Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome of the lower leg317270/FULLTEXT01.pdf · anterior tibial...
Transcript of Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome of the lower leg317270/FULLTEXT01.pdf · anterior tibial...
UMEÅ UNIVERSITY MEDICAL DISSERTATIONS
Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome
of the lower leg A novel diagnosis in diabetes mellitus
A clinical and morphological study of diabetic and non-diabetic patients
David Edmundsson
Umeå 2010
From the Department of Surgery and Perioperative Science, Division of Orthopaedics, Umeå University Hospital and Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Section for Anatomy,
Umeå University, Umeå, SWEDEN
UMEÅ UNIVERSITY MEDICAL DISSERTATIONS
New series no: 1334 ISSN 0346-6612 ISBN 978-91-7264-957-6
Department of Surgery and Perioperative Science, Division of
Orthopaedics, Umeå University Hospital and Department of Integrative
Medical Biology, Section For Anatomy, Umeå University, Umeå,
SWEDEN
2
To my wife Thorey and my son Jonathan
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABBREVATIONS..................................................................................................................... 6
POPULÄRVETENSKAPLIG SAMMANFATTNING............................................................. 7
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................... 8
ORIGINAL PAPERS................................................................................................................. 9
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 10
COMPARTMENT SYNDROMES.......................................................................................... 10
CHRONIC EXERTIONAL COMPARTMENT SYNDROME .............................................. 10
History................................................................................................................................... 10
Symptoms and signs.............................................................................................................. 11
Muscle morphology............................................................................................................... 11
Pathophysiology .................................................................................................................... 12
Diagnosis............................................................................................................................... 12
Intramuscular pressure measurements .................................................................................. 13
Pressure levels indicating CECS ........................................................................................... 14
Treatment, prognosis and complications............................................................................... 14
Differential diagnosis ............................................................................................................ 17
DIABETES MELLITUS.......................................................................................................... 17
Diabetic complications ......................................................................................................... 18
Leg disorders in DM ............................................................................................................ 19
THE ANATOMY OF THE LOWER LEG.............................................................................. 19
MUSCLE STRUCTURE ......................................................................................................... 20
Muscle fibers ........................................................................................................................ 20
Muscle fiber composition..................................................................................................... 21
Muscle capillarization .......................................................................................................... 22
Muscle plasticity .................................................................................................................. 22
AIMS OF THE STUDY........................................................................................................... 23
PATIENTS AND METHODS ................................................................................................. 24
Patients ................................................................................................................................. 24
CLINICAL EVALUATION .................................................................................................... 26
Criteria for diagnosis of CECS............................................................................................. 26
Reproduction of symptoms .................................................................................................. 27
Measurements of IMP .......................................................................................................... 27
4
Treatment with fasciotomy.................................................................................................... 27
MUSCLE BIOPSIES ............................................................................................................... 28
METHODS FOR ANALYSIS FOR MUSCLES..................................................................... 28
Immunohistochemistry.......................................................................................................... 28
Enzyme-histochemistry......................................................................................................... 29
Fiber classification ................................................................................................................ 29
Morphometric analysis .......................................................................................................... 30
Capillary variables................................................................................................................. 30
Statistical analysis ................................................................................................................. 30
RESULTS................................................................................................................................. 31
CECS IN UNSELECTED PATIENTS WITH EXERTIONAL LOWER LEG PAIN............ 31
CECS IN PATIENTS WITH DIABETES MELLITUS .......................................................... 32
BASELINE MUSCLE MORPHOLOGY ................................................................................ 34
Muscle pathology .................................................................................................................. 34
Fibertypes and their mitochondrial oxidative capacity ......................................................... 34
Relative frequency of fiber phenotypes, fiber area and variability in fiber size ................... 34
Muscle capillarization ........................................................................................................... 35
MORPHOLOGY AT FOLLOW-UP 1 YEAR AFTER FASCIOTOMY................................ 37
Muscle pathology .................................................................................................................. 37
Fibertypes and their mitochondrial oxidative capacity ......................................................... 38
Relative frequency of fiber phenotypes, fiber area and variability in fiber size ................... 39
Muscle capillarization ........................................................................................................... 39
DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................................... 39
Main findings ........................................................................................................................ 39
CECS in diabetes mellitus..................................................................................................... 40
Clinical implications ............................................................................................................. 41
Why does CECS occur in diabetes patients? ........................................................................ 42
Muscle alterations in diabetes patients with CECS............................................................... 43
CECS in non-diabetic patients .............................................................................................. 44
Pathophysiological theories in non-diabetic patients ............................................................ 45
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................. 48
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... 49
R
EFERENCES......................................................................................................................... 50
5
ABBREVATIONS
AGE Advanced glycosylated end products
ATP Adenosine triphosphatase
CAFA Capillaries around fibers related to its cross sectional area
CAF Capillaries around fibers
CECS Chronic exertional compartment syndrome
CD Capillary density
CT Computed tomography
CV Coefficient of variation
DM Diabetes mellitus
IMP Intramuscular pressure
mAb Monoclonal antibody
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
MyHC Myosin heavy chain
NADH-TR Nicotineamide adenine dinucleotide-tetrazolinium reductase
NIRS Near-infrared spectroscopy
SD Standard deviation
6
SAMMANFATTNING
Kroniskt kompartmentsyndrom (KKS) i underbenen, ett tillstånd med ansträngningsutlöst smärta orsakad av högt muskeltryck, har tidigare huvudsakligen beskrivits hos idrottare. Orsakerna till KKS är till stor del okända. KKS har inte associerats med andra sjukdomar, och förändringar i muskulatur är inte beskrivna. En serie av 63 patienter med ansträngningsutlöst underbenssmärta undersöktes med avseende på orsak och sjukdomsutveckling. Då KKS tidigare var okänd hos diabetiker undersöktes även 17 patienter med diabetes med liknande symptom men utan tecken på cirkulationssvikt. Alla undersöktes kliniskt och med röntgen samt isotopundersökning för att utesluta andra orsaker till smärtorna. Vidare utfördes muskeltryckmätning före och efter belastning. Alla patienter med diagnosen KKS rekommenderades behandling med kirurgisk klyvning av muskelhinna, fasciotomi. Prov från främre underbensmuskulaturen togs vid fasciotomi och vid uppföljning 1 år senare. Som jämförelse användes prov från friska kontroller. Enzym- och immunohistokemiska och morfologiska analyser utfördes avseende förändringar i muskelns struktur, fiberkomposition, kapillärnät och mitokondrie-aktivitet. 36 av 63 undersökta patienter hade KKS i underbenets främre muskelfack: 18 friska, 10 med tidigare skada på underbenet, 4 med diabetes och 4 övriga. Endast 5 av 36 KKS patienter var idrottare. Resultaten 1 år efter operation var utmärkta eller goda i 41 av 57 ben. 16 av 17 undersökta diabetiker hade KKS varav 11 hade typ 1 och 5 typ 2 diabetes. Diabetikerna skiljde sig från övriga i form av längre tid med besvär, kort gångsträcka innan underbenssmärta, fast och öm underbensmuskulatur, underbenssmärta efter 20 tåhävningar och högt muskeltryck. Muskelprover tagna vid operation visade avancerade sjukliga förändringar med extremt små och stora fibrer, fiberförtvining, interna kärnor, kluvna fibrer, bindvävsomvandling samt nedsatt mitokondrie-aktivitet jämfört med friska fysiskt aktiva. Diabetikerna hade generellt mer muskelförändringar medan friska med KKS hade en betydligt lägre kapillärtäthet. Operationsresultatet var utmärkt eller gott i 15 av 18 opererade ben. 1 år efter behandling med fasciotomi hade de flesta återgått till obegränsad fysisk aktivitet. Musklerna visade tydliga tecken på regeneration och läkning. Kvarvarande sjukliga muskelförändringar fanns framför allt hos diabetikerna. KKS med ansträngningsutlöst underbenssmärta utan tecken på kärlsjukdom är en tidigare okänd komplikation till diabetes. Diagnosen KKS bör verifieras med mätning av muskeltryck innan behandling. Nedsatt rörelseförmåga och neuromuskulära förändringar vid KKS indikerar att högt muskeltryck ger minskad blodförsörjning och skadad muskulatur. Ökad förmåga till fysisk aktivitet tillsammans med en normaliserad muskel 1 år efter behandling visar på fördelarna med fasciotomi. Diabetikernas mer svårartade besvär och avancerade muskelförändringar jämfört med friska aktiva med KKS visar att orsakerna till KKS är komplexa. Den ökade rörelseförmågan hos diabetikerna efter operation är fördelaktigt vid behandling av sjukdomen.
7
ABSTRACT
Background: Chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) of the lower leg, defined as a condition with exercise-induced pain due to increased intramuscular pressure (IMP), has previously mainly been described in running athletes, and etiologic factors are poorly described. CECS has not been reported to occur together with other diseases and information about consequences on muscles morphology after treatment with fasciotomy is largely unknown.
Patients and methods: We investigated etiologic and pathophysiologic aspects to CECS in a consecutive series of 63 patients with exercise-related leg pain and in 17 diabetic patients with symptoms of intermittent claudication but no circulatory insufficiency. Clinical examination, radiography, scintigraphy and IMP measurements at rest and after reproduction of symptoms were performed. Patients with CECS were recommended treatment with fasciotomy. Biopsies were taken from the tibialis anterior muscle at time of fasciotomy and at follow-up 1 year later. For comparison muscle samples were taken from normal controls. Enzyme- and immunohistochemical and morphometric methods were used for analysis of muscle fiber morphology/pathology, fiber phenotype composition, mitochondrial oxidative capacity and capillary supply.
Results: Thirty-six of the 63 patients fulfilled the criteria for diagnosis of CECS in the anterior tibial compartment. The CECS patients could be divided into different etiologic groups: 18 healthy, 10 with history of trauma against the lower leg, 4 diabetic patients and 4 others. Only 5 of 36 CECS patients were athletes. The results after fasciotomy were good or excellent in 41 of 57 treated legs. Sixteen of the 17 diabetic patients were diagnosed with CECS, 11 with diabetes type 1 and 5 with type 2. The diabetic patients differed from the other groups with longer symptom-duration, short pain-free walking distance, firm and tender lower leg muscles, lower leg pain after 20 heel-raisings and high IMP. The postoperative outcome was good or excellent in 15 of 18 treated legs. The muscle biopsies taken at fasciotomy showed frequent histopathological changes including small and large sized fibers, fiber atrophy, internal myonuclei, split fibers, fibrosis, disorganization of mitochondria. In contrast, the main finding in healthy CECS subjects was low muscle capillarization. After 1 year, the majority of CECS patients could return to unrestricted physical activity and the histopathological muscle changes were clearly reduced. The muscle fiber size was larger and the muscles contained signs of regeneration and repair. Remaining muscle abnormalities were present mainly in diabetic patients.
Conclusion: CECS is a new differential-diagnosis in diabetic patients with symptoms of claudication without signs of vascular disease. The diagnosis CECS should be confirmed with IMP measurements before treatment. A low ability for physical activity, reflected by the signs of both myopathy and neuropathy, indicates that high IMP and circulatory impairment has deleterious effects for the involved muscles. Increased physical activity and normalization of muscle morphology 1 year after treatment shows the benefit of fasciotomy. The more severe clinical and morphological findings in diabetic compared to healthy subjects with CECS indicate differences in the pathogenesis. Unrestricted physical ability after treatment is very important for diabetic patients, since physical activity is an essential part of the therapy of the disease.
8
ORIGINAL PAPERS
I. Edmundsson D, Toolanen G, Sojka P. Chronic compartment syndrome also affects
non-athletic subjects: A prospective study of 63 cases with exercise-related lower leg
pain. Acta Orthop 2007;78 (1):136-42.
II. Edmundsson D, Svensson O, Toolanen G. Intermittent claudication in diabetes
mellitus due to chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the leg: An
observational study of 17 patients. Acta Orthop 2008; 79 (3): 534-39.
III. Edmundsson D, Toolanen G, Thornell L-E, Stål P. Evidence for low muscle capillary
supply as a pathogenic factor in chronic compartment syndrome. Scand J Med Sci
Sports 2009
IV. Edmundsson D, Toolanen G, Stål P. Muscle changes in diabetic patients with chronic
exertional compartment syndrome. Manuscript.
9
INTRODUCTION
COMPARTMENT SYNDROMES
Compartment syndrome is a condition caused by an increased intramuscular pressure (IMP)
within a closed myofascial compartment compromising blood circulation within the affected
space. The result is ischemia, pain and decreased muscle function, and sometimes damage to
muscle and nerve tissue. Compartment syndrome may be acute or chronic. Acute
compartment syndrome is the comprehensive term of syndromes with high IMP usually
caused by trauma or infection. Symptoms worsen acutely and muscle necrosis and nerve
injury occur within hours. This syndrome is an emergency condition that usually requires
immediate surgical treatment to allow the pressure to decrease (Styf, 2003). Chronic
exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) is a slowly progressing disorder that is usually not
a medical emergency. The chronic form is most often caused by physical activity and the
compartments of the lower leg are particular prone to be affected although other sites such as
the forearm may be engaged. This thesis deals only with the chronic form of compartment
syndrome of the lower leg.
