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Chronology of Vedic §R¶is:An Archaeoastronomical Approach

B. N. Narahari AcharProfessor of Physics

University of Memphis, Memphis TN 38152 USA

I. Introduction

The historical study of Vedic literature and of ægveda inparticular originated with Western scholars, evolved withwestern thought and research. The date of ∼1500 BCEproposed for ægveda, a date favored by most western scholarsis the direct outcome of the so called Aryan Invasion Theory(see comprehensive discussion in Bryant & Patton 2005),now discredited (Singh 2010. See also Kazanas 2009). Thischronology is in direct conflict with the traditional Indicchronology on one hand and with the chronology based onastronomical data derived by Tilak (1893), and Jacobi (1894)and their modern counterparts, Elst (2007), Frawley (1991),Rajaram (1997), and Kak (1994), among others, to bediscussed later. The high chronology based on astronomicaldata was denied by the esteemed scholars of the day such asWinternitz (1927) with concomitant misrepresentation of theastronomical knowledge of the Vedic times and was neverrecognized by the scholarship. This paper was prompted by arecent work by Talageri (2008) which gives a relatively lowchronology for ægveda.

It is the purpose of this paper to reexamine the astronomicaldata in ægveda using the planetarium software and to presentthe chronology based on the astronomical references.Astronomy is considered to be the foremost of sciences, and

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has played an important role in India since the Vedic times.Astronomy was essential in determining the proper times forperforming the ritual yaj¤a. It is generally accepted that theægjyoti¶a (RJ) recension of VedåΔgajyoti¶a (VJ) is the earliestcodified text of astronomy of India. Western scholars (Pingree1973) have assigned a date of ~ 400 BCE for this text, inaddition to attributing a Babylonian origin for it. It is anunderstatement to say that there is bias among the Westernscholars in describing the state of science in ancient India andthat there is misrepresentation in accounting the chronologyof India. The accounts of history of astronomy in ancientIndia that are currently available have to be revised in view ofthe developments discussed here.

Another aspect of the paper is to demonstrate how thedates of certain texts, such as ‹atapatha bråhmaƒa, andVedåΔgajyoti¶a and the date of the event of the Mahabharatawar can be determined with the help of Planetarium Software.There are several other Vedic texts whose dates can bedetermined by using astronomical methods. The paperconcludes by showing that a consistent chronology for VedicIndia based on astronomical methods can be given.

The plan of the paper is as follows. Since the paper isbased on astronomical methods and the earliest known text ofastronomy is the vedåΔgajyoti¶a, about which there exist a lotof misconceptions and misrepresentations, the first section isdevoted to a study of vedåΔgajyoti¶a. This section will dispelany doubts about its Vedic origin and throw some light aboutits date. This is followed by a discussion of a number ofmisrepresentations about the concepts of astronomyin ægveda. After presenting a new list of identification ofVedic nak¶atras with modern names of asterisms usingsimulations with planetarium software, the dates of satapathabråhmaƒa and the mahåbhårata war are discussed. Finallythe dates associated with astronomical references in ægvedaare discussed. This is followed by a discussion of severalother Vedic texts whose dates can be determined using the

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astronomical method and simulations with the planetariumsoftware and a consistent chronology for Vedic literature ispresented.

II. VedåΔgajyoti¶a

It is universally accepted that of the three recensions ofvedåΔgajyoti¶a (VJ), ægjyoti¶a (RJ) is the earliest text ofastronomy in Ancient India. In this paper terms VJ and RJ areused inter changeably and refer to RJ only. The knowledgecodified in this text is attributed to sage Lagadha, but thecomposition of the text which has preserved this knowledge isattributed to ›uci, a disciple of Lagadga. RJ is more like apocket reference rather than a detailed treatise of astronomyand gives the essential knowledge of astronomy needed forthe performance of Vedic rituals, codified in a form akin to thestyle of sutras in 36 ‹lokas, easy for memorization, butsometimes difficult for understanding. VedåΔgajyoti¶a isdeclared to be the science of time, as its primary purpose is todetermine the proper time for the performance of Vedicrituals. Some of the important concepts of RJ include tithi,nak¶atra (defined as a division of the Ecliptic), a≈‹å, kalå,a¶¢aka and parvan. Units of time, and measurement of time,ætu, ayana, and adhimåsa and a five year period called Yugaare all described in RJ. Pingree(1973), in his eagerness toshow that VJ was derived from Mesopotamian origin,assigned a date of ~400 BCE for it, while Sastry (1985) andothers had assigned a date of ~1200 BCE , based on thereference in RJ that the winter solstice occurred at Dhani¶¢ha,and on the identification of Dhani¶¢ha with β-Delphini.

II.a. Inappropriateness of the assumption of BabylonianOrigin for RJ

The author has argued (Achar, 1998a) that it isinappropriate to assume a Babylonian origin for RJ in view ofthe intimate connection of astronomy with the Vedic ritualyaj¤a. In fact, every astronomical concept in RJ can be traced

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to ægveda and other Vedic texts. For the concept of tithi, forexample, there are several well known quotations fromægveda which show that the year nominally of 360 days isdivided into 12 months of 30 days each, thus alluding to tithi,the 30th part of a lunar month:

dvådΩa‹åra≈ na hi tajjaråíya varvΩarti cakra≈ paridyåmætasyΩa |åputrå Ωagne mithunåso atrΩa sapta‹atån· vim‹at·scΩa tasthu¨| | RV I.164.11 | |ìFormed with twelve spokes, by the length of time, unweakened, rolls round the heaven this wheel of duringorder. Herein established, joined in pairs together, sevenhundred sons and twenty stand, O Agniî1

samåínå≈ måsa åkæíti¨ || RV X. 85.5 | |ìThe moon is the one who shapes the yearî

Aitareya Bråhmaƒa (32.10) defines the tithi and the Taittir∂yaBråhmaƒa gives the names of the fifteen tithes of the waxingphase:

etåvΩanuvåkau pμuírvapak¶asyåíhoråtråƒåí≈ nåmadheyåíni|| TB 3.10.10. 2 ||ìThese are the names of days of the first side (of themonth)îand the names of the fifteen tithes of the waningphase:etåv Ωanuvåkåv Ωa parapak¶asyåíhoråtråƒåí≈ nåmadheyåíni|| TB 3.10.10.2 ||ìThese are the names of days of the other side (of themonth)î

The concepts of equinoxes and solstices, the scheme ofadhimåsa, (the intercalary month), the five year Yuga systemcan all be traced to Vedic sources (Achar 1998a). Forexample, Aitareya Bråhmaƒa (18.22) shows the knowledgeof the equinox and the period between two solstices:

yathå vai puru¶a eva≈ vi¶uvåí≈stasya yathå dak¶iƒordhΩa eva≈pμurvordho vi¶uvat˙ yathottarordhΩa evamuttarθ rdhovi¶uvatΩastasmåduttara ityåcak¶até ||

