AfghanistanPublicPolicyResearchOrganization

ChronicConflict,Poverty,andChildLabor:

EvidencefromKandahar,Bamyan,Herat,andBalkh

April2018ResearchReport

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AcknowledgmentsAboutThisPaperThepaperwasmadepossiblethroughfundingfromtheMinistryofForeignAffairs,TheNetherlands,fortheAfghanistanRightsMonitor(ARM)project.AboutARMThehumanrightsgainsmadeoverthepast16yearsinAfghanistanareincreasinglyunderthreatwitharesurgenceofviolenceanddecliningeconomicgrowthinthecountry.AfghanistanRightsMonitor(ARM)wasdesignedtoaddressthesegapsandcontributetothediscourseandactiononhumanrights.Theprojecthasthefollowingobjectives:

1. RegularmonitoringofthecurrentconditionsoffundamentalrightsinAfghanistanusingasetofindicatorsbasedoninternationallyrecognizedstandardsformonitoringCivic,SocialandEconomicrights.

2. Informed,pragmatic,andconstructiveadvocacymessagingonfundamentalrightsneeds,basedonempiricaldata,anddeliveredbycivilsocietyactors.

3. IncreasedcapacityandresponsivenessofpublicinstitutionstofundamentalrightsneedsofAfghancitizens.

FormoreinformationonARM,see:www.nac-pp.netAboutAPPROAfghanistanPublicPolicyResearchOrganization(APPRO)isanindependentsocialresearchorganizationwithamandatetopromotesocialandpolicylearningtobenefitdevelopmentandreconstructioneffortsinAfghanistanandotherlessdevelopedcountriesthroughconductingappliedsocialresearchandmonitoring,trainingandmentoring,andevaluations.APPROisregisteredwiththeMinistryofEconomyinAfghanistanasanon-profitnon-governmentorganizationandheadquarteredinKabul,AfghanistanwithofficesinMazar-eSharif(north),Herat(west),Kandahar(south),Jalalabad(east),andBamyan(center).APPROisthefoundingmemberofAPPRO-Europe,registeredinBelgium.APPROalsoactsastheSecretariatfortheNationalAdvocacyCommitteeforPublicPolicy(NAC-PP).FormoreinformationonAPPRO,see:www.appro.org.af.FormoreinformationonAPPRO-Europe,seep:www.appro-europe.net.FormoreinformationonNAC-PP,see:www.nac-pp.netContact:mail@appro.org.afAbouttheResearchersTheresearcherswhoworkedonthisreportwere(inalphabeticalorder):EnayatBashardost,SamadEbrahimi,TairahFirdous,EhsanullahKhalili,FatimaKhavari,MarziaRahmani,MahmoodOmar,SaeedParto,BaryalaiQayoumi,MohammadAnwarRahimi,EhsanSaadat,ZarghonaSaify,LemaSakhizai,IsmailZahidandAhmadullahZiar.DanaHollandandSaeedPartoauthoredthisreport.FrontPagePhoto:OrianeZerahAPPROtakesfullresponsibilityforallomissionsanderrors.©2018.AfghanistanPublicPolicyResearchOrganization.Somerightsreserved.Thispublicationmaybestoredinaretrievalsystemortransmittedonlyfornon-commercialpurposesandwithwrittencredittoAPPROandlinkstoAPPRO’swebsiteatwww.appro.org.af.Anyotheruseofthispublicationrequirespriorwrittenpermission,whichmaybeobtainedbywritingto:mail@appro.org.af

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TableofContentsIntroduction.......................................................................................5

Objectives,Scope,andMethodology..................................................6LegalFrameworkonChildLabor.........................................................7PrevalenceandVarietiesofChildLabor..............................................7

DriversofChildLabor.........................................................................9FindingsfromEmpiricalEvidence.....................................................10

TypesofChildLabor.......................................................................................................................10WhyChildrenWork........................................................................................................................11EmployersandChildLabor.............................................................................................................13SexualAbuseandChildLabor.........................................................................................................15AcceptabilityofChildLabor............................................................................................................16HarmfulChildLabor.......................................................................................................................17ImpactofWorkonChildren...........................................................................................................17ViewsonWorkingChildren............................................................................................................19