CHRONIC EXERTIONAL COMPARTMENT SYNDROME
CECS is characterized by exercise-related, recurrent lower leg pain preventing further
strenuous exercise. The clinical symptoms occur often bilaterally and also include muscle
stiffness along with muscle weakness and sometimes sensory disturbances (Styf, 2003). The
anterior and lateral compartments of the lower legs are the most commonly involved although
other compartments such as the deep posterior may also be affected. The diagnosis CECS is
usually associated with healthy physical active and alternative etiologic factors have been
poorly described. Further, CECS has not been reported to occur together with other diseases.
History
Mavor (1956) published the first report of CECS in a professional soccer player. CECS was
previously thought to be an atypical form of shin splint. Mavor reported bilateral anterior leg
pain during exercise and noted a hernia in the anterior tibial muscle fascia as an indication of
high IMP. After fasciotomy the pain was relieved. Later on, CECS has mainly been described
10
in running athletes and only few have reported CECS in non-athletic patients (Detmer et al.,
1985; Styf and Körner, 1986). Most of the patients have no history of predisposing factors,
although foot pronation, cavus-foot, venous insufficiency and trauma with a long interval
between injury and symptoms have been associated with CECS (Tubb and Vermillion, 2001;
Styf, 2003).
Symptoms and signs
The typical CECS patient is a young athlete with high, demanding muscle activity; usually a
runner, soccer player or recreational runner with bilateral, recurrent lower leg pain that
hampers exercise but permits ordinary activity of daily life. The recurrence of leg pain after
reproducible work and time span is a characteristic symptom for CECS. The pain is dull or
cramping and so severe it ultimately stops activity. The pain usually disappears after 10-30
minutes rest (Blackman, 2000; Tzortziou et al., 2006). Clinically palpable muscle hernias in
the tibialis anterior fascia, sometimes painful, are found in about half of the patients with
CECS (Blackman, 2000; Bong et al., 2005). Muscle weakness, swelling and stiffness occur
frequently and sometimes a peroneal nerve paresis is present with drop foot immediately after
exercise. The superficial peroneal nerve may also be affected with numbness and decreased
skin sensation antero-laterally over the lower leg down to the dorsal first web space (Styf,
2003; Bong et al., 2005). Dysesthesia over the medial arch of the foot, sometimes with
cramping of the intrinsic foot muscles, a sign of tibial nerve affection, indicates involvement
of the deep posterior compartment (Blackman, 2000). After exercise about half of the patients
have muscle tenderness over the antero-lateral aspect of the lower leg with decreased muscle
strength and pain on passive dorsal extension of the ankle joint (Blackman 2000; Styf 2003).
Muscle swelling and hypertrophy are inconsistent signs. Arterial circulation is always normal
(Rowdon and Abdelkarim, 2008; Bong et al., 2005) and about half of the patients with CECS
lack clinical signs (Englund, 2005).
Muscle morphology
Information on morphological muscle changes in CECS and the effects of treatment are still
largely unknown. Muscle alterations in patients with CECS are only described in a few
studies where they reported a high frequency of slow-twitch muscle fibers, alterations in the
mitochondria and increased levels of water and lactate that decreased after fasciotomy
(Quarford et al., 1983; Wallensten and Karlsson, 1984).
11
Pathophysiology
The generally accepted pathomechanism for CECS is an abnormal increase in the IMP during
exercise resulting in compression of small vessels leading to ischemia and pain (Blackman
2000, Styf, 2003). The pattern of relative ischemia in CECS has been investigated with Near
Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) and showed rapid, high deoxygenation at the onset of exercise
and prolonged reoxygenation post-exercise compared with normal controls (Mohler et al.,
1997; van den Brand et al., 2005). After fasciotomy the muscle deoxygenation in CECS
patients return to normal levels as seen in healthy volunteers after exercise (van den Brand et
al., 2004). Conversely, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and thallium-201 single-Photon
emission thomography did not show any ischemic muscle changes in patients with CECS
(Amendola et al., 1990; Trease et al., 2001; Oturai et al., 2006). Normal muscle compartments
are compliant and increase the volume up to 20% at strenuous exercise as a result of increased
blood flow (Fraipont and Adamson, 2003). The amount of capillary circulation and interstitial
filtration depends on the load of the exercise and normally the compartment can expand to
accumulate the oedema seen in muscles during exercise. In CECS, this reserve volume may
be reduced by muscle hypertrophy secondary to athletic activity or to an inextensible fascia.
A non-compliant compartment may give abnormally high IMP at rest and especially after
strenuous activity as well as a long pressure recovery time after exercise. The increased
muscle weakness during exercise is probably mostly due to impairment in torque generation
and pain in the involved muscle (Varelas et al., 1993). However, although there are a number
of hypotheses to the abnormal increase in IMP in patients with CECS, the underlying
mechanism and consequences on muscles is still unclear.
Diagnosis
Compartment syndrome is mainly a clinical diagnosis based on a typical history with
exercise-related lower leg pain together with increased IMP measured before and after
exercise. History, however, is rather unspecific and plain radiography and scintigraphy is
recommended early in order to exclude joint and skeletal disorders (Englund, 2005). Also,
ankle-brachial index or toe blood pressure measurement should be performed to exclude
circulatory disturbances especially in non-athletic patients with these symptoms (Sahli et al.
2005; Englund, 2005). The golden standard for CECS diagnosis is the increase in IMP at rest
and after exercise (French and Price, 1962). As the main symptom in CECS is lower leg pain
during physical activity, reproduction of pain similar to the clinical situation can be provoked
12
by treadmill exercise with controlled velocity and slope. The velocity, time and type of
exercise are important for the IMP levels (Styf, 2003). Marching 10 minutes on a treadmill
with a speed of 6.5 km/h will usually give the typical symptoms at the end of the test in 95%
of physical active patients with involvement of the anterior compartment (van den Brand et
al., 2004; Bong et al., 2005).
Intramuscular pressure measurements
The IMP can be tested by insertion of a catheter within the muscle compartments and gauging
the pressure. The IMP measurement is usually done with the patient supine, or prone for
posterior compartment, with the ankle joint in 90 degrees and relaxed lower leg muscles. For
measurement of the anterior compartment a catheter is inserted in the anterior tibial muscle.
For measurements of the deep posterior compartment, a dorso-medial approach behind the
medial tibia at the distal third of the leg can be used (Schepsis et al., 1993; van Zoest et al.,
2008) (Fig 1).
Fig 1. Cross-sectional image of the lower leg. Location of intramuscular catheters inserted in the anterior and deep posterior compartments. Interosseus membrane is marked green.
13
A wide range of recording methods, different catheter types and variable transducer systems
have been used and often with no specific extremity positions during the measurement (Willy
et al., 1999; Blackman, 2000; Verleisdonk. 2002). IMP measurement during exercise is
unreliable (Styf, 2003; Edvards et al., 2005) which is why it is commonly done at rest, before
exercise and at intervals after exercise (Pedowitz et al., 1990; Verleisdonk, 2002). Alternative
diagnostic investigations such as NIRS and MRI have been introduced. NIRS seems to have
equal diagnostic accuracy as IMP measurements while MRI is considered less favorable
(Mohler et al., 1997; Verleisdonk et al., 2001; Styf 2003; van den Brand et al., 2005).
Pressure levels indicating CECS
An IMP above 15 mm Hg at rest, more than 30 mm Hg immediately after exercise and above
20 mm Hg 5 minutes after exercise have been proposed to be sufficient diagnosing CECS
(Pedowitz et al., 1990) while others have used other criteria (Styf, 2003; van den Brand et al.,
2005). For the deep posterior compartment both higher and lower IMP levels than for anterior
compartment have been used (Allen and Barnes, 1986; van Zoest et al., 2008).
Treatment, prognosis and complications
Non-operative treatment of CECS, e.g. modification of training activity, physical therapy,
massage and shoe adjustments are ineffective (Verleisdonk, 2002; Fronek et al., 1987). The
only successful non-operative treatment seems to be decreased activity (Bong et al., 2005).
Operative treatment of CECS in the anterior tibial and lateral peroneal compartments includes
fasciotomy via one or two incisions (Rorabeck et al., 1983; Fronek et al., 1987; Shepsis et al
1999; Slimmon et al., 2002; Englund, 2005) (Fig 2). An advantage of two short incisions may
be an easier approach to both anterior while lateral compartments ensuring an adequate total
release of the compartments and also avoiding damage to the superficial peroneal nerve
(Shepsis et al., 1993). Endoscope-assisted fasciotomy have recently been introduced
(Hutchinson et al., 2003; Lohrer and Nauck, 2007). Fasciectomy has been proposed for cases
with recurrence of CECS symptoms (Schepsis et al., 2005). Deep posterior compartment
fasciotomy is usually done by a medial incision enabling decompression also of the soleus
muscle (Blackman, 2000; Bong et al., 2005; van Zoest et al., 2008) (Fig 3). After fasciotomy
of the anterior compartment the result has been reported to be good or excellent in 70-90% of
cases, while surgical treatment of posterior compartment syndrome is less favorable with only
50% success rate, which is about the same as reported for placebo (Styf, 2003; Fraipont and
Adamson, 2003; Brennan and Kane, 2003). The lower outcome after surgery for posterior
14
compartment syndrome may be due to problems with the diagnosis, operative technique and
complications (Davey et al., 1984; Biedert, 1997, Fraipont and Adamson, 2003; van Zoest et
al., 2008).
A
B Fig 2. The site of the skin incision and the two fascia cuts for antero-lateral fasciotomy (A, B). The fascia in each compartment is cut in its whole length (dotted lines, A).
15
A
B Fig 3. The site of the skin incision and the two fascia cuts for postero-medial fasciotomy (A, B). The superficial and the deep fascia in each compartment is cut in its whole length along the postero-medial border of tibia (dotted line, A).
The general recurrence rate of CECS after anterior fasciotomy varies between 3-20%
(Schepsis et al., 2005). This is often due to postoperative bleeding, hematomas and formation
of constricting scar tissue in the fascia defect. Therefore, a suction drainage is recommended
and is usually removed after 24 hours. Other complications include nerve and vessel injuries
16
and wound infections. The overall complication rate is between 5 to 13% in otherwise healthy
patients (Fronek et al., 1987; Fraipont and Adamson, 2003).
Differential diagnosis
Since the symptoms and signs in CECS are related to unspecific pain and about half of the
patients lack clinical signs it is important to consider other diagnoses. When examining the
patients it is especially important to analyze the type and localization of pain and when it
occurs (Styf, 2003). If CECS is not confirmed with IMP measurements additional
investigations, e.g. neurophysiological tests, MRI, CT-scan, ultrasound-led Doppler and
angiography may be necessary (Toulipolous and Hershman 1999; Verleisdonk, 2002; Bong et
al., 2005).
Differential diagnosis to CECS in the lower leg (Styf, 2003; Bong et al, 2005).
Anterior leg pain Posterior leg pain
Tibia periostitis
Compression of the common peroneal nerve
Peroneal tunnel syndrome
Stress fractures, tibia and fibula
Fascial hernia
Medial tibial stress syndrome
Muscle ruptures of gastrocnemius or soleus
Accessorial soleus muscle
Entrapment of the popliteal artery
Entrapment of the tibialis, saphenous or suralis
nerve
Other diagnosis:
Bone tumors, osteoid osteoma, vascular claudication
DIABETES MELLITUS
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a major public health problem and one of the most rapidly
increasing diseases globally; the number of diabetic patients will increase from 150 millions
in 2000 to 366 millions by the year 2030 (Huysman and Mathieu, 2009). DM is characterized
by hyperglycaemia resulting from absolute or relative insulin deficiency. There are two main
types of DM. Type 1 is caused by an autoimmune reaction with destruction of insulin-
producing pancreatic cells leading to insulin deficiency, mostly affecting children or young
people. Type 2 is associated with sedentary life style, high daily glucose intake and
overweight involving peripheral insulin resistance and a relative insulin deficiency. Type 1 is
17
treated with life-long endogenous insulin substitution and Type 2 with diet, medication or
insulin. Exercise is considered to be one of the cornerstones for optimal diabetes treatment.
Diabetic complications
The complications associated with DM are mainly related to vasculopathy and are commonly
grouped into macro- and micro-vascular complications. The macro-vascular disease is the
most common cause of mortality and morbidity and is responsible for high incidences of
stroke, myocardial infarction and peripheral vascular disease (Huysman and Mathieu, 2009).
Prolonged hypertension, hyperglycaemia and hyperlipidemia increase cardiovascular risks
and the severity and progression of arteriosclerosis, which explains the high frequency of
cardiovascular diseases (Girach and Vignati, 2006). The diabetic specific microvascular
complications are mainly retinopathy, nephropathy, and arguably, neuropathy (Nathan, 1993;
Marshall and Flyvbjerg, 2006). In microangiopathy the capillary walls and arterioles are
thickened (Roy et al., 2010) and the glycocalyx contributing to the barrier function on the
luminal side is attenuated (Nieuwdorp et al., 2006a; 2006b). Microvascular endothelial injury
and hyperpermeability occur when excessive glucose is metabolized to sorbitol forming
advanced glycation end-products (AGE) deposited in the endothelial wall (Yuan et al., 2007).
The wide spectrum of vascular abnormalities may cause permeability disturbances in DM,
including leakage and local tissue oedema. Moreover, the pathophysiology of diabetic
neuropathy is considered to have vascular and metabolic components (Cameron and Cotter,
1997; Yasuda et al., 2003). Although the cause of diabetic neuropathy may be multifactorial,
one proposed pathophysiological mechanism is the double-crush syndrome i.e. nerve
compression at narrow anatomical spaces together with swelling of the nerve itself by local
edema. Occlusion within the neural microcirculation, the vasa vasorum, is regarded as an
important contributor to diabetic polyneuropathy (Cameron and Cotter, 1997) and especially
acute mononeuropathies (Vinik, 1999). To relieve local nerve pressure surgical
decompression of the distal portions of the nerves has been performed with reduction of pain
and restoration of sensibility (Dahlin, 1991; Wood and Wood, 2003; Dellon, 2004).