1 The translations of verses from ægveda are mostly taken from Griffith (1973).

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ìThe vi¶uvant (equinox) is like a man. The first half of thevi¶uvant is like the right half of a man. The second half ofthe vi¶uvant is like the left half. Therefore they call it thelatterî2

The practice of inserting an intercalary month is adduced to inveda måso dhætavrΩato dvådΩa‹a prajåvΩata¨ | vedå yaupajåyate || RV I. 25.8 | |ìhe knows the twelve moons with their progeny (thetwelve months with the days which are their offspring).He knows the moon of later birth (the thirteenthintercalary month)î

II.b. Nak¶atra system is known in ægveda

Nak¶atras, variously translated as asterisms or lunarmansions with an enduring list of 27 (sometimes 28) innumber have been the hallmark of Indian astronomy. Theyrefer to stars, which lie near the path of the sun or the moon asmarkers, while in RJ they refer to the divisions of the ecliptic.Explicit mention of the names of only a few of the 27nak¶atras is found in ægveda although complete list of 27(or 28) nak¶atras can be found in other sa≈hita and bråhmaƒatexts. This has led scholars, both Western and Indian, tobelieve that not all the nak¶atras were known at the time ofægveda and the development of the full list occurred later. Theauthor has shown (Achar 2002a) that the entire list ofnak¶atras can be found in ægveda, contrary to the scholarlypronouncements that such an entire list came to be recognizedonly at the time of taittir∂ya sa≈hita. The clue is that there is apresiding deity for each nak¶atra and the nak¶atra can bedenoted either by its own name or by the deity representing it.Such use was common is demonstrated by a verse fromægjyoti¶a (RJ 14), which lists the nak¶atras at the end ofparvas.

2 The translation of the Aitareya Bråhmaƒa is from Keith(1919)

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jau dra gha¨ khe ‹ve ah∂ ro ¶åcin mμu ¶a ƒya¨ sμu må dhå ƒa¨re mæ ghå¨ svå apo aja¨ kæ ¶yoha jye ¶¢håiti æk¶å liΔgai¨ (RJ 14)Each nak¶atra is indicated by a single letter, either the first

letter or the last letter of its own name, (jau for å‹vayujau,dra for årdra, ro for rohiƒi, etc.). It can also be denoted by thefirst letter or the last letter of the deity representing it (deityapa¨ for pμurvå¶ådhå, or må for åryamå representinguttaraphålguƒ∂). There is another place in RJ where there is alist of nak¶atras at the beginning of ayanas, given entirely interms of the names of deities:

vasus två¶tå bhavo aja‹ca mitra¨ sarpo a‹vinau jalamdhåtå ka‹ca ayanådyå‹ca artha pa¤cama bhastuætu¨ (RJ 9)ìvasu, tvashta, bhava, and aja; mitra, sarpa, ashvinis, jala;dhata and ka, are at the beginning of ayana. Four and ahalf segments of nakshtra constitute one rtu.î 3

Here for example the deity vasu stands for ‹ravi¶¢hå, andthe deity tva¶¢å for citrå etc. Nobody can question theauthenticity of vedåΔga jyoti¶a as an astronomical work.Therefore the list of deities can only represent the list ofnak¶atras. Now the deities for kættikå, årdrå, pro¶¢hapada,uttaraphålguƒ∂, mrga‹iras and punarvasu are, respectively,agni, rudra, ajeakapat, bhaga, soma and aditi. These arelisted in ægveda (V. 51. 13-14):

agni¨ svastayé | ..svasti n˙ rudra¨...svasti na indrΩa‹cågni‹cΩa svasti n˙ adite kædhi | etc...ìMay Agni be beneficent....may Rudra bless...May Indra and Agni prosper us. Prosper. Os, O thou

Aditi....îIt is made abundantly clear that it is the nak¶atras that are

being referred to here, by svasti panthå≈ anúsa≈caremasμuryåcandramasåíviva,

3 Translation from Sastry (1985).

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ìMay we pursue in full prosperity our path like the Sunand the Moon in theirsî referring to the path of the sun and themoon, the ecliptic. One nak¶atra is explicitly mentioned:svati pΩathye revat∂. ìMay Revati in the path proper us.î Infact, as discussed in the authorís papers referred to, the deitiesof all the nak¶atras and more occur in this single sμukta. Thisdestroys the myth that the entire list of nak¶atra s are notknown in ægveda and the lists suddenly appear in taittir∂yasa≈hita. Authors of history of ancient astronomy of Indiashould note that the knowledge of all nak¶atra s is derivedfrom ægveda.

II.c. Names of the months caitra etc. already known inægveda

One of the characteristic features of the Hindu calendar isthe naming of the month on the basis of the nak¶atra nearwhich a full moon may be taken to have occurred. These arethe well known caitra, vai‹åkha, jye¶¢ha etc. for the monthswith full moons near citra (Spica), vi‹åkha (Zubenelgenubi),jye¶¢ha (Antares) etc. The names of the months in the Vedictexts, however, are madhu, mådhava, ‹ukra, ‹uci, nabhas,nabhasya, i¶a μurjå, sahas, sahasya, tapas and tapasya. Somescholars have conjectured that the names of the months basedon the nak¶atras was not known during the sa≈hita times, butcame into vogue much later. In fact Dixit (1969) surmises thatthis scheme came into vogue when the vernal equinoxactually took place in caitra. Using the Planetarium software,the author has shown that there is no basis for this argument toestablish a chronology. The scheme of naming the monthscalled the caitrådi system has also been traced (Achar 2000c)to ægveda on the basis of the connection between yaj¤a andthe important role of agni in it.

III. Time and its measurement

Astronomy is an observational science. RJ propounds

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a five year luni-solar year called the Yuga, comprising often ayanas, subdivided into ætu (two month season),måsa(month), ardhamåsa(half-month), ahoråtra (day andnight), kalå, muhμurta (48 minutes), and k嶢å. These conceptscan be traced to Vedic sources, for instance, as listed inMahånåråyaƒopani¶at, (MNU)

kalåmúhμurtå¨ k嶢åí‹cåhoråtrå‹cΩa sarva‹a¨ardhamåså måsåí ætΩavassa≈vatsara‹cΩa kalpantå≈|| MNU 1.2.3-4) ||The author has shown that the method of measuring time

with a water clock can be traced to atharvaveda (Achar1998b), and the method of Gnomon can also be traced toVedic sources. In short, the entire astronomical knowledge ofvedåΔga jyoti¶a is traceable to ægveda.