ConclusionandRecommendations...................................................20

Recommendations...........................................................................21Employers......................................................................................................................................21Government...................................................................................................................................22MosquesandMedia.......................................................................................................................22LegislationandChildLabor.............................................................................................................22Children’sRightsinApprenticeships...............................................................................................22PreventionofIllicitChildLabor.......................................................................................................23ChildLaborandSchoolDropouts....................................................................................................23LegalAgeinEmployment...............................................................................................................23ChildrenandArmedConflict...........................................................................................................23

Appendix1:InterviewsandFocusGroupDiscussions.......................24

Appendix2:CodingandGuidingQuestions......................................25

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Introduction

Studiesconductedinvariouscountriesaroundtheworldrevealthatchildlaborhasphysical,social,andmentalhealthconsequencesforchildrenandmajoreconomicconsequencesforthecountryasawhole.Thereishigherprevalenceofdifferenthealthissuesinworkingchildrencomparedtotherestofthepopulation.Childlaborisassociatedwithhigherprevalenceofmentalandbehavioraldisorders.Schoolattendance,familyincomeandstatus,dailyworkinghoursandlikelihoodofabuse,initsdifferentforms,areassociatedwiththementalhealthoutcomesinworkingchildren.Malnutritionandpoorgrowtharehighlyprevalentamongworkingchildren,compoundedwiththenegativephysicalandhealthimpactsoflaboronthechildren.Also,thelikelihoodofbeingsexuallyabusedincreaseswithincreasingworkinghours.1Childlaborhasphysicalconsequencessuchasskindiseases,short-termmemoryloss,speechproblems,organdefects,heightreduction,andweightloss.Psychologicalconsequencesincludeatendencyofjealousy,instability,restlessness,depression,fear,pessimismandnegativitywhilesocialconsequencesincludeexclusionfromrecreationalactivitiesanddeprivationfromnurtureandfamilytime.2Allstudiesofchildlaborshow,overwhelmingly,thatpovertyisamajordriveroftheproblem.3Childrenengagedinworkareoftendeprivedofeducationandthereforemissoutonthelifeopportunitiesthatformaleducationcanbring.Thereare,inaddition,societalimpactsfromwidespreadchildlabor,suchastheemergenceofwholegenerationsofadultswhohavegrownupdeprivedofbasiclifeskillsanddevelopmentneeds.Thisincreasesthelikelihoodofperpetuatingthecycleofpovertyandvulnerabilitythatfuelschildlabor.Fromaneconomic(rational)perspective,membersofafamilychooseactionstheydeemasbenefitingthewholefamily,mostlyintermsofincreasedincomeandwelfare.Parents“weighthepresentdiscountedvalueofthefutureincomeofaneducatedchildagainsttheforegoneincomewhilethechildisinschool.”4Putdifferently,parentschoosetosendchildrentoworkiftheoutcomeofbecomingeducated(theopportunitycost)doesnotcompensatethefamilyforthelostincomefromtheirworkingchildren.Theopportunitycostofsendingchildrentoschoolgoesupiftheschoolsystemisinadequateintermsofdistancebetweenhomeandschool,poorqualityeducationalcontents,andsecurityofthechildren.Inextremepoverty,whenthefamilycannotevendeterminehowtofeeditsmembers,parentschoosetosendchildrentoworkasamatterofsurvivalandtoaddressimmediateneedsratherthaninvestinginthefutureofthechildrenbysendingtoschooltoacquireeducationasameanstobecomeemployedinanuncertainfuture.Conflictisanothermajordriverofchildlabor.Conflictchangeshouseholdlivelihoodandplanningdecisionsbyremovingcertaintyandpredictabilityandreplacingthemwithimmediate,day-to-day

1From:Ibrahim,A.,S.M.Abdalla,M.Jafer,J.Abdelgadir,andN.deVries(2018).Childlaborandhealth:asystematicliteraturereviewoftheimpactsofchildlaboronchild’shealthinlow-andmiddle-incomecountries,availableat:https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/advance-article/doi/10.1093/pubmed/fdy018/4835667

2Basu,K.andZ.Tzannatos(2003).“TheGlobalChildLaborProblem:WhatDoWeKnowandWhatCanWeDo?”WorldBankEconomicReview,Vol.17(2),pp.147-173.