Moreover, stiffening of connective tissue in skin, ligaments, tendons and joint capsules due to
non-enzymatic glycosylation and cross-linking of collagen is common in DM (Smith et al.,
2003; Dellon, 2004). The typical clinical manifestations are stiff joint syndrome, carpal tunnel
syndrome and Dupuytrens’ contracture (Smith et al., 2003).
18
Leg disorders in DM
Lower-leg complaints are frequent in DM and often disabling. In fact, these are one of the
most serious and expensive diabetes complications and therefore it is very important for
health workers to always examine the patients’ feet and lower legs (Kim et al., 2001).
Approximately one-third of the diabetic patients get reduced cutaneous foot sensibility with
numbness and tingling sensations. Sometimes there is continuous neuropathic pain that is
usually not worsened by physical activity. Motor nerves may be affected with paralysis of
intrinsic muscles resulting in the typical foot deformity (Kim et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2003).
Even progression to complete drop-foot can occur. The senso-motor disturbances and
angiopathy increase risks for ulcers, osteopathy and Charcot-joints, e.g. joint destruction.
Autonomic neuropathy may result in leg pain in cold or warm environments (Urbancic-Rovan
et al., 2004; Devigili et al., 2008). Also spontaneous diabetic muscle infarction in thigh and
calf muscles does occur with acute onset of pain and swelling. This condition usually affects
female diabetic patients with long-lasting hyperglycemia, multiorgan damage including
neuropathy, nephropathy and gastroenteropathy. MRI shows edema and inflammation in the
muscle and microscopy reveals necrosis, edema and fibrosis (Yildirim and Feldman, 2008).
Conservative treatment is recommended and the symptoms revert within weeks to months.
Another complication to DM is stiffening of arterial walls together with plaque formation
obstructing blood flow to the legs (Mackey et al., 2007; Yamagishi, 2009). This gives
symptoms of leg pain during walking that is relieved at rest. The incidence of this disorder,
termed intermittent claudication, is increased about 3 times in diabetic patients compared to
normal population (Sahli et al., 2005) and can progress to gangrene necessitating amputation
(Pecoraro et al., 1969; Icks et al., 2009). Others reasons to claudication can be spinal stenosis
due to degenerative disease or inflammatory and bone disorders. Some patients lacking
pathological clinical signs have been termed as claudication due to neuropathy (Papanas et al.,
2005). Thus, in a proportion of diabetic patients with claudication there is no obvious
explanation to the symptoms, and the disease itself, per se, is considered as an independent
risk factor for exercise-induced leg pain (Wang et al., 2005).
THE ANATOMY OF THE LOWER LEG
The anterior compartment contains the tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus and extensor
digitorum longus and peroneus tertius muscles. The anterior compartment is one of the most
inextensible musculofascial compartments surrounded by fascia and located between the tibia,
19
the fibula and in front of the interosseus membrane (Fig 1). This is probably one of the
reasons that it is the compartment most prone to develop compartment syndromes in general.
Neurovascular supply contains the deep branch of the common peroneal nerve and anterior
tibial artery and vein coursing anterior to the strong and inextensible interosseus membrane.
The muscles and nerves involved are therefore vulnerable for circulation disturbances or
swelling with raised IMP caused by trauma, due to fact that its main arterial supply is an end-
artery crossing the stiff interosseus membrane (Styf, 2003). The lateral peroneal compartment
includes the peroneus longus and brevis muscle and the superficial branch of the peroneal
nerve. The superficial peroneal nerve passes along the peroneus longus muscle between the
longus and brevis muscle to a level of 10-15 cm proximal to the lateral malleolus where it
pierces the deep fascia and becomes subcutaneous (Blackman, 2000; Styf, 2003; Bong et al.,
2005). Hernias in the muscle fascia appear often in this area, sometimes resulting in nerve
entrapments. The superficial posterior compartment contains the medial and lateral
gastrocnemis, soleus and plantaris muscles and the sural nerve. A dense superficial fascia
surrounds the compartment dorsally and the deep transverse fascia divides it from the deep
posterior compartment. The deep posterior compartment contains the flexor digitorum longus,
flexor hallucis longus, tibialis posterior muscles and proximally the popliteus muscle.
Boundaries for the compartment anteriorly are the tibia, interosseus membrane and fibula and
posteriorly the deep transverse fascia. Neurovascular structures in the deep posterior
compartment include the tibial nerve and the posterior tibial artery and vein. The tibial nerve
and vessels enter the lower leg beneath the soleus muscle further on the posterior surface of
tibialis anterior muscle and distally on the posterior tibia (Davey et al., 1984; Bong et al.,
2005).
MUSCLE STRUCTURE
Muscle fibers
Human limb skeletal muscles consist of a number of densely packed longish, cylindrical or
polygonal shaped fibers specialized for force production and movements. The myofibril and
mitochondria are two main components of the muscle fiber, where the myofibril is the actual
force generator and the mitochondria is engaged in the energy supply of the fibers. The fiber
length varies in different muscles and each fiber has multiple nuclei, normally situated at the
periphery of the fibers. A thin layer of connective tissue, the endomysium, surrounds each
fiber. Thousands of fibers are then wrapped into the perimysium forming muscle bundles into
20
groups joining a tendon at each end. All bundles are connected into entire muscles and are
enclosed by a surrounding muscle fascia. Each myofibril contains repetitive contractile units
along the length of the fiber called sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the functional unit of muscle
contraction. It consists of thick filaments, which are mainly composed of myosin, and thin
filaments, which are composed of actin,
troponin and tropomyosin. Interaction
between these two filaments constitutes the
basic mechanism for the sliding filament
theory of muscle contraction (see Fig. 4).
Myosin is the major contractile protein in
muscles. Each myosin consists of two
myosin heavy chains (MyHC) and four
light chains. Myosin is the molecular
motor that converts free energy derived
from the hydrolysis of ATP into
mechanical work. The speed at which ATP
can be hydrolyzed determines the speed of
contraction. Consequently, the maximum
velocity of unloaded shortening of skeletal
muscle is related to the ATPase activity.
Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of skeletal muscle structure. Muscle, muscle fibers with capillaries, myofibrills, myofilaments and contractile molecules are shown.
Muscle fiber composition
The human skeletal muscle is composed of several different fiber types that can be
distinguished on the basis for differences in the ATPase activity or by the dominant MyHC
isoform. Based on the myofibrillar ATPase reaction at different pH, muscle fibers can be
divided in slow contracting type I fibers and fast contracting type II fibers. Slow type I fibers
are fatigue resistant and have high mitochondrial oxidative capacity. Fast type II fibers can be
subdivided into IIA, IIB and IIC fibers, where IIA are more fatigue resistant and have higher
21
mitochondrial oxidative capacity than type IIB. Type IIC fibers have charactertistics in
between type I and II fibers and are normally rare in human muscles.
Myosin contains at least eight genes for MyHC (Schiaffino and Salvati, 1997; Weiss et al.,
1999) of which two are code for developmental MyHC isoforms, MyHC fetal and MyHC
embryonic. These two isoforms are expressed during early muscle development and as
muscle differentiates and matures, the developmental MyHCs are down-regulated and
replaced by adult isoforms in human limb muscles (Butler-Browne et al., 1990; Barbet et al.,
1991). The predominant contractile MyHC isoform in human limb muscles are slow twitch
MyHCI, fast twitch MyHCIIa and fast twitch MyHCIIx. ATPase type I fibers express
MyHCI, type IIA fibers express MyHCIIa, and type IIB fibers express MyHCIIx. Type IIC
fibers co-express MyHCI and MyHCIIa.
Muscle capillarization
A network of parallel and cross-anastomosing capillaries, with some turtuosity and branching,
surrounds all muscle fibers. The dimension of this network of micro-vessels is the major
determinant for oxygen delivery to the muscle cell and is therefore important for muscle
performance and endurance. However, the oxygen supply depends also on an adequate
vascular function and intact autoregulation. Microcirculation varies widely between rest and
work, partly due the autonomic change of the diameter of pre-capillary arterioles. Blood flow
disturbances in the circulation result in an energy crisis, ischemia and accumulation of
metabolic by-products, which may lead to muscle pain, fatigue and deprived function. The
extent of the capillary network is normally related to fiber phenotype composition and fiber
size (Hudlicka et al., 1987; Ponten and Stål, 2007). Thus, large muscle fibers are surrounded
by more capillaries than small fibers and slow contracting fibers containing MyHCI have
generally higher oxidative mitochondrial capacity and are supplied by more capillaries than
fast contracting fibers containing MyHCII.
Muscle plasticity
Muscle fibers are dynamic structures capable to change their size and phenotype under
various conditions. Physical training usually results in fiber hypertrophy and alteration of
fiber phenotypes as well as increased mitochondrial oxidative capacity and extension of the
capillary network (Wang et al., 1993; Hudlicka et al., 1992; Eggington et al., 1998) whereas
inactivity and denervation often gives the opposite (Lu et al., 1997; Borisov et al., 2000;
Dedkov et al., 2002). The adaptive reaction of the muscle to physical activity is not only
22
influenced by the neuronal signal intensity and mechanical load on the muscle but also by
hormones and growth factors (Wang et al., 1993; Fitts and Widrick, 1996; Andersson et al.,
2005). Strength training results in increased myofibrillar protein synthesis, activation of
precursor cells and satellite cells. Satellite cells fuse with existing myofibrils and contribute to
increased number of myonuclei and hypertrophy of muscle fibers (Eriksson et al., 2006).
AIMS OF THE STUDY
The overall aims of this thesis were to study etiologic aspects of CECS in lower legs and to
learn more about possible muscle alterations after treatment with fasciotomy.
The specific aims were:
1. To study etiologic factors resulting in CECS in unselected patients with exercise-
related lower leg pain independent of age, gender and activity levels.
2. To analyze possible morphological alterations in the anterior tibial muscle in
otherwise healthy physically active individuals with CECS.
3. To describe history, clinical findings and treatment of CECS in DM.
4. To describe morphological alterations in the anterior tibial muscle in diabetic patients
with CECS.
5. To analyse the effect of treatment with fasciotomy on muscle morphology 1 year after
treatment in diabetic and healthy non-diabetic patients with CECS.
6. To compare the morphological results between diabetic and healthy non-diabetic
patients with CECS.
23
PATIENTS AND METHODS
PATIENTS
Patients included in each study, patient demographics and clinical data for all subjects are
summarized in Table 1.
Subjects in study 1
Seventy-three patients were referred to the division of Orthopaedics, University Hospital,
Umeå, from 1996 through 2000 because of a suspicion of CECS due to a history of pain in the
lower leg on exertion. None of the subjects had clinical signs of arterial circulatory
disturbances in the legs. Seven patients were excluded since they refused to participate in the
study and 3 had been treated earlier for a similar disorder. Thus, 63 patients (27 males and 36
females, mean age 39y, range 16-73y) were included in the study. Mean duration of
symptoms was 2.6y (0.5–15y).
Subjects in study 2
In the clinical study of patients suspected for CECS, 4 patients were unexpectedly found to
have DM. This prompted us to ask the diabetic clinic at Umeå University Hospital to send us
all diabetic patients with activity-related leg pain without clinical signs of circulatory
insufficiency in order to explore our finding. During a 2-year period, we got 13 additional
diabetes patients referred for suspicion of CECS. Thus, 17 patients were included in study 2
(3 male and 14 females, mean age 39y, range 18-72y).
Abbrevations
No= No trauma against lower legs Preop symptoms Preop signs CB= Chronic back pain 1. Pain 1. Tenderness over anterior compartment DM= Diabetes mellitus 2. Sensory deficit 2. Tenderness over anterior tibia FF= Fibula fracture 3. Edema 3. Fascial hernia GT= Gynecologic tumor 4. Muscle fatigue 4. Sensory deficit MC=Muscle contusion 5. Muscle stiffness 5. Edema PN= Polyneuropathy 6. Muscle rupture RA= Rheumatoid arthrit
24
Table 1. Demographic data of patients with CECS included in studies 1-4. R = right leg, L= left leg, B= both legs A = athletes, R =Recreational runners, W = walkers.