IV. Identification of the Vedic nak¶atra-s

Although in RJ the nak¶atras refer to divisions of theecliptic, and the names of the divisions correspond to brightasterisms also known by the same names, there must havebeen a time when only the asterisms and not the divisions ofthe ecliptic were used as the markers for the observation ofmovements of the sun and the moon. It is essential to identifythe Vedic nak¶atras (the bright stars) with their modernnames, for the lists that are available in the literature are notsatisfactory, some of the asterisms being more than 30° awayfrom the ecliptic and could not have been used as markers forthe motion of the sun and the moon. The author has used thesimulations using the planetarium software, SkyMap Pro, ofnearly 900 new moons and full moons occurring around 2297BCE, when kættikås (identified with Pleiades) were on thecelestial equator and around 2220 BCE, when the vernalequinox occurred at kættikås and has produced (Achar 2002b)a table for identification of the nak¶atras, which is reproducedbelow. This identification is based on the view of the sky asthe Vedic people themselves would have seen as simulated by

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the planetarium software. On the new moon days and fullmoon days, there is absolutely no question about the relativepositions of the sun and the moon, and hence of the nak¶atra,which describes the moonís position. The details of theidentification procedure can be obtained from the referencecited above. The planetarium software produces the view ofthe sky by an extrapolation of the positions of the stars in amodern catalogue. The stars identified as a particular nak¶atrawill therefore retain the identity. This is in contrast to theprocedure adopted by Pingree (1989), where the polarcoordinates of stars given in a siddhånta text is first convertedto equatorial coordinates, then extrapolated to modern epochsto compare with the coordinates of stars in a moderncatalogue and then make the identification.

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Table 1. Identification of Vedic nak¶atras

Nak¶atras No. Identification of the Principal Presidingof star Deity

stars RCRC Present

kættika 6 η-Tau η-Tau Agnirohiƒi 1 α-Tau α-Tau prajåpatimæga‹ira 3 λ-Ori β-Tau* Somaårdrå 1 α-Ori γ-Gem* Rudrapunarvasu 2 β-Gem β-Gem Aditipu¶ya 1 δ-Cnc δ-Cnc Bæhaspatiå‹le¶a 6 ζ-Hya ζ-Hya Sarpamakhå 6 α-Leo α-Leo Pitæpμurvaphål- 2 δ-Leo δ-Leo aryamåguƒiuttaraphål- 2 β-Leo β-Leo Bhagaguƒihasta 5 δ-Crv γ-Vir* savitåcitrå 1 α-Vir α-Vir Indrasvåti 1 α-Boo π-Hya* våyuvi‹åkha 2 α-Lib α2-Lib indråƒianμurådhå 4 δ-Sco δ-Sco Mitrajye¶¢hå 1 α-Sco α-Sco Indramμula 7 λ-Sco λ-Sco Pitæpμurvå¶åŒha 4 δ-Sgr δ-Sgr åpa¨uttarå¶åŒha 4 σ-Sgr σ-Sgr Vi‹vedev娋ravaƒa 3 α-Aql β-Cap* Vi¶ƒudhani¶¢ha 5 β-Del δ-Cap4* Vasu‹atabhi¶a 1 λ-Aqr λ-Aqr Indrapμurvåbhådra 2 β-Peg α-Peg ajaekapåtuttaråbhådra 2 γ-Peg γ-Peg

Ahirbudhnyarevati 1 ζ-Pis ζ-Pis Pμu¶åa‹vini 2 β-Ari β-Ari A‹vinbharaƒi 3 41-Ari δ-Ari yama

* These identifications differ from the usual list. These stars are brighter andcloser to the ecliptic and are natural choice as markers of the motion of the son andthe moon.

4 The list of identification is taken from Achar (2002b) The identificationsmarked with * differ from the usual list for example from the Calendar Reform . . .

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The present list is believed to be the correct one as it isbased on the view of the sky the Vedic people themselveswould have observed. It agrees with most of the stars in the listgiven in the Report of the Calendar Reform Committee (Sahaand Lahiri 1955), but there are six cases, where there isdisagreement. The new identification is based on stars, whichare very close to the ecliptic and hence better suited asmarkers for the motion of the sun and the moon. Besides, thenew identification easily explains a controversy (Achar2002b) that had plagued the nak¶atra system, namelyclassification into deva and yama nak¶atras.

V. Date of VedåΔga Jyoti¶a

The author has shown (2000a) that the date for theLagadha recension of vedåΔga jyoti¶a must be revised toabout 1800 BCE, rather than the previously accepted date of1200 BCE. The date of vedåΔga jyoti¶a, as discussed bySastry (1985), is based on the calculation of the time whenwinter solstice occurred at dhani¶¢ha. The date of 1200 BCE isbased on the identification of dhani¶¢ha with β-Delphiniaccording to the old identification scheme derived from theyogatåras of the siddhåntas, and may not correspond to whatthe Vedic people themselves had observed. Based on theidentification scheme proposed by the author in Table 1,dhani¶¢ha corresponds to δ-Capricorni. Figure 1 shows thestar map for Delhi on January 3, 1752 BCE, the day of wintersolstice. It is clearly seen to be the month of mågha in figure 2,as per the description in RJ verses 5 and 6. It can be noted thatβ-Delphini is more than 30° away from the Ecliptic and couldnot be a marker star, whereas δ-Capricorni is right close to theEcliptic and would be suitable as a marker star. Thus it followsthat the date of lagadha recension of vedåΔga jyoti¶a is to bedated around 1800 BCE. That there must have been versionsof vedåΔga jyoti¶a much older than the Lagadha recension, asfor example that followed at the time of the Mahåbhårata war.

. . . Committee. The stars are closer to the ecliptic and are brighter and hence arebetter markers of the motion of the Sun and the Moon.

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Figure 1.Winter Solstice in 1752 BCENote: Del-Cap is very near the Ecliptic, but Bet-Del is quite far away.