3Srivastava,Kalpana.(2011).Childlabourissuesandchallenges,IndiaPsychiatryJournal,20(1):1-3.4Brown,D.,A.Deardorff,andR.Stern(2003)Childlabor:theory,evidenceandpolicy.InBasu,K.,H.Horn,L.RomanandJ.Shapiro(Eds.),Internationallaborstandards:history,theory,andpolicyoptions(pp.195-247).Wiley-Blackwell

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survivalinstincts.Assuch,conflictundermineslonger-termeconomicdevelopmentthroughweakeningordestroyingeconomicinfrastructure,processesthatgeneratehumancapital–particularlyeducation–andcertaintyaboutfuture.Conflictalsoforceshouseholdstomakedecisionsforthehereandnowandattheexpenseofplanningfororinvestinginfuture,includingeducatingtheirchildren.Conflictandpovertycanaffecthouseholddecisionmakingonchildlaborintwointerrelatedways.First,conflictcanrendereducationforchildrenasariskyinvestment,duetohighopportunitycosts(asopposedtoworking)andahighriskofmortalitythatwouldannultheinvestment.5Second,acombinationofconflictandpovertyunderminestheeducationsystemasawhole,adverselyaffectinginfrastructuredevelopment,i.e.,buildingschools,educationalcontentquality,andprofessionalizationofteachers.Also,inpoverty-strickenconflictenvironmentsdropoutratestendtobehighduetoinsecurityand/orrationaleconomicdecisionmakingbyfamilies(seethepreviouspoint).IntheAfghancontext,thereistheaddedriskofstudents,schoolsandteachersbeingtargetsinarmedconflict–allofwhichtendtoincreasetheopportunitycostofeducation.ObservationsaspartofAfghanistanRightsMonitor(ARM)showthatchildlaborisonriseinalltenprovincesbeingmonitored.6WhilethelegalframeworkprohibitingexploitativechildlaborisreasonablywelldevelopedinAfghanistan,additionalARMfindingsshowthatthereislittleawarenessofthelawspreventingchildlaborandinsufficientappreciationofitsnegativeconsequences,suchasanincreaseinschooldropoutrates.7TheresearchsoughttoexaminetheformsandperceivedconsequencesofchildlaborasitispracticedinAfghanistan,includingthephysical,psychologicalandsocialgrowthimplicationsforchildren.

Objectives,Scope,andMethodology

Thefollowingquestionsguidedthisresearch:

• WhatarethemajorformsofchildlaborinAfghanistan?• WhichformsofchildlabormightbejustifiedintheAfghancontext,inlightofthelegaland

ethicalprotectionsforchildrenandlaborers?• Whatistheextentofawarenessoflawspertainingtochildlabor?• Whatopportunitiesexisttobetterimplementchildlaborlaws?

Theresearchwasconductedinthecentersoffourprovinces:Kandahar,Bamyan,Herat,andMazar-eSharif(Balkh).Theseprovinceswereselectedbasedongeographical,ethnic,andreligiousdiversity.PreviousfindingsfromARMmonitoringindicatethatchildlaborhasbeenincreasingacrossthecountryoverthepastyearduetorisingunemployment.Dataforthisresearchwerecollectedthroughadeskreviewandprimarydatacollection.Thedeskreviewcoveredstudiesworldwideonchildlabor,focusingonthelinkagesbetweenpovertyandchildlabor,conflictandchildlabor,andthecombinationimpactofconflictandpovertyonchildlabor.

5Estevan,F.andJ-M.Baland(2007).MortalityRisks,EducationandChildLabor.JournalofDevelopmentEconomics,ElsevierVol.84(1),pages118-137

6ThetenprovincesmonitoredunderARMare:Balkh,Bamyan,Daikundi,Herat,Kabul,Kandahar,Khost,Kunduz,NangarharandNimruz.FormoreaboutARM,see:http://www.nac-pp.net/category/afghanistan-right-monitor/

7HumanRightsWatch(2016).