Case Sex Age Activity Leg trauma Preop symptoms Preop signs Included nr level or disease lower leg lower leg in study
Preop symptom duration (years)
R L R L number 1 F 16 A No 1,5 1-4 1-4 1 2 M 18 A No 4 1-5 1-5 1,3 1 1 3 F 18 A No 1 1-5 1-5 1 1 1,3 4 M 19 A No 2 1,4,5 1,4,5 1 1 1 5 M 20 R No 1 1,2 1,2 1 1 1 6 F 22 A No 2 1,2,4 1,2,4 1 1 1,3 7 F 23 R No 2 1,3,4,5 1,3,4,5 1 1 1 8 M 23 R No 2 1,2,5 1,2,5 1 1 1 9 F 24 R No 1,5 1,3,4,5 1,3,4,5 1,2 1,2 1
10 F 25 W No 10 1-5 1-5 1 1, 1,3 11 M 30 R No 2 1-5 1-5 1,2,3 1,2,4 1,3 12 F 31 W No 3 1-5 1-5 1,2 1,2 1,3 13 M 34 W No 3 1,2,4 1,2,4 1 1 1,3 14 M 38 W No 2 1-5 1-5 1 1 1,3 15 M 38 W No 3 1-5 1-5 1,2 1,2 1 16 F 43 W No 2 1,4,5 1,2,5 1 17 F 47 W No 3 1-5 1-5 1 1 1,3 18 F 51 W No 1 1-5 1 1,3 19 M 20 W M,C 1 1,2,5 1,2 1,3 1 20 F 31 W op,Cr,lig,L 2 1-3 1,2,3 1 21 M 32 W M,C,R 3 1-3 1,2,3,5 1 22 F 32 W F,F,R 1,5 1-4 1 1 23 F 32 W F,F,R 1 3 1,2 1 24 F 33 W M,C,R 4 1,3,4,5 1,2 1 25 F 43 W M,C, L 1 1,4,5 1,6 1 26 M 54 W M,R,R,M,C,L 1 1-3 1,3,4,5 1,2 1,2,5 1 27 M 58 W M,C,B 3 1-5 1-5 1,2,3,5 1 1 28 F 65 W M,C,B 3 1,2,5 1,2,5 1 29 F 25 W DM 3 1,2 1,2 1,4 1,4 1,2,4 30 F 40 W DM 1,5 1-5 1-5 1,2,4 1,4 1,2 31 F 41 W DM 1,5 1-5 1-5 1,2,4 1,4 1,2 32 F 48 W DM 6 1,3,4,5 1,3,4,5 1,2,4 1,4 1,2,4 33 M 43 W P,N 4 1,2,4,5 1,2,4,5 1,4 1,4 1 34 F 48 W R,A 5 1,3,4,5 1,3,4,5 1,2,4,5 1,2,4,5 1 35 F 53 W G,T 2 1-5 1-5 1 1 1 36 M 61 W C,B 1 1-5 1-5 1,2 1,2 1 37 F 18 W DM 10 1 1 1,2 1,2 2,4 38 F 22 W DM 0,5 1,2,4 1,2,4, 1,2 1,2 2 39 F 24 W DM 3 1,2 1,2 1,4 1.4 2 40 F 25 W DM 0,2 1 1 1,2 1,2 2 41 F 39 W DM 2 1,3 1,3 1,2,4 1,2,3,4 2 42 M 39 W DM 10 1 1 1 1 2,4 43 M 39 W DM 15 1 1 1,3 1,3 2,4 44 F 40 W DM 3 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,4 1,4 2,4 45 F 46 W DM 3 1,2,4 1,2,4 1,4 1,4 2,4 46 F 48 W DM 2 1,2 1,2,3 1,2 1,2 2 47 M 48 W DM 10 1 1 1,4 1,4 2 48 F 72 W DM 1 1,2 1,2 1,2 1,2 2
25
Subjects in study 3
Fourteen of the physically active and otherwise healthy patients in study 1 who were
recommended surgical treatment after diagnosis of CECS agreed to a muscle biopsy at
fasciotomy. Nine of them agreed to a second muscle biopsy at follow-up 1 year later (3 males
and 6 females, mean age 32 y, range 18-51y). The duration of symptoms was 3 years (1-10y).
Subjects in study 4
Seven of the diabetic patients who participated in study 2 agreed to a muscle biopsy at
fasciotomy (5 females, 2 males, mean age 37y, range 18-53y). Five had diabetes type 1 and 2
had diabetes type 2. One year later, five of these patients agreed to a second muscle biopsy.
The mean duration of exercise-induced leg pain was 6.8y (0.5-15y) and the mean duration of
diabetes was 23y (11-30). All were on insulin treatment.
Controls
For comparison of morphological muscle findings, biopsies from the tibialis anterior muscle
were collected from a control group of nine healthy and physically active individuals (5 males
and 4 females, mean age 34y, range 19-51y). None of the subjects had leg pain or clinical
signs of neurological or circulatory disturbances.
CLINICAL EVALUATION
History, symptoms and clinical signs were noted, with special attention being paid to
neurological and circulatory disturbances. Conventional plain radiography and scintigraphy
were performed to exclude other causes of lower leg pain.
Criteria for diagnosis of CECS
For diagnosis of CECS the following should be fulfilled: (1) history of exercise-related lower
leg pain, but normal pedal pulse, normal radiograph and bone scans (2) reproducible pain
during exercise test, (3) IMP values at rest of > 15 mm Hg and/or IMP of > 30 mm Hg 1-2
26
minutes after the end of exercise and / or IMP of > 20 mm Hg 5 minutes after exercise
together with the reproduced leg pain (Pedowitz et al., 1990).
Reproduction of symptoms
A treadmill test was used to reproduce the symptoms. The duration of the test was 10-15 min
and during this period the velocity and slope of the treadmill was adjusted in an attempt to
reproduce the lower leg pain. The patients with CECS reported increasing pain in the lower
legs, usually rating 5 or 7 on the 10-point Borg scale, and/or rated exertion as 17 (very heavy)
on the 20-point Borg scale at the end of the test (Borg, 1973).
Measurements of IMP
IMP measurement was monitored using a micro-capillary technique with infusion of a low
volume of isotonic saline (0.1-0.3 ml/h) via a catheter (Myopress; Athos Medical, Höör,
Sweden). The catheter has an outer diameter of 1.05 mm and the tip has four side holes,
which gives a surface tissue contact area of 1.5 mm2. A cannula with the catheter filled with
saline was inserted into anterior tibial muscle and connected to a pressure transducer (PMSET
2DT-XO 2TBG; Becton Dickinson, Singapore). During the procedure the patients were
supine, and relaxed with the ankle joint in 90 degree. For posterior compartment
measurements we performed the dorso-medial approach (Schepsis et al., 1993). The location
of the catheter tip was checked by palpation and gentle compression with an amplitude
reaction on the pressure curve. Measurements were performed in both legs.
The use of a myopress catheter is considered as an accurate method for IMP measurements
(Styf, 2003). The advantage of this method is less volume load to the interstitial tissue at rest
and in exercise avoiding false high values. It also enables a rapid detection of pressure
oscillations during dynamic measurements.
Treatment with fasciotomy
All patients with diagnosis of CECS were recommended treatment with fasciotomy of the
anterior tibial and peroneal compartment. The surgical procedure of the anterior compartment
27
included a 5 cm skin incision halfway between the fibular shaft and the tibia crest in the mid
portion of the leg (Fronek, 1987). After an extended subcutaneous dissection, the fascia of
both compartments was decompressed with fasciotomy. A 1 cm wide strip of the fascia was
removed and an over-night suction drainage was used. Posterior compartments were treated
with fasciotomy of the superficial soleus and gastrocnemius muscles and the deep posterior
compartments according to Styf (2003).
MUSCLE BIOPSIES
At fasciotomy, a muscle sample (approximately 8 x 5 mm) was obtained under general
anesthesia from the anterior tibial muscle, 15 cm distal to the knee joint and 1 cm deep in the
muscle. A second biopsy was obtained under local anesthesia 1 year after fasciotomy at the
same level and area, but in order to avoid scare tissue, not at the identical site as the first
biopsy. Muscle samples from the corresponding region were obtained from the control
subjects. The muscle samples were mounted for serial sectioning in OCT compound (Tissue
Tek®, Miles laboratories, Naperville, IL, USA) and frozen in liquid propane chilled with
liquid nitrogen.
METHODS FOR ANALYSIS OF MUSCLES
Immunohistochemistry
Serial transverse muscle cross-sections (5μm thick) were cut in a cryostat microtome at
-20°C, mounted on glass slides, and processed for immunhistochemistry with well
characterized monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against different human myosin heavy chain
(MyHC) and laminin isoforms. Laminin is a major component of the basement membrane.
Data on used mAbs are shown in Table 2. Visualization of cell borders (i.e., basal lamina) of
the muscle fibers and capillaries was performed by using mAb 4C7 which labels the basement
membrane of capillaries strongly and the basement membrane of muscle fibers weakly, and
mAb 5H2 which labels only the basement membrane of muscle fibers strongly (Ponten and
Stål, 2007). An antibody against desmin (D33) was used for visualization of fiber
regeneration and abnormalities in fiber structure. Immunohistochemical visualization of
28
bound antibodis was performed using the indirect unconjugated immunoperoxidase technique.
For details of the laboratory procedures see Stål and Lindman (2000).
Enzyme-histochemistry.
Eight µm thick cross-sections, serial to those used for immunohistochemistry, were stained
for the demonstration of myofibrillar ATPase activity (EC 3.6.1.3) after preincubations at pH
10.3, 4.6 and 4.3 (Dubowitz, 1985). Hematoxylin & Eosin and Gomori trichrome staining
were used to visualize general morphology and muscle pathology. To demonstrate oxidative
capacity of fibers, a mitochondrial enzyme, NADH-TR (EC 1.6.99.3), was assayed. Muscle
fibers characterized by focal or multifocal zones without mitochondrial NADH-TR activity
were characterized as moth-eaten fibers (Banker and Engel, 1994).
Fiber classification.
Based on the staining pattern for the different MyHC mAbs, the fibers were classified as
fibers containing only MyHCI, MyHCIIa, or MyHCIIx or as hybrid fibers coexpressing
MyHCI and MyHCIIa or MyHCIIa and MyHC IIx. The basis for classification is shown in
Fig 5. For control and comparison, the muscle fibers were enzyme-histochemically typed
according to their staining intensities for myofibrillar ATPase (mATPase) after alkaline and
acid preincubations (Dubowitz, 1985).
29
Morphometric analysis.
Randomly chosen areas of the immunohistochemical and enzyme-histochemical stained
muscle cross-sections were scanned and analyzed in a light microscope connected to an image
analysis system (IBAS, Kontron elektronik GMBH, Eching, Germany). The fibers were
classified in fiber phenotypes based on their MyHC isoform composition and the proportion
of different types was estimated. The fiber area was measured by tracing the circumferences
of each fiber along the periphery of the basement membrane and the numbers of capillaries
were counted on whole muscle cross-section and around each individual fiber. Small atrophic
or regenerative/degenerative muscle fibers (<20μm2) were excluded as they highly bias the
calculation of capillary variables. The calculation of fiber area and capillary variables
included 10,745 muscle fibers and 22,626 capillaries. A single investigator, who was blinded
regarding the clinical data of the subjects, determined all morphological analyses.
Capillary variables.
Capillary density (CD) was calculated as the total number of capillaries per mm2 muscle
cross-section. The number of capillaries around fibers (CAF) included all capillaries within a
distance of 5 μm from each individual muscle fiber. Capillaries related to each fiber relative
to its cross-sectional area (CAFA) were calculated according to the formula: CAFA / fiber
cross-sectional area x 103. This variable relates CAF parameter to fiber size and is a
hypothetical measure of the cell volume each capillary supplies.
Statistical analysis.
In study 1 a non-parametric test (Kruskal-wallis) was used for analysis of differences between
groups. A Mann-Whitney test (Holm’s correction of the Bonferroni method) was used in
study 2 (Statistical package Statistic, version 6.0). In studies 3 and 4 an Anderson-Darling test
was used to analyze the normality in distribution of the samples. Since no indication of
skewed distribution was observed within each group, an unpaired t-test was used to test
possible differences between patients and controls and a paired t-test for differences between
baseline and follow-up. A Chi-square test was performed to analyze differences in fiber type
proportion. The variability in muscle fiber diameter was expressed as the coefficient of
30
variation (CV) according to the formula CV = SD/fiber area x 100 (%). The statistical
software Statview 4.5 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) was used to generate
measurements and Minitab (Minitab Inc, State College Pennsylvania, USA) to calculate the
statistics. The null hypothesis was rejected on p-values ≤ 0.05 in all used statistical tests.
RESULTS
CECS IN UNSELECTED PATIENTS WITH EXERTIONAL LOWER LEG PAIN
Of the 63 patients with exercise-induced lower leg pain, 36 patients (mean age 36 (16-65) y,
22 females, 14 men) had CECS with engagement of 66 anterior, 2 lateral and 7 posterior
compartments. Clinically they were tender over anterior lower leg and muscle hernias were
found in 4 patients. All had normal findings on radiography and bone-scan. Only 5 patients
were athletes and 5 recreational runners while the majority were walkers (n=26).
The age, proportion of walkers and outcome differed in the four different groups of patients as shown
below.
Group Number Age Proportion walkers/athletes,
runners
Sex female/male
Treated with fasciotomy/ 1y follow-up
Outcome of treated legs at 1y
follow-up (mean rating)
Overuse 18 29 8/18 10/8 17/16 2
Previous trauma
10 40 10/0 6/4 9/9 3
Diabetic patients
4 38 4/0 4/0 3/3 2
Others 4 51 4/0 2/2 3/3 2
The rating according to Abramovitz et al (1994). 1 Excellent No pain during or after exercise
No limitation of duration and extent of exercise Patient considers herself/himself cured
3. Fair Pain on running/ exercise or afterwards Still has a limitation Recurrent symptoms Only slightly improved
2. Good
Minimal discomfort or soreness during/after exercise No limitation of duration and extent of exercise Significantly improved Glad to have had surgery
4. Poor Unchanged or worse Complications
31
According to the clinical history the patients were divided into four different etiologic groups:
18 with overuse (otherwise healthy), 10 with earlier trauma, 4 insulin-treated diabetic patients
and 4 others. Diabetic patients and the 4 others had higher IMPs than the overuse group (Fig.
6). Fifty-seven legs in 32 patients were treated with fasciotomy.