Figure 2. Full Moon after the Winter Solstice in 1752 BCE

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VI. Date of ‹atapatha bråhmaƒa

It is a well known fact that there are many references toastronomical phenomena contained in the bråhmaƒa textsand in fact these references have been used in the past byscholars such as Tilak (1893) and Dikshit (1895) to determinethe dates of the events mentioned in these texts. A primeexample of such investigations is the dating of the ‹atapathabråhmaƒa by Dikshit on the basis of the following linesreferring to kættikås

etå ha vai pråcyai di‹o na cyavante... SB (II.1.2.3)ìand again they do not move away from the eastern quarterî 5

am∂ hy uttarå hi saptar¶aya¨ udyanti purå etå¨...... SB (II.1.2.4)ìThese latter, the seven æ¶is rise in the north and they (the kættikås)in the eastî

These lines occur in the second bråhmaƒa of the first adhyåyaof the second kånŒa of SB, in connection with choosing asuitable time for agnyådhåna, the establishment of the ritualfires for the first time by a householder. It is suggested that thenew householder should establish the traditional gårhapatyaand the åhava∂ya fires on the day of kættikå na¶atra, for theirpresiding deity is agni. The kættikås never swerve from theeast and they alone consist of many stars. He who performsagnyådhåna on the day of kættikå is blessed with ëabundanceíand a ësteadfast familyí. But, the second line quoted aboveargues against this proposition; for, saptar¶is, who weremarried to kættikås are constantly separated from the latter asthey rise only in the east, while the saptar¶is stay in the north,implying a similar fate befalling the new householder.However, counter arguments are presented and finally, it isargued that kættikås are the most auspicious, but some othernak¶atras are also suggested as equally auspicious for thepurpose of agnyådhåna.

5 Translation of ‹atapatha bråhmaƒa by Eggeling (1963)

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The astronomical importance of these lines wasrecognized by Dikshit, who interpreted ìthey do not moveaway from the eastern quarterî to mean that the ëkættikås riseexactly at the east pointí and used this fact to determine thedate of SB as ~ 3000 BCE. With the advent of the so calledplanetarium software, the author (2000a) reinvestigatedthis particular issue by simulations of the view of the sky andconfirmed that Dikshit was essentially correct in his datingof SB.

One interesting thing came out of the simulations. Thesimulations showed that all the members of the saptar¶imaƒŒala were circumpolar in 3000 BCE. The translationgiven above for SB (II.1.2.4) cannot be correct. Beingcircumpolar, the seven æ¶i s do not rise or set. Thepadavibhåga of this verse should be

am∂ hi uttaråhi (santi) saptar¶aya¨| udyanti purå etå¨||and udyanti cannot go with saptar¶aya¨. This mistake

was traced to the commentary by Såyaƒa who could not haveknown from his latitude in the 14th century that the saptar¶iwere circumpolar in kuruk¶etra in 3000 BCE. All scholarshave simply followed Såyaƒa.

VII. Date of the Mahabharata War

The importance of the date of the mahåbhårata war as thesheet-anchor (Venkatachelam 1954) for the chronology ofbhårata is too well known to be stated again. According totradition, the war between the kauravas and pandavas tookplace at the transition between dvåpara and kali yugas,around 3000 BCE:

antare caiva sa≈pråpte kalidvåparayorabhμutsamantapa¤cake yuddha≈ kurup僌ava senayo¨|| MB.I.2.9 ||ìAnd when the juncture of Kali and Dvapara occurred, the

war between the armies of Kurus and Pandavas took place atSamantapanchaka.î

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However, ever since Western scholars showed interestsome hundred years ago in the epic and began to discuss itsëhistoricityí, a lively debate (or rather a war of dates!) hasbeen going on. While some scholars (Sircar 1969) declare thatthe whole epic is a myth denying any historical truth to thestory of the epic, many (Gupta & Ramachandran 1976; Sathe1983) do believe that the war actually took place, but aredivided as to the magnitude of the event and as to the datewhen it took place. Some scholars portray the epic as anexaggerated account of a family feud. A plethora of datesranging from before 5000 BCE to around 1000 BCE havebeen proposed (Vedavyas 1986) on the basis of estimatesarrived at by using diverse methodologies and there appearsto be no consensus for the date.

Among the diverse methodologies used, one metho-dology that is of special interest here is the one based onastronomical references (of which there are more than onehundred and fifty in number, and occur scattered throughoutthe epic). More than 40% of all the articles (totaling more than120 in number) dedicated to determining the date of the war,are based on the astronomical references (Sathe 1983).Although the astronomical references are scatteredthroughout the epic, most of them pertaining to the war occurin udyogaparvan and bhishmaparvan of the epic Books Vand VI).. Practically all scholars have characterized thereferences in bhishmaparvan (Book VI) as astrological omens(Sengupta 1947) and inconsistent and not suitable for aëscientificí analysis. The earlier works using the astronomicalreferences were tedious and calculations were done manuallyand hence chose to use only a couple of the astronomicalevents out of the many available in the epic. More recentstudies have used the computer software ëplanetariumsoftwareí and consequently have considered a much largernumber sample of astronomical references in the epic. Still,until recently, there appeared to be no convergence of thedates (Kamath 2004).

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Some scholars have introduced6 ad hoc hypotheses inattempting to find some degree of coherence among theapparently ëinconsistentí astronomical references. It is clearlyshown that the astronomical references are quite consistentand that such ad hoc hypotheses are totally unnecessary.The present article summarizes the results of a researchconducted by the author for several years in the past usingplanetarium software and the results have been published inseveral research publications. The research has shownconclusively that

(i) the astronomical references in the bhishmaparvan arenot merely ëastrological effusions fit for mothergooseís talesí (as once characterized by ProfessorSengupta), but follow a Vedic tradition of omens anddescribe mostly comets and not planets as generallyassumed,

(ii) the few true planetary references in this parvan areidentical to those in udyogaparvan,

(iii) These common references lead to a unique date forthe war, 3067 BCE.

(iv) all other astronomical references in the epic areconsistent with the date

(v) The date agrees with the date given earlier byProfessor Raghavan and is consistent with thetraditional date ~3000 BCE.

(vi) Using the planetarium software, it can be easilydemonstrated that all other dates proposed bydifferent authors are inconsistent with the planetaryconfigurations referred to in (ii) above.

6 It has been common to make adhoc assumptions to fit whatever model one isproposing and to bring some degree of consistency in the astronomical referencesin the Epic. For example, Sengupta (1947) assumed that a pair of eclipses hadoccurred two yeats before the war and later inserted into the text. Sharma (1986,2004) assumed that vyåsa met dhætarå¶tra not just once on the eve of the war, butseveral times; the planetary positions refer to different times. Iyengar (2004)assumes that part of the text in bh∂¶maparvan, if taken over to sabhåparvanwould yield a better consistency to the planetary positions.

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VII.a. Astronomical References in udyogaparvan

K涃aís mission for peace is so important thatastronomical events in reference to that mission are recorded.

(i) k涃a leaves for hastinåpura in the maitr∂ muhμurta inthe month of kårtika on the day of revat∂ nak¶atra.

(ii) On the way he halts at a place called vækasthala andreaches hastinåpura on the day of bharaƒ∂ nak¶atra.

(iii) The meetings and discussions for peace go on till theday of pu¶ya nak¶atra, when duryodhana rejects alloffers of peace. War becomes imminent.