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Primarydatawerecollectedthroughsemi-structuredkeyinformantinterviewsandfocusgroupdiscussions.SeeAppendix1forthetypesofinterviewsandfocusgroupdiscussions.SeeAppendix2forthecodingprotocol.

LegalFrameworkonChildLabor

Afghanistan’slegalframeworkforpreventingchildlaborisimproving,butlackskeyprovisionsandmeansofeffectiveimplementation.UnderAfghanistan’sLaborLaw,18istheminimumageforemployment.Childrenbetweentheagesof15and17areallowedtoworkonlyiftheworkisnotharmful,consistsoflessthan35hoursperweek,andrepresentsaformofvocationaltraining.Underthelaw,childrenaged14andyoungerarenotallowedtowork.TheAfghangovernmenthasratifiedallkeyinternationalconventionsconcerningchildlabor,includingthosepertainingtotheminimumageofemploymentaswellasprohibitionsagainsttheengagementofchildreninarmedconflict,childtrafficking,aswellasadditionalworstformsofchildlabor,suchasillicitworkandforcedlabor.8In2014,theministrythatisprimarilyresponsibleforpreventingillegalchildlabor,theMinistryofLabor,SocialAffairs,MartyrsandtheDisabled(MoLSAMD)releasedalistof29hazardousjobsandworkingconditionsthatconstitutetheworstformsofchildlaborintheAfghancontext.Thelistincludesmining,begging,bondedlabor,workingmorethanfourhoursincarpetmanufacture,andanyengagementinnarcoticsproduction.9However,theMoLSAMDinspectoratelacksthelegalauthoritytoenforcechildlaborlaws.Acoalitionofgovernmentagencies,NGOs,andcommunityandreligiousleadersorganizedaspartofMoLSAMD’sNationalStrategyforChildrenatRisk,knownastheChildProtectionActionNetwork(CPAN),wasestablishedin2003andhasbeenimplementedattheprovinciallevelin28of34provinceswiththesupportofUnitedNationsChildrenFund(UNICEF).CPAN’scanconductchildlaborinspectionsandreferchildrenengagedinhazardouschildlabortoNGOandgovernmentsheltersthatprovideprotectionandsocialservices.In2009,about20%ofthecasesCPANdealtwithconcernedheavychildlabor,atotalof420cases.10Whilethisisastart,itisclearlyinsufficienttofullyaddressthewidespreadanddiversenatureofchildlaborinthecountry.

PrevalenceandVarietiesofChildLabor

Upto40percentofAfghanistan’sestimated15millionchildrenarelikelytobeengagedinpaidworkinsuchareasasmechanicalrepairs,agriculture,mining,carpetweaving,brickmaking,streetpeddling,begging,carwashingorcleaning,andcollectingrecyclableandreusablematerialsfrompublicspacesandgarbagedumps.11Thiscompareswiththeworldwidechildlaboraveragerateof10.6percentin2012.12Therearealsoreportsofchildrenbeingusedassexworkers,narcoticsprocessors,smugglers,

8USDepartmentofLabor.(2015)FindingsontheWorstFormsofChildLabor.Washington,DC:DOL.Availablefrom:https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/resources/reports/child-labor/afghanistan

9USDepartmentofLabor(2015).Pleasenotethereportauthorwasnotabletoobtainafulllistofthese29occupationsfromanonlinesearch.

10GovernmentofAfghanistan.(November2010).HighLevelMeetingOnCooperationforChildRightsintheAsiaPacificRegion,ChildProtectionSystem,PreventionAndResponsetoChildprotectionInAfghanistan.Kabul:MoLSAMD.

11Afghanistan IndependentHumanRightsCommission (AIHRC,2011).ReportontheSituationofStreetWorkingChildren.

12InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO,2013).