The surgical results were graded according to Abramovitz et al (1994) and were excellent or
good in 41 of 57 treated legs.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Rest 1 min 5 min 10 min 15 min
OthersTraumaDiabetesOveruse
mmHg
Fig. 6. Preoperative IMP (mean values in mmHg) in the anterior tibialis muscle at rest, 1, 5, 10 and 15 min after exercise. The diabetic group had higher mean IMP values than the trauma and overuse group with significant differences to the overuse group at rest and 15 min after exercise (p<0.05).
CECS IN PATIENTS WITH DIABETES MELLITUS
Seventeen patients with DM and lower leg pain were investigated. Their mean age was 39
(18-72) y, 14 were females and the mean duration of diabetes was 22 (1-21) y. The duration
of claudication was 6 (0.2-15) y. Twelve had type 1 and 5 had type 2 diabetes. Twelve had
other diabetic complications as well. Clinical examination revealed firm muscles of the lower
leg, with and leg pain was provoked by 20 heel-raisings. Muscle hernias were present in 4
patients and impaired cutaneous sensibility was found in 9 patients. None had signs of
circulatory insufficiency. Sixteen patients were confirmed to have CECS. IMP was
32
significantly higher (p<0.05) in diabetic patients compared with a group of healthy physically
active patients treated for CECS (Fig. 7).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Rest 1 min 5 min 10 min 15 min
OveruseDiabetes
mmHg
Fig. 7. Preoperative IMP (mean values in mmHg) in the anterior tibialis muscle in overuse (blue) and diabetic (purple) groups at rest, 1, 5, 10 and 15 min after exercise. Bar represents SD. The diabetic group (n=16) had higher IMP than the over use group (n=18). The differences in IMP between the two groups were statistical significant at all time intervals (p<0.05), except at 5 min.
Fifteen of the 16 patients were treated with fasciotomy of the antero-lateral compartment and
one with a posterior compartment release. At surgery the fascia seemed thickened and whitish
in some patients. Nine patients were followed more than 1 year and rated their outcome as
excellent in 4, good in 11 and fair in 3 legs. The walking time before leg pain increased to
unlimited in 8 patients. Postoperatively, 1 had superficial peroneal nerve injury and 2 had
infections.
Basic data and outcome for the entire diabetic group diagnosed with CECS.
Number Female/ male
Age (mean y)
DM type 1/ type 2
Disease duration (mean y)
Number with diabetic
complication
Years of leg pain (mean y)
Outcome of treated legs
1y follow-up (mean rating)
16 13/3 39 11/5 21 13 6 2
33
BASELINE MUSCLE MORPHOLOGY
Muscle pathology
Histopathological muscle changes were common in CECS especially in diabetic patients
having more frequent, severe and widespread alterations than healthy non-diabetic patients.
The most common abnormalities were presence of extremely small-sized fibers partly
expressing developmental MyHC. Most cases showed signs of fibrosis and focal fascicular
atrophy were observed in some subjects. A number of fibers, or clusters of fibers, had low or
lacked NADH-TR activity in the centre and others had mitochondrial disorganization
fulfilling the criteria for moth-eaten fibers in the CECS. This pattern was especially prominent
in diabetic patients. More diabetic specific findings were fiber hypertrophy, fiber type
grouping, group atrophy, fiber necrosis, infiltration of inflammatory cells, abnormally formed
fibers including angulated fibers, fiber split, increased number of internal nuclei (>3%) and
fat infiltration. Ring-fibers, pyknotic nuclear clumps and fibers with a tendency to lobulated
form and an irregular trabecular and coarse granular appearance in NADH-TR were also
found in diabetic patients (Fig. 8).
Fiber types and their mitochondrial oxidative capacity
Fibers expressing MyHC I, MyHC IIa, MyHCI+IIa and MyHCIIa+IIx were distinguished in
all tibialis anterior muscles in both patients with CECS and in normal controls. No muscle
fibers expressed only MyHCIIx in any cases. Fibers containing MyHCI had usually a higher
mitochondria oxidative capacity than fibers containing MyHCII. The NADH-TR staining
intensity was generally lower in the CECS samples than in controls, especially in fibers
containing MyHCII isoforms.
Relative frequency of fiber phenotypes, fiber area and variability in fiber size
The proportion of different fiber phenotypes or fiber area did not differ between diabetic and
healthy non-diabetic patients with CECS and controls. When small atrophic or
degenerative/regenerative fibers were excluded, no statistical differences in fiber area and CV
values were observed between patients with CECS and normal controls.
34
Fig 8. Muscle pathology in the anterior tibialis muscle in diabetic (A-H) and physical active patients with CECS (I-L). Figs A-D are stained for Hematoxylin & Eosin, fig. E for mAb A4.840 (MyHCI), figs F, G for mAb D33 (desmin), figs. H, I for NADH-TR, figs. J, K for mAb N2.261 (MyHCIIa stained strongly and MyHCI weakly) and fig. L for mAb NCL-MHCn (developmental MyHC). Note the large variability in fiber size and fiber form (A, C, D), increase of internal myonuclei (A), a necrotic fiber (B), increased infiltration of fat and connective tissue (C, D), small angulated fibers (D, K), fiber type grouping (E), a multi split fiber (F), ring and split fibers (G, H), abnormal mitochondria distribution (I), fascicular atrophy (J) and presence of developmental MyHC (L).
Muscle capillarization
All capillary parameters differed significantly between healthy non-diabetic patients with
CECS and controls. The capillary density (CD) tended to be 28% lower (p=0.06), the number
of capillaries around fibers (CAF) was 21% lower (p=0.004), and the number of capillaries
around fibers relative to its cross-sectional area (CAFA) was 27% lower (p=0.01) than in
controls. For fiber phenotypes, significantly lower CAF and CAFA values were observed for
MyHCI and MyHCIIa fibers (p<0.04, respectively). In contrast, no significant difference were
35
found between diabetic patients with CECS and controls, except that those with DM showed
significantly lower CAF for MyHC IIa fibers (p=0.02). However, there was trend to lower CD
(p=0.06) and lower CAF (p=0.07) (Figs. 9 and 10).
Fig. 9. Serial crossections of tibialis anterior muscle in a diabetic CECS patient (A-D) and control subject (D-F) stained for mAb N2.261 (MyHCIIa strongly stained and MyHCI weakly stained) (A,D), mAb A4.951 (MyHCI) (B,F) and mAb 4C7 (C,F).
Fig. 10. Muscle cross-sections of the tibialis anterior muscle of a diabetic patient and a healthy active subject with CECS and normal control stained for mAb C47. Note the lower capillary density in a healthy active subject (B) compared with a diabetic patient with CECS (A) and a normal control (C).
36
MORPHOLOGY AT FOLLOW-UP 1 Y AFTER FASCIOTOMY
Muscle pathology
Histopathological muscle alterations were less common 1 year after treatment, especially in
diabetic patients with dramatically reduced changes (Fig10). Although morphological
abnormalities still were present in most diabetic, and in some healthy non-diabetic patients,
the frequency of the remaining alterations was low. A general finding was decreased
frequency of fibers with mitochondrial disruptions and the NADH-TR staining activity of
muscle fibers was slightly increased in some cases, especially for fibers containing fast
MyHCII. Connective tissue alterations within the muscle was general reduced. In healthy
non-diabetic patients, the number of small-sized fibers was decreased contrary to an increase
of small fibers expressing developmental MyHC (Fig. 11).
Fig 11. Muscle cross-sections of the anterior tibial muscle of a diabetic patient with CECS at fasciotomy (A) and at 1 year follow up (B) and a normal control subject stained for Hematoxylin & Eosin. Note the normalization of the muscle 1 year after fasciotomy (B).
In DM, the most pronounced alteration was a reduction of small-sized fibers, necrotic fibers,
split fibers, inflammatory cells and fibers containing developmental MyHC. The remaining
histopathological alterations 1 year after fasciotomy consisted in the healthy non-diabetic
group mainly of small fibers containing developmental MyHC and in those with DM the most
common findings were atrophy, fiber hypertrophy, fiber type grouping and internal nuclei.
37
Fig. 12. Muscle cross-sections of the anterior tibial muscle of a healthy active patient with CECS at fasciotomy (A) and at 1 year follow-up (B, C) stained for mAb N2.261 (MyHCIIa strongly stained, MyHCI weakly stained) and for mAb NCL-MHCn (developmental MyHC) (C). Note the presence of developmental MyHC 1 year after fasciotomy indicating on fiber regeneration (C).
Fiber types and their mitochondrial oxidative capacity
The expression of MyHC isoforms in fibers was similar 1 year after treatment, with exception
that no fibers contained MyHCIIa+IIx in diabetic patients. The mitochondrial NADH-TR
activity of muscle fibers was slightly increased in some cases, especially for fibers containing
fast MyHCII (Fig 13).
Fig. 13. Muscle cross-sections of the anterior tibial muscle of a diabetic (A, B) and a healthy active patient (C, D) with CECS stained for NADH-TR at fasciotomy and 1 year follow up. Note the lower mitochondria NADH-TR staining activity and more irregular mitochondria distribution at time for fasciotomy (A, C) compared to 1 year follow- up (B, D).
38
Relative frequency of fiber phenotypes, fiber area and variability in fiber size
The frequency of different fiber phenotypes was, with exception of the lack of MyHCIIa+IIx
fibers in those with DM, unchanged 1 year after treatment. The mean fiber area values were
larger in patients with CECS than in controls, although the difference was only significant for
MyHCIIa fibers in healthy non-diabetic patients (p=0.04). However, in diabetic patients there
was a trend to larger MyHCI fibers (p=0.06). After treatment, small-sized fibers (< 100μm2)
were more frequent in non-diabetic patients with CECS, but less common in those with DM,
reflecting the higher CV values in non-diabetic and lower CV in diabetic patients.
Muscle capillarization
In healthy non-diabetic patients, CD was decreased by 34% 1 year after treatment (p=0.01),
but CAF remained at the same level. However, when compensating for differences in fiber
size, the CAFA values were 27% lower (p=0.01). CAFA values were lower for all fiber
phenotypes (p<0.01), except hybrid MyHCIIa+IIx fibers. In DM, all capillary parameters
were lower 1 year after treatment, but significant difference was only found for CAFA
(p=0.04).
DISCUSSION
Main findings
CECS of the lower leg is a disorder mainly reported in running athletes (Abramowitz and
Schepsis, 1994; Black and Tailor, 1993). This thesis shows that CECS is also associated with
intermittent claudication in non-athletes, and particularly in diabetic patients without signs of
distal circulatory impairment. In contrast to young physically active individuals with CECS,
diabetic patients had higher IMP and got leg disabling pain already after a short walking
distance. Fasciotomy gave good results, which is especially important in diabetic patients,
since physical activity is crucial for them. The pronounced alterations in the anterior tibial
muscle with signs of ischemia in diabetic patients were mainly normalized one year after
fasciotomy supporting that the diagnosis really exists in DM.
CECS in diabetes mellitus
This thesis is the first to report of CECS in DM. The typical diabetic patient with CECS is a
female with longstanding disease often with other diabetes complications. The long duration
of the disease is probably crucial for the development of CECS. CECS also appears to be
more frequent in type 1 than in type 2 diabetic patients and the latter in our series were often
on insulin treatment implying that they had a more difficult-to-treat disease. The main
symptom of CECS, intermittent claudication, is common in diabetic patients and is mostly
caused by arterial disease. The symptoms are similar between vascular disease and CECS but
clinical examination reveals no signs of circulatory insufficiency in CECS. One reason why
CECS has not previously been detected in DM may be that the focus has been on vascular
disease. In contrast to healthy active subjects with CECS, the diabetic patients got disabling
leg pain already after a short walking distance, often a few hundred meters, and slowly
adapted their activity. Most of these patients had been examined for arterial disease, and as
the results of this investigation was normal, they were prescribed pain-relieving medication or
physiotherapy but the results were poor. The patients had thus reduced their physical activity
in order to avoid pain and adapted to the condition especially since the treatment of training
only made it worse. Further, the reason to the female preponderance in diabetics as well as in
healthy active subjects with CECS is unclear, but it seems to be some predisposition to
gender. The majority of CECS patients came from the diabetes care unit at our hospital which
is a selection bias since we had informed the care unit about the disorder and urged them to
send claudication patients without clear explanation to the symptoms.
The mean age of diabetic patients with CECS was lower than usually reported in diabetic
patients with arterial disease or spinal stenosis (Arinzon et al., 2004; Sahli et al., 2005). The
walking-induced pain in CECS was situated in the anterior part of the leg in contrast to those
with vascular claudication having primarily calf pain (Stewart al., 2002). The leg pain was
easily provoked by 20 heel-raisings although we have not validated this test. The IMP of the
anterior compartment in diabetic patients with CECS was higher than in healthy physically
active individuals with CECS both at rest and after exercise. The IMP was so high in diabetic
patients during the measuring procedure that we feared a development into acute
compartment syndrome (Jose et al., 2004). Even at rest the mean IMP was above the values
(25-35 mm Hg) reported to reduce capillary perfusion in muscle (Hargens et al., 1981).
Spontaneous diabetic muscle infarction has been diagnosed especially in females with
multiple diabetic complications (Yildirim and Feldman, 2008); this is similar to the clinical
40
characteristics in this thesis. Thus, pre-existing CECS may be the origin to development of
muscle necrosis.