(iv) k涃a leaves hastinåpura on the day of uttaraphålgun∂. karƒa accompanies him in his chariot andhas a long conversation with him.

(v) During the conversation karƒa describes some omenshe has seen that indicate a great harm to the kurufamily which include the following: ‹ani is afflictingrohiƒ∂, aΔgåraka has performed a retrograde motionbefore reaching jye¶¢hå and is prograde again havingpast anμurådhå, the moon had lost all its luster on thefull moon of kårtika and a solar eclipse would appearto take place next new moon day.

(vi) At the end of the conversation, k涃a sends a messageto bh∂¶ma and droƒa through karƒa that seven daysfrom that day there is going to be an amåvåsya atjye¶tha and that war rituals be started on that day.

Except for Professor Sengupta (1947), these astronomicalreferences are generally agreed to be genuine and pertinent bymost scholars. Professor Sengupta does not have ìfaith in theastrological omensî described by karƒa in (v) above.However, he does believe that the reference to ëjye¶thaamåvåsyaí is extremely important, but considers the referenceto two eclipses occurring within thirteen days eclipses asinterpolation.

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VII.b. Astronomical References in bh∂¶maparvan

Sage vyåsa meets with dhætarå¶tra just prior to the warand describes the omens he has seen. Among these omensdescribed in 76 verses in two chapters are some 40astronomical references given in four different segments.These are some of the most misunderstood astronomicalreferences. On a superficial reading, and assuming that theastrological references to graha pertain to planets as mostscholars have done, the references appear to be confusing andcontradictory. Since they also occur in four differentsegments, scholars have characterized them as unreliableand even as interpolations. But, by a careful analysis theauthor has shown that vyåsa is very systematic in hisdescription and follows a very genuine vedic tradition ofomens. The omens occur in four segments because, theypertain to four different aspects of the impending disaster: (a)an imminent war, (b) great harm to the kuru family, (c)destruction of both armies and (d) disaster to the entirepopulation. Most of the omens pertain to comets and notplanets. The only true planetary positions are described insegment (b) as the omens describing harm to the kuru family,they are identical to those described by karƒa earlier inudyogaparvan. This is easily demonstrated, for example, bycomparing the first segment of astronomical references inbh∂¶ma parvan: Chapter 2. verses 20-23 with some selectedmantra-s from atharvaveda pari‹i¶¢ha.

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References in (MB VI.2. 20-23) ëyuddhalak¶aƒaíinvyåsa tells dhætarå¶tra: atharvaveda par‹i¶¢ha.

It is clear that these are omens for an imminent war accordingto a Vedic tradition. In the second segment, vyåsa describessome omens, which forecast a great destruction, especially tothe kuru family:

rohiƒ∂≈ p∂Œayanne¶a stitho råjan ‹anai‹cara¨/vyåvætta≈ lak¶ma somasya bhavi¶yati mahadbhaya≈//MB(VI. 2. 32)

ì(In predicting war) one shouldalways considerthe line of clouds and halosaround the sun and the moonand observe whether theyappear red in color ornot.î(64.5.7)î

Which are blue and red towardsthe edges and dark in the middleand accompanied bylightning.î(61.1.4)î

Whenever the sun is surroundedat sunrise and sunset by tri-colored clouds, it indicates agreat calamity to the earth androyal families.î(61.1.15)î

The color of the moon at the timeof an eclipse indicates a battle if itis red and disaster to cities andvillages if it smoky orfiery.î(53.5.1-2)

ìI observe the sun every dayboth at sunrise and sunset andhave seen him as if encircled bylong arms.îìI see the sun surrounded byhalos on all sides, halos whichare tri-colored, dark in the middleand white and red towards theedge and accompanied bylightning.î

ìI have been watching days andnights, the fierce sun, the moonand the stars shining incessantlyand have been unable todistinguish between day andnight. Surely this forebodes utterdestruction.î

ìOn the full moon night ofkættika, the moon with a fierytinge was hardly visible, devoidof glory and the horizons werealso of the same hue.î

CHRONOLOGY OF VEDIC §R¶IS: AN ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL APPROACH / 47

ìOh King, Saturn is harassing Aldebaran and the spot on the Moonhas shifted from its position. Something terrible will happen.îabh∂k¶ƒå≈ kampate bhμumirarka≈ råhustathågrasat/‹veto grahastathå citrå≈ samatikramya ti¶¢ati// MB(VI. 3. 11)ìThe Earth is experiencing tremors intermittently and Rahu(Moonís Node) has seized the Sun. ‹vetagraha has transgressedSpica.îThese are identical to the omens described by karƒa tok涃a in udyogaparvan.

vyåsa describes in the third segment further indicators, inthe form of comets, of the calamity to the entire army(senayora‹iva≈ ghora≈...). He names specifically a numberof comets, ‹veta, dhμumaketu, mahågraha, paru¶a, påvaka,dhμuma, lohitåΔga, t∂vra, påvakaprabha, ‹yåma, ghora, anddhruvaketu, as can be seen from the original Sanskrit verses.All these names can be found in the list of comets given byVaråhamihira (Bhat 1981)

The word graha (from the root grah=to grasp or to seize)refers to any heavenly object, which can move and hence canëgraspí or ëseizeí a star. Thus, it can refer to a planet or to acomet. It is true that nowadays in Indian astronomy, the wordgraha denotes only a planet. But, vyåsa leaves no doubt to thefact that in bh∂¶maparvan, the word graha refers to a comet:

ìgrahau tåmråruƒa‹ikhau prajvalitåvubhauîMB (VI. 3. 24)ëthe two grahås blazing with coppery red hairí.

The heavenly object graha blazing with red hair in the contexthere can only refer to a comet. It may be noted that the wordcomet itself derives from the Greek word for hair.

vyåsa refers to son of Sun, sμuryaputra, explicitly, but healso refers to the comets by the name of the parent planets,i.e., Jupiter to indicate the comet son of Jupiter. While this isquite according to the Sanskrit grammar, it is this notation thathas caused so much confusion and most scholars haveinterpreted them literally as referring to planets alone (instead

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of the comets which must have been meant). This has resultedin inferring conflicting planetary positions, when in actualityno planetary position is indicated.

