics of Religion in Russia and the New States of Eurasia. Armonk (N.Y.): M. E. Sharpe, pp.202–225.

Hart, Andrew

1993 “The Role of the Lutheran Church in Estonian Nationalism”, Religion in Eastern Europe,13:3, pp. 6–12.

Jürjo, Indrek

1996 Pagulus ja Nõukogude Eesti. Vaateid KGB, EKP ja VEKSA arhiividokumentide põhjal [Exile andSoviet Estonia. Some Views Based on the Archival Documents of the KGB, the Communist Party of theEstonian SSR and the Society for Developing Cultural Ties with the Exiled Estonians]. Tallinn: Umara.

Ketola, Mikko

2001 Relations between the Estonian and the Finnish Lutheran Churches in the 20th Century”,Riho Altnurme (Hg.), Estnische Kirchengeschichte im vorigen Jahrtausend / Estonian ChurchHistory in the Past Millennium. Kiel: Friedrich Wittig Verlag, pp. 138-142. Kiivit, Jaan Jun. 1995 Eesti Evangeelne Luterlik Kirik pärast Teist maailmasõda [Estonian Evangelical LutheranChurch after the Second World War]. An appendix to Jaan Gnadenteich, Kodumaa kirikulugu[Homeland’s Church History]. Usuõpetuse õpperaamat. Tallinn: Logos, pp. 102–115.

Liiman, Raigo

2001 Usklikkus muutuvas Eesti ühiskonnas (Summary: Religiousness of Estonians andRussians in Estonia). Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus.

Lotman, Piret

1995 “Tsensuur kui usuvastase võitluse meetod Nõukogude okupatsiooni algul Eestis”(Summary: Censorship as the Method of Anti-Religious Struggle in Estonia in the Beginning ofthe Soviet Occupation), Piret Lotman (ed.), Uurimusi tsensuurist. Eesti RahvusraamatukoguToimetised IV. Tallinn: Eesti Rahvusraamatukogu, pp. 120–143. Malkavaara, Mikko

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2001 “The Dispute between the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church and Estonian LutheranChurch in Exile concerning Lutheran World Federation Membership 1947-63”, Riho Altnurme(Hg.) Estnische Kirchengeschichte im vorigen Jahrtausend / Estonian Church History in the PastMillennium. Kiel: Friedrich Wittig Verlag, pp. 166-187.

Paul, Toomas

1996 “ Leeri likvideerimise lugu” [The Story of the Liquidation of the Confirmation Classes ofthe Lutheran Church], Looming 4, pp. 497–512.

1997 “ Usuasjade nõukogu voliniku arhiiv kirikuloo allikana” (Summary: Archives of theCommissioner of the Religious Affairs Council in the Estonian SSR as a Source of History), Kleio.Ajaloo ajakiri 20:2, pp. 44-49.

Plaat, Jaanus

2001 Usuliikumised, kirikud ja vabakogudused Lääne- ja Hiiumaal: usuühendustemuutumisprotsessid 18. sajandi keskpaigast kuni 20. sajandi lõpuni (Summary: ReligiousMovements, Churches and Free Congregations in Läänemaa and Hiiumaa: Processes of Change inReligious Organisations from the Mid-18th to the End of 20th Century). Eesti Rahva Muuseumi sari2. Tartu: Eesti Rahva Muuseum.

Salo, Vello

1974 Riik ja kirikud 1940–1974 [The State and the Churches 1940-1974]. Rome: Maarjamaa/Second Edition 2000/.

Salumaa, Elmar EELK 1944–62 [The EELC in 1944-62]. S.l., s.a. Manuscript. Talonen, Jouko

1997 Church under the Pressure of Stalinism. The Development of the Status and Activities ofSoviet Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church during 1944–1950. Jyväskylä: Northern FinnishHistorical Society.

Vaher, Ülo

1997 Eesti Evangeelse Luterliku Kiriku represseeritud õpetajad [The Repressed Pastors of theEstonian Evangelical Lutheran Church]. Unpublished diploma work. EELC Theological Institute,Tallinn.

Viise, Michael G.

1995 The Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church during the Soviet Period 1940–1991.Unpublished dissertation, University of Virginia.

Võõbus, Arthur

1984 The Martyrs of Estonia. The Suffering, Ordeal and Annihilation of the Churches under theRussian Occupation. Stockholm: Estonian Theological Society in Exile.