At surgery the fascia seemed considerably thicker, whitish and stiff in diabetic patients than in
healthy athletes with CECS, but our preliminary results of fascia examination indicate great
variability and thus more material is needed to verify our assumption. However, the
engagement of the whole leg indicates a general affection with connective tissue thickening of
similar type seen in stiff-joint syndrome in DM (Smith et al., 2003). Hyperglycemia increases
the capillary permeability resulting in edema, thereby increasing the pressure in the
compartment (Perin et al., 2007). The patients’ long history of physical inability perhaps
initiates a vicious circle resulting in hyperglycemia with subsequent further pathologic
changes in capillaries and fascia. The patients had thus reduced their physical activity in order
to avoid pain, theoretically with aggravated DM as a consequence. The rating of outcome at
one year after antero-lateral fasciotomy was the same as in healthy physically active patients
with CECS. However, the activity level differed between the two groups and the most
important result was that the vast majority of the diabetic patients were able to walk without
restrictions.
Clinical implications
It is important to notice that about 50% of the diabetic patients with CECS treated with
antero-lateral fasciotomy relapsed after more than 1y with walking-induced leg pain from the
medial side. Additional investigations with IMP measurement revealed CECS in the deep
posterior compartment. Posterior CECS is reportedly uncommon and even its existence had
been questioned (Styf, 2003). However, after additional posterior fasciotomy the exercise-
related pain disappeared in nearly all cases. Consequently, 1 year follow-up time was too
short.
CECS is assumed to be rather prevalent in DM as our preliminary data indicate that around
5% of patients from a diabetic clinic have CECS. It is, however, curious why muscle necrosis
or spontaneous acute compartment syndrome in DM is so rare if according to our assumption
CECS is rather common. This may be due to the chronic situation where the muscles have
adapted to a lower oxygen metabolism. Our circulatory assessment consists of ankle/brachial
index but in DM this index may sometimes be unreliable why toe blood pressure
measurements also are performed (Sahli, 2009). When circulatory tests are normal and
symptoms and signs are characteristic for CECS, we continue with IMP measurements. If the
41
42
intramuscular pressures are normal we extend the investigations further with circulatory and
spinal examinations.
Diabetic patients with long disease duration have increased risk for postoperative
complications. In order to reduce these risks we always operate on one leg and only one of the
anterior or posterior compartments at the time. Further, we recommend preoperative pre-
operative antibiotics to reduce the risk for infection. Suction drainage is used to avoid
hematoma, which according to our experience increases the risk for postoperative scaring
with subsequent inferior results (Schepsis et al., 2005).
Why does CECS occur in diabetic patients?
Several specific complications to diabetes may contribute to high IMP and ischemia in
diabetic patients with CECS. Firstly, the micro-vascular disease might cause an imbalance in
vascular exchange and disturbed regulation of blood flow. Leakage of macromolecules and
fluid through the endothelium might result in tissue edema that increases IMP (van den Berg
et al., 2006; Simionescu, 2007; Yuan et al., 2007). Evidence of compartment syndrome due to
capillary leakage is suggested by the fact that patients with a rare but devastating disease,
systemic capillary leak syndrome (SCLS), are complicated by plasma leakage into muscle and
compartment syndromes (Matsumura et al., 2007; Sanghavi et al., 2006). Moreover,
disturbed blood flow regulation due to the inability of arteries and arterioles to dilate
appropriately or diabetic autonomic neuropathy involving the vasomotor nervous system
might cause disturbed homeostasis (Bakker et al., 2009; Verrotti et al., 2009). Disturbed
vascular regulation could also be a result of a defect function or loss of the vascular pericytes
that envelopes capillaries and are proposed to be involved in regulation of blood flow,
vascular permeability, angiogenesis and endothelial proliferation (Shepro and Morel, 1993,
Allt and Lawrenson, 2001; Hammes et al., 2002). Pericyte loss is a hallmark in diabetic
retionopathy (Yafai et al., 2004). Diabetic arteriosclerosis might also contribute to a lower
capillary perfusion pressure making the muscle blood flow more sensitive for increased IMP.
Secondly, an inextensible compartment due to a thicker and/or stiffer muscle fascia secondary
to generalized stiffening of connective tissue in DM might also contribute to high IMP
(Sternberg et al., 1985; Avery et al., 2009; Aoki et al., 1993). Although an inextensible fascia
might be a part of the pathogenesis, several other factors are probably crucial for the
development of CECS in DM (see Fig 14).
Muscle alterations in diabetic patients with CECS
The pronounced and widespread histopathological changes in the lower legs of diabetics with
CECS are probably a consequence of local circulatory impairment and to some extent of a
general neuropathy. Diabetes micro-vascular dysfunction may cause neuropathy (Nathan,
1993; Marshall and Flyvbjerg, 2006; van den Berg et al., 2006; Bakker et al., 2009) followed
by atrophy and progressively reduced muscle strength in lower legs (Andersen et al., 1997;
Bus et al., 2002; Andersen et al., 2004a; Greenman et al., 2005). Consequently, neuropathy
might explain some of the histopathological muscle changes in diabetic patients with CECS,
but the often considerably increased IMP suggests that local ischemia has the main
detrimental effect on muscles. The clusters of necrotic fibers and infiltration of inflammatory
cells as well as fibers with mitochondrial disorganization is probably a direct consequence of
circulatory impairment (Dubowitz, 2007; Heffner and Barron, 1978; Larsson et al., 1990),
although chronic low-grade inflammation is also reported to be associated with the disease. A
secondary effect of high IMP and ischemia might be local neuropathy due to compression of
capillaries supporting blood flow to nerves. The clusters of atrophic fibers, fascicular atrophy
and high number of small-sized fibers support motor nerve damage. The high frequency of
large sized fibers is probably derived from frequent activation of some motor units to uphold
the muscle function in diabetic patients with CECS. However, there were also signs of a
parallel process of repair and regeneration. The presence of fiber type grouping indicates that
sprouts of adjacent intact motor axons have re-innervated neighboring denervated fibers
(Morris and Raybould, 1971). Other signs of regeneration and repair were an increased
frequency of fibers stained for developmental MyHCs, a high number of split fibers and fibers
with increase number of internal nuclei (Eriksson et al., 2006). The mechanism behind fiber
split is unclear, but fusion of activated and multiplying satellite cells is supposed to cause the
formation of branched fibers or they may develop secondary to defect regeneration after
segmental muscle fiber damage (Eriksson et al., 2006). The internal myonuclei may come
from longstanding degeneration and regeneration resulting in enclosure of these within the
fibers after fusion of regenerating myocytes and myotubes (Schmalbruch, 1985). In contrast
to healthy patients with CECS, capillary supply of diabetic muscle was more similar to
normal controls, although there was a trend towards lower microvascularization. The more
advanced histopathological changes, but decreased alterations in capillary supply than in
healthy active with CECS, suggest differences in pathogenesis and emphasize vascular
complication as an important factor in development of CECS in diabetic patients.
The normalization of muscle after fasciotomy was especially prominent in DM, although
abnormalities were still present after 1 year. The healing of the muscles after decompression
together with clinical improvement supports the diagnosis CECS in DM. Some of the
remaining pathological alterations in the tibialis anterior muscle are probably complications to
a general diabetic myopathy and neuropathy. Nevertheless, the normalization of muscle
morphology together with clinical improvement with unrestricted walking ability in most
cases is of vital importance since physical activity, as previously mentioned, is a vital part of
the therapy in DM.
CECS in non-diabetic patients
Traditionally, CECS of the lower leg has been described in physically active young
individuals probably due to the fact that the first reported CECS cases were athletes. In
contrast to almost all previous studies (Detmer et al., 1985; Englund 2005), we found that
even less physically active middle-aged subjects may get lower leg symptoms diagnosed as
CECS. One reason is perhaps that general practitioners and internists rarely meet patients with
compartment syndromes. Thus, CECS should be considered as a differential diagnosis to
exertional leg pain even in walkers. About half of the patients referred to the orthopaedic
clinic suspected for CECS of the lower leg were verified having CECS. Compared with other
studies (Quarford et al, 1983; Bong et al., 2005), this is a high proportion probably due to
some selection bias since many of the patients were sent from the sports clinic and the general
practitioners were informed of the diagnosis before the start of the survey. Even today many
patients are treated for CECS without IMP measurement. This is not correct since the
unspecific symptoms may be similar to other disorders. We have routinely used the micro-
infusion method for muscle pressure measurements for many years and are aware of the
sources of error. It should be remembered that the posterior compartment pressure
measurement is more difficult to perform and that the values are less reliable (Allen &
Barnes, 1986; van Zoest et al., 2008).
CECS has different etiologies. In our series about one third of the cases had a history of
trauma long before the symptoms appeared. Trauma has been earlier proposed to promote
development of CECS (Tubb and Vermillion, 2001) but we had a large proportion of these
cases. It is also important to notice that the results after fasciotomy of those with history of
trauma were inferior to others probably due to posttraumatic soft-tissue alterations. Thus, it is
important for the surgeon to inform these patients about the prognosis before surgery.
45
Pathophysiologic theories to CECS in non-diabetic patients
The pathophysiology to CECS in healthy physically active individuals is unclear, but as
proposed in DM, an abnormally increased IMP during exercise impedes muscle blood flow
causing ischemia and pain (Blackman, 2000; Styf, 1987; 2003). Although the mechanisms are
not well-understood, anatomical tight compartments of lower legs, inextensible fascia and
muscle hypertrophy can all be hypothesized to be involved in the detrimental increased of
IMP during exercise (Turnipseed et al., 1989). A high IMP will compress the capillaries and
stop blood flow just above the intra-capillary pressure (25-35 mmHg) in the muscle (Murabak
et al., 1978; Hargens et al., 1981). High IMP levels will consequently lead to ischemia and
pain. Prolonged periods of ischemia give endothelial swelling, increased vascular
permeability, interstitial edema, nerve damage and fiber necrosis (Menger et al., 1997;
Blackman, 2000; Blaisdell, 2002). The observed histopathological alterations suggest that
IMP and ischemia in some patients reach levels high enough to damage muscle and nerves.
Moreover, a low muscle microvascularization might be a part of the etiology to CECS, as
indicated by lower capillary supply in healthy active subjects with CECS. The capillary blood
flow starts to be blocked in capillaries already at a compartment pressure of 15 mmHg
(Hartsock et al., 1998). A muscle with low capillary supply might therefore be susceptible for
increased IMP by reaching critical levels of insufficient blood supply of muscle and nerve
tissue during exercise. A low structural capacity for blood flow is supported by a higher
degree of relative de-oxygenation during as well as delayed re-oxygenation after exercise
(Mohler et al., 1997; van den Brand et al., 2004), along with a slower recovery of voluntary
force, and slower return of muscle volume towards normal after exercise (Birtles et al., 2003).
There are factors pointing towards a constitutional cause to low muscle microvascularization
in healthy physical active with CECS. It is well-known that inactivity lowers the number of
capillaries, decreases oxidative metabolism and fiber size, and alters fiber type composition
(Borisov et al., 2000). However, decreased physical activity seems not to be the major cause
to low microvascular supply since all healthy patients in this study reported a relatively
normal or even high physical activity before treatment, and the muscles contained no
alterations in fiber size or fiber phenotype composition compared to normal controls.
Moreover, the capillary network was still low one year after treatment when the physical
activity of patients had increased, which was supported by the increased size of fast fibers
expressing MyHCIIa. The restricted capillary network together with lack of
neovascularization after treatment may reflect constitutional differences or a deficiency in
46
specific angiogenic factors regulating the interaction between muscle fibers and the vascular
bed.
The improvement in physical activity one year after fasciotomy was reflected by the
normalization of histopathological abnormalities, increased fiber size and increased
proportion of hybrid fibers, i.e. fibers containing multiple MyHC isoforms. The presence of
developmental MyHCs implies that decompression triggers muscle regeneration and repair
(Schiaffino et al., 1986). In adults, small fibers expressing developmental MyHC have been
associated with activated satellite cells involved in the process of fiber repair or formation of
new fibers after muscle damage (Kadi et al., 1999; Bischoff, 1994). Although fasciotomy
induces a healing process in muscle, the low capillary supply and absence of
neovascularization after treatment indicate low micro-vascularization as a pathogenic factor in
healthy active subjects with CECS.
47
SUMMARY CECS of the lower leg occurs in middle-aged adults with low or moderate physical activity.
Previous trauma seems to be an etiologic factor for development of CECS. Importantly, this
thesis shows that CECS has to be considered as a novel differential diagnosis in diabetic
patients with symptoms of claudication without signs of vascular disease. Diabetic patients
with CECS got disabling leg pain after a much shorter walking distance, compared to healthy
non-diabetic patients with CECS, and the IMP was higher both at rest and after exercise. The
typical patient was a female with longstanding diabetes often with other diabetic
complications. Fasciotomy gave good results with unrestricted walking ability in majority of
cases. Low ability for physical activity, reflected by the signs of both myopathy and
neuropathy, indicates that high IMP and circulatory impairment has deleterious effects for the
involved muscles. Healthy physical active patients with CECS of the anterior compartment of
the lower leg seem to have a low structural capacity for muscle blood flow suggesting low
microvascularization as an integral part of the pathogenesis. The more severe clinical and
histopathological findings in diabetic patients than healthy subjects with CECS indicate
differences in the pathogenesis and emphasize vascular complication as an important factor in
development of CECS in DM. Increased physical activity and normalization of muscle
morphology one year after treatment showed the benefit of fasciotomy. The unrestricted
physical ability in majority of patients treated for CECS is very important for diabetic
patients, since physical activity is an important part of the therapy of the disease. The
symptoms and signs are characteristic if searched for, and the treatment is simple. Before
treatment, IMP measurements should always be done to verify the diagnosis.