In the final segment, vyåsa describes the omens, whichindicate the destruction of the entire population:

caturda‹∂≈ pa¤cada‹∂≈ bhμutapurvå≈ ca ¶oŒa‹∂≈/imå≈tu nåbhijånåmi amåvåsyå≈ trayoŒa‹∂≈ //MB(VI. 3. 28)candrasμuryåvubhau graståvekamåse trayoŒa‹∂≈ /aparvaƒi grahåvetau prajå¨ sa≈k¶apayi¶yata¨ // MB(VI. 3. 29)

ìI know New Moon coinciding with fourteenth, fifteenthand also on the sixteenth day, but I have never known itcoinciding with the thirteenth day. In one and the samemonth, both the Sun and the Moon are eclipsed on thethirteenth. These ill-timed eclipses indicate destruction ofthe people.îThis segment contains the famous reference to sequence

of two eclipses within an interval of thirteen days and in fact,almost identical to the omens described in atharvavedapari‹i¶¢ha :

yadi tu råhurubhau ‹a‹ibhåskaraugrasati pak¶amanantaramantata¨ |puru¶a‹oƒitakardamavåhin∂bhavati bhμur naca var¶ati mådhava¨ | | (AP 53.3.5)ìIf Rahu eclipses both the sun and the moon within apaksha interval, men are blood stained, the earth with mudflow, and it does not rain in the springî7

VII.c. The important planetary configurations

The important references to planets consist of those thatare common to both udyoga and bh∂¶maparvan-s and includethe following

(i) conjunction of ‹ani with rohiƒ∂

7 This is a free flowing translation by the author.

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(ii) retrograde motion of aΔgåraka just before reachingjye¶¢hå

(iii) a lunar eclipse on the kårtika pμurƒima, followed by(iv) a solar eclipse at jye¶¢ha.

These events lead to a unique year for the war. All otherreferences in the epic are consistent with this date.

VIII. Simulations using Planetarium Software and the dateof the war

A search is made for the years in which there is aconjunction of Saturn (‹ani) with Aldebaran (rohiƒ∂) between3500 BCE and 500 CE. As Saturn takes an average of 29.5years to go around the sun once, the event also repeats withthe same period. There are 137 such conjunctions during theinterval specified above. A search is then made for those yearsfrom among these 137 dates when Mars (aΔgåraka) isretrograde before reaching Antares (jye¶¢hå). Since theretrograde motion of Mars repeats with the same period as itssynodic period, a spread of two years on either side of each ofthe dates was considered in the search. The search reduced theset to just seventeen: 3271 BCE, 3067 BCE, 2830 BCE, 2625BCE, 2388 BCE, 2183 BCE, 1946 BCE, 1741 BCE, 1503BCE, 1299 BCE, 1061 BCE, 857 BCE, 620 BCE, 415 BCE,28 CE, 233 CE and 470 CE, when Saturn was near Aldebaranand Mars executed a retrograde motion before reachingAntares. A search is then made for those years in which thereis a lunar eclipse near Pleiades (i.e., on the kårtikakμurƒima).This reduces the set to just two, 3067 BCE and 2183 BCE.It turns out that in both of these years the lunar eclipse isfollowed by a solar eclipse at jye¶¢ha. A sequence of ëtwoeclipses within a period of 13 daysí also occurs in the twoeclipse seasons. When one considers the fact that bh∂¶mapassed away on the mågha ‹ukla a¶¢am∂, after the occurrenceof winter solstice, a unique date results, for the winter solsticein January 13, 3066 BCE occurred on ‹uklapa¤cam∂,

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where as the winter solstice in 2182 BCE occurred onkæ¶nacaturthi.

Thus a unique date of 3067 BCE for the date of the waremerges. The author has shown that this date is consistentwith all the other astronomical references in the epic in severalpublications with the help of copious illustrations of star mapsgenerated by Planetarium software. Some of them will beincluded as part of this essay by way of illustration

VIII.a. Illustrations

The star maps in figures 3-6 show that the astronomicalevents are reproduced. In figure 3, the day K涃a starts on hisdiplomatic mission, it is clearly seen that moon is near revati,and ‹ani is at rohiƒ∂ . Figure 4 shows the star map forthe jye¶¢ha amvsya day, which is also a solar eclipse day. Theretrograde loop of Mars in that year is also shown superposedin the figure. The retrograde motion of Mars before reachingjye¶¢ha had occurred several months earlier. Figure 5 showsthe day the war starts: moon is at bharaƒ∂. Figure 6 shows theday of Bh∂¶maís expiry: ‹ukla a¶¢am∂, rohiƒ∂ nak¶atra.

The authorís papers may be consulted for more details.The sheer volume of astronomical data and the consistency ofthe astronomical references reinforce conclusively thetraditional belief that the war took place about five thousandyears ago, and that the astronomical references are notinterpolations of some latter day astronomer.

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Figure 3. k涃aís Mission for Peace: Departure onSeptember 26, 3067 BCE.

Figure 4. jye¶¢ha amåvåsya solar eclipse day.October 14, 3067 BCE.; Retroloop of Mars

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Figure 5. War begins November 22, 3067 BCE. It is bharaƒi day

Figure 6. bh∂¶maís expiry. mågha ‹ukla a¶¢ami rohiƒi nak¶atra.January 16, 3066 BCE

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At first sight, the date of 3067 BCE appears unbelievable. For,tradition has it that the war took place at the end of dvåparayuga, and that kaliyuga started in 3102 BCE. How can the warhave taken place in 3067 BCE, which is 36 years after the startof the kaliyuga? The author has discussed this and other issuesthat appear to conflict with different traditions regarding thedate of the war, such as the åryabhata, varåhamihira, and thebhågavata traditions. He has shown that when examinedclosely, there is no conflict because the epic says only thatthe war took place during the transition of dvåpara and kaliyuga-s. The transition itself is not sharp, but diffused. In fact,there is some evidence in the epic that kali may have alreadystarted before the war, and that as long as k涃a was on thisearth, kali could not have an influence.

IX. Astronomy based Chronolgy of ægveda.

It has been well known that more than a hundred yearsago Jacobi and Tilak independently arrived at the conclusionthat astronomical references in ægveda can lead to adetermination of the chronology of ægveda. Although mostscholars have ignored the high chronology for ægveda arrivedat by astronomical methods, interest has been revived byrecent scholars such as Frawley, Elst, Rajaram and Kakamong others. It will be interesting to examine usingPlanetarium software this chronology of ægveda based onastronomical methods in relation to the date of 3067 BCE forthe mahåbhårata war.

X. Key References for the astronomy based chronology ofægveda

Although there are a large number of references on theastronomical method, we restrict our consideration to theworks of Tilak (1893), Jacobi (1894), Dixit (1896), Sengupta(1947) and Frawley (1991) as being the most pertinent forpurposes of this work: The astronomical referencesconsidered most pertinent are the legends of æbhu-s, legend of

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væ¶åkapi, the legend of maƒŒμuka-s, the legend of yama andhis two dogs, the solar eclipse attributed to sage atri, andfinally the occurrence of Vernal equinox in kættikå, rohiƒ∂,mæga‹irå, årdrå and punarvasu.

X.1. The legend of æbhu-s

æbhu-s occur in eleven sμuktas in RgVeda, I. 20, I. 110, I.161, I. 164, IV. 33- IV.-37.

æbhu-s are three in number, æbhu, vibhvan and våj and arethe sons of Sudhanvan. They learnt many crafts underTva¶tra, and constructed rathas and other equipment for thedevas. By their hard work the devas were pleased and theywere granted immortality.

saudhanvanå æbhava¨ s μur Ωacak¶asa¨ sa≈vatsaresamΩapæcyanta dh∂tibh·¨ RV (I. 110.4)

ìThe Rbhus, children of Sudhanvan, bright as suns, werein a yearís course made associate with prayersî (ëconnectedwith the ceremonies appropriated to the different seasons ofthe year-Wilson)

The æbhus represent the three seasons of the year (lunaryear of 354 days) at the end of which they take rest for 12days in the house of aghohya (the unconcealable, the sun)before they start their work again in the New Year. They areawakened from their sleep and vasta gives the informationthat they were awakened by the hound.

su¶upvåmsΩa æbhavastadΩapæcchat åg˙hya ka idam n˙abμubudhat |

‹vånΩam bastob˙dhayitår Ωam abrav∂t sa≈vatsaraidamadyå vyΩakhyata | | RV(I. 161. 13)

ìRbhus, reposing in the solar orb, you inquire, ëwhoawakens us, unconcealable sun to this office of sending rain?íSun replies ëthe awakener is the Dog and in the year you againtoday light up this worldí.î

This legend can be taken as referring to the time ofcommencement of the year with vernal equinox. The ‹vånaobviously refers to the Dog star. Tilak(1893) regards this as

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referring to the equinox in mæga‹iras (identified by him withthe constellation Orion, which according to him also includesthe Dog-star). He supported his interpretation with a largenumber of quotations from ægveda and other Vedic texts. Thedate corresponding to the occurrence of vernal equinox at theOrion can be simulated assuming that the Orion is representedby its brightest star, α-Ori, also known as Betelguese. Thevernal equinox occurring at α-Ori is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Vernal Equinox at α-Ori. 5000 BCE. Note the passingof zero hour line of the coordinate Right Ascension (RA)

through Betelguese.

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Tilak(1893) in his book The Orion first proposed the dateof 4500 BCE, and then later on proposed the date of5000BCE. However, Sengupta interprets the æbhu legend asreferring to the heliacal rising of Canis Major after the summersolstice. But this is not the correct interpretation either, as thebeginning of the New Year was most likely at the vernalequinox. Our interpretation is that the legend refers to thevernal equinox, with the Dog star (Sirius) at the vernalequinox and is illustrated in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Vernal Equinox at Canis Major. 7100 BCE

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X.2. The legend of væ¶åkapi

The legend appears in RgVeda X.86 which is not an easyhymn to understand. Tilak (1893) gives a long verse by versediscussion of this hymn and concludes that the import of thelegend can be understood by taking væ¶åkapi to represent thesun at vernal equinox when the dog star started the equinoctialyear. Again Tilak interpreted this to mean vernal equinoxoccurring at Orion. However, it is our opinion that this legendalso refers to the same event namely the equinoctical yearwith the Dog star and is illustrated by the figure 8, displayedjust above .

X.3. The legend of maƒŒμuka-s

The so called ëFrog Songí, is the famous maƒŒμuka sμukta inRgVeda, VII.103. Jacobi finds in this sμukta a reference to thebeginning of the year in the rainy season, which occurs afterthe summer solstice. According to Jacobi, the first rainymonth was bhådrapada, the full moon near the nak¶atrapro¶¢hapada with the summer solstice occurring in theuttaraphålguƒ∂ nak¶atra . Jacobi finds support for hisargument from the ritual of upåkaraƒa mentioned in thedharma and gæhya sμutra-s.

As Law (1965) has pointed out, this hymn VII.103(considered a late hymn by some scholars) should not beconsidered in isolation, but along with two previous hymns,VII.101 and 102. These three are prayers addressed to thedeity parjanya for rain. Nirukta also indicates that this hymn isan invocation by vasi¶¢ha to parjanya for rainfall. Lawindicates that summer solstice in uttaraphålguƒ∂ alsocorresponds to vernal equinox in mæga‹iras.

Figures 9 and 10 show the vernal equinox in mæga‹iras.This is based on the new identification of mæga‹iras with Beta-Tau rather than Lambda-Ori, as the former is closer to theEcliptic and brighter. Zeta-Tau is the partner and the range of

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dates 4240-3820 BCE gives the time of the occurrence ofequinox in mæga‹ira. This is consistent with what Jacobi hadproposed.

Figure 9. Vernal Equinox at Mrgashira β-Tau ∼ 3820 BCE

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X.4. The legend of yama and his two dogs

This legend is alluded to in RgVeda (X.14 ), in thefollowing two verses :

ìpass by a secure path beyond the two spotted four-eyeddogs, the progeny of saramå, and join the wise pitæ-s whorejoice fully with yama.

Figure 10. Vernal Equinox at Mrgashira ζ-Tau , companion star∼ 4240 BCE

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Entrust him, o king, to thy two dogs which are thyprotectors, yama, the four-eyed guardians of the road,renowned by man, and grant him prosperity and health.î

(Wilsonís translation)The astronomical interpretation according to Sengupta, is

that the two stars, α-Canis Minoris and α-Canis Majorispointed to the south celestial pole. Astronomically, thisreferred to a time when the two stars crossed the meridian atthe same time or, the two had the same right ascension. Thisevent is represented in Figure 11. The date of 4350 BCE isagain consistent with the range of dates given earlier.

Figure 11. Two Dog stars point to south pole 4350 BCE

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X.5. The solar eclipse observed by atri

A solar eclipse observed by atri is described in ægveda(V.40 ), and the first attempt to date it was made by Ludwig.Sengupta determines the date of this eclipse to be July 26,3928 BCE and regards this as also the date of atri. Figure 12shows a sky map corresponding to this event. It may be notedthat there are many places in ægveda where reference is madeto atri, including the following: I.51.3, I.112.7, I.116.8,I.119.6, I.139.9, I.180.4, I.183.5, V. 73.6-7, VII. 68.5,VII.71.5, VIII.35.19, VIII.36.7, VIII.42.5, VIII.62.3-8,X.39.9,X.143.1-3,X.150.5. However, some caution must beexercised in using the data for eclipses for purposes ofdetermining the dates. As has been discussed in detail by theauthor, in the planetarium software, the positions of theplanets and the stars are computed using the latestastronomical theories and information available and they arehighly reliable. However, there are uncertainties when itcomes to determining eclipses on dates extrapolated to 4000BCE. These uncertainties which may amount to about 15minutes when extrapolated to dates around 1000 CE, jump tomore than 12 hours for the time of the occurrence of theeclipse when extrapolated to 3000 BCE, and even more whentaken to 4000 BCE. The exact location of the eclipse and theexact time of visibility are uncertain, but the occurrence of theeclipse itself is certain. As a consequence, determining thedate on the basis of eclipse data alone is risky. However, theeclipse data can be used as secondary information to confirmthat it occurred on a particular date.