FUNDING
The studies of this thesis were supported by the Swedish National Centre for Research in Sports (CIF) and the Faculty of Medicine, Umeå University, Sweden.
48
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to:
Professor Göran Toolanen, my supervisor, colleague and near friend. Thanks for the opportunity to do this thesis, for your great and never ending patience and professional attitude when guiding me through my scientific education. I really appreciate all time you have spent both day and night helping me with the papers and for your cheerful temperament. I also want to thank your wife Margareta for her great patience.
Docent Per Stål, my supervisor who guided me in the fascinating field of muscle research. Thanks for always being cheerful and friendly and your meticulously work days and nights to make this thesis possible. Many thanks to your wife Maria for lending you for such a long time.
Professor Olle Svensson for valuable help in writing and revising the manuscripts - your sharp and blue ink pen always shortened what I had written. I also want to thank you for giving me the opportunity to prepare and defend this thesis.
Professor Lars Erik Thornell, for your interesting comments and important contributions to the thesis.
Thanks also to:
Professor Peter Sojka, for your valuable contribution to the first paper.
Ms Inger Lindström, for support and meticulously laboratory work and never-ending patience. Without your engagement this thesis had never been done.
Anna Karin Olofsson and Margaretha Enerstedt for your admirable patience in collecting and sectioning my muscle samples and for kindly assistance during my journey in the morphological field. Gustav Andersson for excellent figures.
Monika Hellström, Carina Pokosta and Susanne Rahimi for performing intramuscular pressure measurements.
Agneta Vännström and Mona Rending, for performing all bone scans.
Elisabeth Sjöström-Fahlen, for your great interest in my studies and your deep knowledge in the field of diabetes. Rut Edström, for your kindly assistance during the work and your interest in our diabetes patients and my study.
All my colleagues and staff at the Orthopaedic Clinic and Surgical Department.
Andreas Fredriksson, for your positive attitude and being so thoughtful!
Jonathan Edmundsson, my son, for your never-ending patience and support during the years.
Sanna Bernhardsson, for being cheerful and your contribution in reading my manuscript.
Thorey Edmundsson, my wife and my love since 29 years. Thanks for your great and never ending support during so many years, for your admirable patience and all lonely days and nights when I have worked with the thesis. There is not enough room to express my appreciation and gratitude to you.
49
REFERENCES
Abramowitz A J, Schepsis A A. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the lower leg. Orthop Rev 1994: 219-26.
Allen M J, Barnes M R. Exercise pain in the lower leg. Chronic compartment syndrome and medial tibial syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1986; 68 (5): 818-23.
Allt G, Lawrenson J G. Pericytes: cell biology and pathology. Cells, tissues, organs 2001; 169(1): 1-11.
Amendola A, Rorabeck C H, Vellett D, Vezina W, Rutt B, Nott L. The use of magnetic resonance imaging in exertional compartment syndromes. Am J Sports Med 1990; 18 (1): 29-34.
Andersen H, Gadeberg PC, Brock B, Jakobsen J. Muscular atrophy in diabetic neuropathy:a stereological magnetic resonance imaging study. Diabetologia 1997; 40 (9): 1062-1069.
Andersen H, Gjerdstad M D, Jacobsen J S. Atrophy of foot muscles : a measure of diabetic neuropathy . Diabetic care 2004a; 27 (10): 2382-2385.
Andersen L L, Andersen J L, Magnusson S P, Suetta C, Madsen J L, Christensen L R, Aagaard P. Changes in the human muscle force-velocity relationship in response to resistance training and subsequent detraining. J Appl Physiol 2005; 99 (1): 87-94.
Aoki Y, Yazaki K, Shirotori K, Yanagisawa Y, Oguchi H, Kiyosawa K, Furuta S. Stiffening of connective tissue in elderly diabetic patients: relevance to diabetic nephropathy and oxidative stress. Diabetologia 1993; 36 (1): 79-83.
Arinzon Z, Adunsky A, Fieldman Z, Gepstein R. Outcomes of decompressing surgery for lumbar spinal stenosis in elderly diabetic patients. Eur spine J 2004; 13: 32-7.
Avery N C, Sims T J, Bailey A J. Quantitative determination of collagen cross-links. Methods Mol Biol 2009; 522: 103-121.
Bakker W, Eringa E C, Sipkema P, van Hinsbergh V W. Endothelial dysfunction and diabetes: roles of hyperglycemia, impaired insulin signaling and obesity. Cell Tissue Res 2009; 335 (1): 165-189.
Bakker, W, Eringa E C, Sipkema P, van Hinsbergh V W. Endothelial dysfunction and diabetes: roles of hyperglycemia, impaired insulin signaling and obesity. Cell Tissue Res 2009; 335 (1): 165-189.
Banker B Q, Engel A G. Basic reactions of muscle. In: Engel Ag, Franzini-Armstrong C,eds. Myology. 2nd edn. New York: Mc Graw-Hill. 1994: pp. 97-118.
Barbet J P, Thornell L E, Butler-Browne G S. Immunocytochemical characterization of two generations of fibers during the development of the human quadriceps muscle. Mech Dev.1991; 35 (1): 3-11.
Biedert R M, Marti B.Intracompartmental pressure before and after Fasciotomy in runners with chronic deep posterior compartment syndrome.Int. J. Sports Med 1997; 18: 381-86.
Birtles, D B , M P Rayson, A Casey, D.A. Jones, D J. Venous obstruction in healthy limbs: a model for chronic compartment syndrome? Medicine and science in sports and exercise 2003; 35 (10): 1638-1644.
Bischoff R. The satellite cell and muscle regeneration; in Engel A G, Franzini-Armstrong C. (eds): Myology1994. New york, Mc Graw-Hill, pp 97-117.
Black K P, Taylor D E, Current concepts of common compartment syndromes in athletes . Sports Med 1993; 15 (6): 408-18.
Blackman P G. A review of chronic exertional compartment syndrome in the lower leg. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: (3 Suppl): 4-10.
Blaisdell, F W. The pathophysiology of skeletal muscle ischemia and the reperfusion syndrome: a review. Cardiovascular surgery (London, England)2002; 10 (6): 620-630.
Bong M R, Polatsch D B, Jazrawi L M, Rokito A S. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome Diagnosis and management. Bull Hosp Jt Dis 2005; 62: (3-4): 77-84.
Borg G A. Percived exertion: a note on "history" and methods. Med Sci Sports 1973; 5 (29): 90-3.
Borisov, A B, Huang S K, Carlson B M. Remodeling of the vascular bed and progressive loss of capillaries in denervated skeletal muscle. Anat Rec 2000; 258 (3): 292-304.
Brennan F H, Kane S F. Diagnosis, treatment options, and rehabilitation of chronic lower leg exertional compartment syndrome. Curr Sports Med Rep 2003; 2 (5): 247-50.
Bus S A, Yang Q X, Wang J H, Smith M B, Wunderlich R, Cavanagh P R. Intrinsic muscle atrophy and toe deformity in the diabetic neuropathic foot: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Diabetes Care 2002; 25 (8): 1444-1450.
Butler-Browne G S, Barbet J P, Thornell L E. Myosin heavy and light chain expression during human skeletal muscle development and precocious muscle maturation induced by thyroid hormone. Anat Embryol (Berl)1990; 181 (6): 513-22.
Cameron N E, Cotter M A, Metabolic and vascular factors in the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes 1997; 46 Suppl 2: 31-7.
Dahlin L B. Aspects on pathophysiology of nerve entrapments and nerve compression injuries. Neurosurg Clin N A 1991; 2 (1): 21-9.
Davey J R, Rorabeck C H, Fowler P J. The tibialis posterior muscle compartment. An unrecognized cause of exertional compartment syndrome. Am J Sports Med 1984; 12 (5): 391-7.
Dedkov E L, Kostrominova T Y, Borisov A B, Carlsson B M. Resistance vessel remodelling and reparative angiogenesis in the microcirculatory bed of long-term denervated skeletal muscles. Microvasc Res 2002; 63 (1): 96-114.
Dellon A L. Diabetic neuropathy: review of a surgical approach to restore sensation, relieve pain, and prevent ulceration and amputation. Foot Ankle Int 2004; 25 (10): 749-55.
Detmer D E, Sharpe K, Sufit R L, Girdly F M. Chronic compartment syndrome: Diagnosis, management, and outcomes. Am J Sports Med 1985; 13: (3): 162-70.
Devigili G, Tugnoli V, Penza P, Camozzi F, Lombardi R, Melli G, Broglio L, Granieri E, Lauria G. The diagnostic criteria for small fibre neuropathy: from symptoms to neuropathology. Brain 2008; 131 ( 7): 1912-25.
Dubowitz V, Sewry A. Muscle Biology. A Practical Approach.; in ed., d. (ed). London, Saunders Elsevier 2007; pp 28-39.
Dubowitz V, Sewry C A. Muscle biopsy. A practical approach. 3nd edn, 2007.
Dubowitz V. Muscle biology. A practical approach, 2nd edn London: Bailliere tindall, 1985: pp. 19-40.
Edwards P H, Wright M L, Hartman J F. A practical approach for the differential diagnosis of chronic leg pain in the athlete. Am J Sports Med 2005; 33 (8): 1241-49.
Egginton S, Hudlická O, Brown M D, Walter H, Weiss J B, Bate A. Capillary growth in relation to blood flow and performance in overloaded rat skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 1998; 85 (6): 2025- 32.
Englund J. Chronic compartment syndrome: tips on recognizing and treating. J Fam Pract 2005; 54 (11): 955-60.
Eriksson A, Lindström M, Carlsson L, Thornell L E. Hypertrophic muscle fibers with fissures in power-lifters; fiber splitting or defect regeneration. Histochem Cell Biol 2006; 126: 409-17.
Fitts R H, Widrick J J. Muscle mechanics: adaptations with exercise-training. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1996; 24: 427-73.
Fraipont M J, Adamson G J. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2003; 11 (4): 268-76.
French E B, Price W H. Anterior tibial pain. Br Med J 1962; 17 (5315): 1291-6.
Fronek J, Mubarak S J, Hargens A R, Lee Y F, Gershuni D H, Garfin S R, Akeson W H. Management of chronic exertional anterior compartment syndrome of the lower extremity. Clin Orthop Relat Res1987; (220): 217-27.
Girach A, Vignati L. Diabetic microvascular complications--can the presence of one predict the development of another? J Diabetes Complications 2006; 20 (4): 228-37.
Greenman R L, Khaodhiar L, Lima C, Dinh T, Giurini J M, Veves A. Foot small muscle atrophy is present before the detection of clinical neuropathy. Diabetes Care 2005; 28(6): 1425-1430.
Hammes H P, Lin J, Renner O, Shani M, Lundqvist A, Betsholtz C, Brownlee M, Deutsch U. Pericytes and the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 2002; 51(10): 3107-3112.
Hargens A R, Cologne J B, Menninger F J, Hogan J S, Tucker B J, Peters R M. Normal transcapillary pressures in human skeletal muscle and subcutaneous tissues. Microvasc Res 1981; 22 (2): 177-89.
Hartsock L A, O'Farrell D, Seaber A V, Urbaniak J R. Effect of increased compartment pressure on the microcirculation of skeletal muscle. Microsurgery1998;18 (2) :67-71.
Heffner R R, Barron S A. The early effects of ischemia upon skeletal muscle mitochondria. J Neurol Sci 1978; 38 (3): 295-315.
Hudlicka O, Brown M, Egginton S. Angiogenesis in skeletal and cardiac muscle. Physiol Rev 1992; 72 (2): 369-417.
Hudlicka O, Hoppeler H, Uhlmann E. Relationship between the size of the capillary bed and oxidative capacity in various cat skeletal muscles. Pflugers Arch 1987; 410 (4-5): 369-75.
Huijberts M S, Schaper N C, Schalkwijk C G. Advanced glycation end products and diabetic foot disease. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2008; 24 suppl 1: 19-24.
Hutchinson M R, Bederka B, Kopplin M. Anatomic structures at risk during minimal-incision endoscopically assisted fascial compartment releases in the leg. Am J Sports Med 2003; 31 (5): 764-69.
Huysman E, Mathieu C. Diabetes and peripheral artery disease. Acta Chir Belg 2009; 109 (5): 587-94.
Icks A, Haastert B, Trautner C, Giani G, Glaeske G, Hoffmann F . Incidence of lower-limb amputations in the diabetic compared to the non-diabetic population. Findings from nationwide insurance data, Germany, 2005-2007.Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2009; 117 (9): 500-4.
Jose R M, Viswatan N, Aldlyami E, Wilson Y, Moimen N, Tomas R. A spontaneous compartment syndrome in a patient with diabetes. J Bone Joint Surg (Br) 2004; 86 1068-70.
Kadi F, Eriksson A, Holmner S, Thornell L E. Effects of anabolic steroids on the muscle cells of strength-trained athletes. Medicine and science in sports and exercise 1999; 31 (11): 1528-34.
Kim R P, Edelman S V, Kim D D. Musculoskeletal complications of diabetes. Clin Diab 2001; 19 (3): 132-5.
Larsson S E, Bodegard L, Henriksson K G, Oberg P A. Chronic trapezius myalgia. Morphology and blood flow studied in 17 patients. Acta orthopaedica Scandinavica 1990; 61(5): 394-398.
Lohrer H, Nauck T. Endoscopically assisted release for exertional compartment syndromes of the lower leg. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 2007; 127: 827-34.