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X.6. Equinoxes at other nak¶atras.

Frawley has also drawn attention to the fact that there arereferences in ægveda to astronomical events of equinoxesoccurring at different nak¶atras such as punarvasu and årdrå.Thus there is an indication of the knowledge of vernalequinox occurring in various nak¶atras, starting frompunarvasu downwards all the way to kættika. This indicates anawareness of the phenomenon of precession and gives achronology based on this from ~ 6000 BCE to ~ 3000 BCE.Figures 13 through 17 show the occurrence of equinoxes atpunarvasu, årdrå, mæg‹iras, rohiƒ∂, and kættika respectively.

Figure 12. Solar eclipse at Uttaraphalguni July 26, 3928 BCE

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Figure 13. Vernal equinox at punarvasu. Pollux ~ 6120 BCE

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Figure 14. Equinox at mæga‹iras. Castor ~ 5740 BCE

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Figure 15. Vernal equinox at årdrå γ-Gem. ~ 5440 BCE

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Figure 16. Vernal equinox at rohiƒ∂ α-Tau ~ 3220 BCE

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XI. Astronomical references in other Vedic texts

There are other astronomical data available in thebråhmaƒa texts. For example, ‹atapatha bråhmaƒa refers tokættikå- s rising exactly in the east. As already mentioned, thedate of the event referred to has been shown to be 2925+/- 100 BCE, quite in agreement with Dikshit. Consideringthat this text is attributed to yåj¤avalka, a disciple ofvai‹a≈påyana, who is an important narrator of the epic, thedate of 3067 BCE for the war is consistent with the date of‹atapatha bråhmaƒa. As already discussed, the author hasshown (also on the basis of simulations using the planetariumsoftware) that lagadhaís vedåΔga jyoti¶a should be dated tobe about ~ 1800 BCE. The astronomy followed at the time ofthe mahåbhårata war is vedåΔga jyoti¶a, but is very muchpre-lagadha. The date of lagadhaí s vedåΔga jyoti¶a is alsoconsistent with the date of the war. It may be noted in passingthat ‹atapatha bråhmaƒa mentions both parik¶itand janamejaya. This is an independent check on the date ofthe war.

Figure 17. Equinox at Krittika 2220 BCE

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A passage in the pa¤cavi≈‹a bråhmaƒa (XXV. 15.3)connects janamejaya with the sarpayåga and has beenreferred to by Raychaudhuri(1923). A solar eclipsementioned in this bråhmaƒa text has been dated by Sengupta(1947) as occurring on September 14, 2451 BCE. Figure 18shows the star map for this day confirming the calculations ofSengupta. Winter solstice has been stated to occur atpμurvaphålguƒ∂ in the t僌ya bråhmaƒa text and Sengupta(1947) has calculated this date to be 3521 BCE. This isillustrated in Figure 19.

Figure 18. Solar Eclipse on September 14, 2451 BCE

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XII. Summary and conclusions

References to astronomical events in the Vedic texts aswell as in the epic mahåbhårata have been reexamined withthe help of Planetarium Software, which can project the viewof the sky at any time and at any place. In this connectionmany of the misconceptions and misrepresentations regardingthe state of astronomy at Vedic times have been corrected.The simulations provide a reasonably consistent chronologyof ægveda, other Vedic texts and the epic war mahåbhårata.The dates derived from astronomical references span a rangepossibly from ~ 6000 BCE to about 2200 BCE. The referencesare derived from almost all the books of ægveda. The dates forægveda are consistent with the date of Mahabharata war basedon astronomical references and verified by planetariumsoftware. While some of the legends discussed may beunderstood in terms of non astronomical interpretations aswell, the astronomical ones can be considered plausible andserve as the basis for the high chronology. The authorbelieves that the high chronology will bear the test of time.

Figure 19. Winter solstice in 3521 BCE occurs onfull moon at pμurvaphålguƒ∂

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Acknowledgements

The research reported here is supported in part by aProfessional Development Assignment Award from theUniversity of Memphis. The sky maps in figures 1 -6 andfigures 17-19 were produced using the softwareSkymapPRO10 (www.skymap.com) and the remainingfigures 7-16 were produced using the software Cybersky 4(www.cybersky.com).

List of Abbreviations

AP Atharvaveda Pari‹i¶¢haMB Mahabharata Critical EditionMNU Mahånåråyaƒopani¶atRJ ægjyoti¶aSB ‹atapatha bråhmaƒaVJ vedåΔgajyoti¶a

List of illustrations

Figure 1. Winter Solstice in 1752 BCEFigure 2. Full Moon after the Winter Solstice in 1752

BCEFigure 3. k涃aís Mission for Peace: Departure on September

26, 3067 BCE.Figure 4. jye¶¢ha amåvåsya solar eclipse day.October 14,

3067 BCE.; Retroloop of MarsFigure 5.. War begins November 22, 3067 BCE. It is bharaƒi

dayFigure 6. bh∂¶maís Expiry. mågha ‹ukla a¶¢ami rohiƒi

nak¶atra. Jan 16, 3066 BCEFigure 7. Vernal Equinox at α-Ori. 5000BCE. (0h RA passes

through Betelguese)Figure 8. Vernal Equinox at Canis Major ~ 7240 BCEFigure 9. Equinox at Mrgasiras (beta-Tau) 3820 BCEFigure 10. Equinox at Mrgasiras (zeta Tau) 4240 BCEFigure 11. Two Dog stars point to South Pole 4350 BCE

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Figure 12. Solar eclipse at Uttaraphalguni July 26, 3928 BCEFigure 13. Equinox at Punarvasu Pollux ~ 6120 BCEFigure 14. Equinox at Punarvasu Castor ~ 5740 BCEFigure 15. Equinox at ardra May 4, 5440 BCEFigure 16. Equinox at Rohini Aldebaran ~ 3220 BCEFigure 17. Equinox at Krittika 2220 BCEFigure 18. Solar Eclipse on September 14, 2451 BCEFigure 19. Winter solstice in 3521 BCE occurs on full moon at

pμurvaphålguƒ∂

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