Lu D X, Huang S K, Carlsson B M. Electron microscopic study of long-term denervated rat skeletal muscle. Anat Rec 1997; 248 (3): 355-65.
Mackey R H, Venkitachalam L, Sutton-Tyrrell K. Calcifications, arterial stiffness and arteriosclerosis. Adv Cardiol 2007;44: 234-44.
Marshall SM, Flyvbjerg A. Prevention and early detection of vascular complications of diabetes. BMJ 2006; 333 (7566): 475-480.
Matsumura M, Kakuchi Y, Hamano R, Kitajima S, Ueda A, Kawano M, Yamagishi M. Systemic capillary leak syndrome associated with compartment syndrome. Intern Med. 2007; 46 (18): 1585-7.
Mavor G E. The anterior Tibial Syndrome. J Bone Joint surg Br 1956; 38-B (2): 513-17.
Menger M D, Rucker M, Vollmar B. Capillary dysfunction in striated muscle ischemia/reperfusion: on the mechanisms of capillary "no-reflow". Shock 1997; (Augusta, Ga 8 (1): 2-7.
Mohler L R, Styf J R, Pedowitz R A, Hargens A R, Gershuni D H. Intramuscular deoxygenation during exercise in patients who have chronic anterior compartment syndrome of the leg. J Bone Joint Surg (Am) 1997; 79 (6): 844-9.
Morris C J, Raybould J A. Fibre type grouping and end-plate diameter in human skeletal muscle. J Neurol Sci 1971; 13 (2): 181-187.
Nathan D M. Long-term complications of diabetes mellitus. The New England journal of medicine 1993; 328 (23): 1676-1685.
Nieuwdorp M, , Mooij H L, Kroon J , Atasever B, Spaan J A, Ince C, Hollemen F, Diamant M, Heine R J, Hoekstra J B, Kastelein J J, Stroes E S, Vink H. Endothelial glycocalyx damage concedes with microalbuminuria in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 2006a; 55 (4): 1127-1132.
51
Nieuwdorp M, van Haeften T W, Gouverneur M C Mooij H L, van Lieshout M H, Levi M, Meijers J C, Hollemen F, Hoekstra J B, Vink H, Kastelein J J, Stroes E S. Loss of endothelial glycocalyx during acute hyperglycemia concedes with endothelial dysfunction and coagulation activation in vivo. Diabetes 2006b; 55 (2): 480-86.
Oturai P S, Lorenzen T, Nørregaard J, Simonsen L. Evaluation of Tc-99m-tetrofosmin single-photon emission computed tomography for detection of chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the leg. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2006;16 (4): 282-6.
Pamoukian V N, Rubino F, Iraci J C.Review and case report of idiopathic lower extremity compartment syndrome and its treatment in diabetic patients. Diabetes Metab 2000 Dec; 26 (6): 489-92.
Papanas N, Edmonds M, Maltezos E. Pseudoclaudication as a manifestation of diabetic neuropathy. Diabet Med 2005; 22 (11): 1608-10.
Pecoraro R E, Reiber G E, Burgess E M. Pathways to diabetic limb amputation. Basis for prevention. Diabetes Care 1990; 13 (5): 513-21.
Pedowitz R A, Hargens A R, Mubarac S J, Geschuni D H. Modified criteria for the objective diagnosis of chronic compartment syndrome of the leg. Am J Sports Med 1990; 18 (1):35-40.
Perrin R, Harper S J, Bates D O. A role of the Endothelial Glycocalyx in Regulating Microwascular Permeability in Diabetes Mellitus. Cell Biochem Biophys 2007; 49 (2): 65-72.
Pontén EM, Stål PS. Decreased capillarization and a shift to fast myosin heavy chain IIx in the biceps brachii muscle from young adults with spastic paresis. J Neurol Sci. 2007; 253 (1-2): 25-33.
Qvarfordt P, Christenson J T, Eklöf B, Ohlin P, Saltin B. Intramuscular pressure, muscle blood flow, and skeletal muscle metabolism in chronic anterior tibial compartment syndrome. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1983; 179: 284-90.
Rathur H M, Boulton A J. Recent advances in the diagnosis and management of diabetic neuropathy. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2005; 87 (12): 1605-10.
Rorabeck C H, Bourne R B, Fowler P J, Finlay J B, Nott L. The role of tissue pressure measurement in diagnosing chronic anterior compartment syndrome. Am J Sports Med 1988; 16 (2): 143-6.
Rorabeck C H, Bourne R B, Fowler P J. The surgical treatment of exertional compartment syndrome in athletes. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1983; 65 (9): 1245-51.
Rowdon G A, Abdelkarim B.Compartment Syndromes.E medicine 2008; (okt 29).
Roy S, Trudeau K, Roy S, Behl Y, Dhar S, Chronopoulos A. New insights into hyperglycemia-induced molecular changes in microvascular cells. J Dent Res 2010; 89 (2) 116-27.
Sahli D, Svensson M, Lidgren J, Ojbrandt K, Eriksson J W. Evaluation of simple non-invasive techniques for assessment of lower extremity arterial disease. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2005; 25 (3): 129-34.
Sahli D. Early Arterial Disease of the Lower Extremities in Diabetes- Diagnostic Evaluation and Risk Markers. Umeå University Medical Dissertations. New Series No 132. 2009.
Sanghavi R, Aneman A, Parr M, Dunlop L, Champion D. Systemic capillary leak syndrome associated with compartment syndrome and rhabdomyolysis. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2006; 34 (3): 388-91.
Schepsis A A, Fitzgerald M, Nicoletta R. Revision surgery for exertional anterior compartment syndrome of the lower leg: technique, findings, and results. Am J Sports Med 2005; 33 (7): 1040-7.
Schepsis A A, Gill S S, Foster T A. Fasciotomy for exertional anterior compartment syndrome: is lateral compartment release necessary? Am J Sports Med 1999; 27 (4): 430-5.
Schepsis A A, Martini D, Corbett M. Surgical management of exertional compartment syndrome of the lower leg. Long-term follow-up. Am J Sports Med 1993; 21 (6): 811-7; discussion 817.
Schiaffino S, Salviati G. Molecular diversity of myofibrillar proteins: isoforms analysis at the protein and mRNA level. Methods Cell Biol. 1997; 52: 349-69.
Schiaffino S, Gorza L, Dones I, Cornelio F, Sartore S. Fetal myosin immunoreactivity in human dystrophic muscle. Muscle Nerve1986; 9 (1): 51-58.
Schmalbruch H. Skeletal muscle; in Oksche A, Vollrath L. (eds): Handbook of Microscopic Anatomy, part 6. Berlin1985. Springer-Verlag.
Shepro D, Morel N M. Pericyte physiology. Faseb J 1993; 7(11): 1031-1038.
Simionescu M. Implications of early structural-functional changes in the endothelium for vascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007; 27(2): 266-274.
Slimmon D, Bennell K, Brukner P, Crossley K, Bell S N. Long-term outcome of fasciotomy with partial fasciectomy for chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the lower leg. Am J Sports Med 2002; 30 (4): 581-8.
Smith L L, Burnet S P, McNeil J D. Musculoskeletal manifestations of diabetes mellitus. Br J Sports Med 2003; 37 (1): 30-35.
Sternberg M, Cohen-Forterre L, Peyroux J. Connective tissue in diabetes mellitus: biochemical alterations of the intercellular matrix with special reference to proteoglycans, collagens and basement membranes. Diabetes Metab 1985; 11(1): 27-50.
Stewart K J, Hiatt W R, Regensteiner J G, Hirsch A T. Exercise training for claudication. N Engl J Med 2002; 137 (24): 1941-51.
Styf J R, Körner L M. Chronic anterior compartment syndrome of the leg. Results of treatment by fasciotomy. J Bone Joint Surg (Am) 1986; 68 (9): 1338-47.
Styf J R, Körner L M.Diagnosis of chronic anterior compartment syndrome in the lower leg.Acta orthop. Scand 1987; 58: 1139-44.
Styf J. Kompartmentsyndrom-diagnostik, behandling och komplikationer. Studentlitteratur 2003
Stål P S, Lindman R. Characterisation of human soft palate muscles with respect to fibre types, myosins and capillary supply. J Anat. 2000; 197 ( Pt 2): 275-90.
Touliopolous S, Hershman E B. Lower leg pain. Diagnosis and treatment of compartment syndromes and other pain syndromes of the leg. Sports Med 1999; 27 (3): 193-204.
52
Trease L, van Every B, Bennell K, Brukner P, Rynderman J, Baldey A, Turlakow A, Kelly M J. A prospective blinded evaluation of exercise thallium-201 SPET in patients with suspected chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the leg. Eur J Nucl Med 2001; 28 (6): 688-95.
Tubb C C, Vermillion D. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome after minor injury to the lower extremity. Mil Med 2001; 166 (4): 366-8.
Turnipseed W, Detmer D E, Girdley F. Chronic compartment syndrome. An unusual cause for claudication. Ann Surg 1989; 210 (4): 557-62.
Tzortziou V, Maffulli N, Padhiar N.Diagnosis and management of chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) in the United Kingdom. Clin J Sport Med 2006; 16 (3): 209-13.
Urbancic-Rovan V, Stefanovska A, Bernjak A, Azman-Juvan K, Kocijancic A. Skin blood flow in the upper and lower extremities of diabetic patients with and without autonomic neuropathy. J Vasc Res 2004; 41 (6):535-45.
Wallensten R, Karlsson J. Histochemical and methabolic changes in lower leg muscles in exercise-induced pain. Int J Sports Med 1984; 5 (4): 202-8.
van den Berg B M, Nieuwdorp M, Stroes E S, Vink H.Glycocalyx and endothelial (dys) function: from mice to men. Pharmacol Rep 2006; 58 Suppl: 75-80.
van den Brand J G, Nelson T, Verleisdonk E J, van der Werken C. The diagnostic value of intracompartmental pressure measurement, magnetic resonance imaging, and near-infrared spectroscopy in chronic exertional compartment syndrome: a prospective study in 50 patients. Am J Sports Med 2005; 33 (5): 699-704.
van den Brand J G, Verleisdonk E J, van der Werken C. Near-infrared spectroscopy in the diagnosis of chronic exertional compartment syndrome. Am J Sports Med 2004; 32 (2): 452-6.
van Zoest W J F, Hoogeveen A R, Scheltinga M R M, Sala H A, van Mourik J B A, Brink P R G.Chronic deep posterior compartment syndrome of the leg in athletes: Postoperative results of fasciotomy. Int J Sports Med 2008; 29 (5): 419-23.
Wang J C, Criqui M H, Denenberg J O, McDermott M M, Golomb B A, Fronek A. Exertional leg pain in patients with and without peripheral arterial disease. Circulation 2005; 112 (22): 3501-8.
Wang N, Hikida R S, Staron R S, Simoneau J A. Muscle fiber types of women after resistance training-quantitative ultrastructure and enzyme activity. Pflugers Arch 1993;424 (5-6): 494-502.
Varelas F L, Wessel J, Clement D B, Doyle D L, Wiley J P. Muscle function in chronic compartment syndrome of the leg. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1993; 18 (5): 586-9.
Weiss A, Schiaffino S, Leinwand LA. Comparative sequence analysis of the complete human sarcomeric myosin heavy chain family: implications for functional diversity. J Mol Biol. 1999; 290 (1): 61-75.
Verleisdonk E J, van Gils A, van der Werken C. The diagnostic value of MRI scans for the diagnosis of chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the lower leg. Skeletal Radiol 2001; 30 (6): 321-5.
Verleisdonk EJ. The exertional compartment syndrome: A review of the literature. Ortop Traumatol Rehabil 2002; 5 (5): 626-31.
Vinik A L, Diabetic neuropathy: Pathogenesis and therapy. Am J Med 1999 Aug 30; 107 (2b): 17-26.
Verrotti A, Loiacono G, Mohn A, Chiarelli F. New insights in diabetic autonomic neuropathy in children and adolescents. Eur J Endocrinol 2009; 161 (6): 811-818.
Willy C, Sterk J, Völker H U, Benesch S, Gerngross H. The significance of intracompartmental pressure values for the diagnosis of chronic functional compartment syndrome. A meta-analysis of research studies of pressures in anterior M. tibialis during exercise stress.Unfallchirurg1999; 102 (4): 267-77.
Wood W A, Wood M A. Decompression of peripheral nerves for diabetic neuropathy in the lower extremity. J Foot Ankle Surg 2003; 42 (5): 268-75.
Yafai Y, Iandiev I, Wiedemann P, Reichenbach A, Eichler W. Retinal endothelial angiogenic activity: effects of hypoxia and glial (Muller) cells. Microcirculation 2004; 11 (7): 577-586.
Yamagishi S. Advanced glycation end products and receptor-oxidative stress system in diabetic vascular complications. Ther Apher Dial 2009; 13 (6): 534-9.
Yasuda H,Terada M, Maeda K, Kogawa S, Sanada M, Haneda M, Kashiwagi A, Kikkawa R. Diabetic neuropathy and nerve regeneration. Prog Neurobiol 2003; 69(4): 229-285.
Yildirim D, Feldman F, Muscle Compromise in Diabetes. Acta Radiol 2008; 49: 673-79.
Yuan S Y, Breslin J W, Perrin R, Gaudreault N, Guo M, Kargozaran H, Wu M H. Microvascular permeability in diabetes and insulin resistance. Microcirculation. 2007; 14 (4-5): 363-373.
53