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childfighters,andmanufacturers,transportersandplantersofimprovisedexplosivedevices.13Themaindriverofchildlaboriseconomichardshipoffamilieswithnoworkingadultsand/orindebtedness.Anestimated40percentofchildworkerspaytheirfullearningstotheirfamilies,33percentpaytheirearningstotheirguardians,20percentkeeptheirearningsforthemselves,whilearound4percentworkaspaymentinkindforfamilydebt,constitutingaformofforcedlabor.Over60percentofthechildrenworkformorethan35hoursperweek.14DespiteAfghanistan’sdomesticlaws,internationalobligations,andIslamicprohibitions,childlaborisincreasinglyprevalentthroughoutthecountry,includingsubstantialnumbersofchildrenengagedinitsmosthazardousforms.15AnumberofrecentreportshaveassessedtheincidenceofchildlaborinAfghanistan.AccordingtomonitoringbytheAfghanCentralStatisticsOffice(CSO),amongchildrenagedfivetofourteen,whoarelegallyprohibitedfromworking,28percentofboysand23percentofgirlsareengagedinchildlabor.Theincidenceforthisagegroupishigherinruralareas(28percent)thanurbanlocations(15percent).Itsprevalencealsovariesacrossregions,withthehighestratesoccurringintheCentralHighlands(33percent),Northeast(30percent),South(29percent)andEast(28percent)andlowestratesintheWest(13percent)andCentral/Kabul(20percent).16Otherestimatesbasedonresearchfocusedonafulleragerangeofchildren,fivetoseventeen,found24percentofAfghanchildrenwork,withratesrangingfrom18percentto42percentacrossthecountryandthehighestprevalenceintheWesternandSouthwesternregions(33percent).17Percentagesmaskthenumericalmagnitudeanddiversityofthechildlaborproblem,whichinvolvesnumerouslaborsectorsaswellashealth,education,economicdevelopmentandotherconsiderations,ratherthanrepresentingasingularphenomenon.Evidencefrom2008showsupwardsof2.27millionchildrenundertheageof18wereworkinginAfghanistan,withanestimated50,000to60,000childlaborersinKabulalone.18Workratesoverallarehighestforboysaged13andolder,ofwho62percentareestimatedtowork.Notsurprisingly,girlsengagedinchildlabormostlyundertakedomesticmanufacturing,artisanship(tailoringandcarpetweaving),orotherhousehold-basedwork,whileboysmorefrequentlyworkinthepublicarena,suchasagriculture,sellinggoodsonthestreets,orworkinginshops.19Childrenworklonghoursinthecarpetindustry,metalindustry,brickkilns,minesandagriculture–areaslargelyprohibitedunderAfghanlawashazardousjobs.ItisestimatedthatonlyhalfofAfghanistan’schildlaborersattendschool.20FindingsfromongoingmonitoringundertheARMprojectshowthatchildlaborandearlymarriageofgirlstendtoco-occur,asgirlsareineffectputtoworkinotherfamilies’homesaftermarriage,andbothearlymarriageandchildlaborarestrategiesfamiliesusetosolvethesameproblems,especially

13ILO(2015).ChildLabourAssessmentinBalkhandSamanganprovinces–AnAssessmentReport,availablefrom:http://www.ilo.org/asia/countries/afghanistan/WCMS_496512/lang--en/index.htm

14Ibid.15USDepartmentofLabor(2015)16CentralStatisticsOrganisation(CSO)andUNICEF(2012).AfghanistanMultipleIndicatorClusterSurvey2010-2011:FinalReport.Kabul:CentralStatisticsOrganisationandUNICEF.Availablefrom:http://cso.gov.af/Content/files/AMICS.pdf

17ICFMacro.(2008).ChildLaborinAfghanistan:AFour-ProvinceStudyinKabul,Kandahar,Nangarhar,andBalkh.Calverton,MD:ICFMacro;andAlmond,Kyle.(2016).Kabul’sUnnoticedChildWorkers.CNNUSEdition.Availablefrom:http://www.cnn.com/2011/10/18/world/cnnheroes-kabul-child-labor/index.html

18ICFMacro(2008)19ICFMacro(2008)20CSOandUNICEF(2012).

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poverty.21Someformsofchildlabor,suchastraditionalapprenticeshipsthatallowchildrentocontinuetheireducation,earnincome,anddevelopskillsfortheirfuture,arelegalandarguablyjustifiableintheAfghancontext.However,tradesrequiringheavyphysicallaborindifficultandoftenunsafeworkingenvironments,suchasbrickmaking,mining,andconstructionaffordlittleornoprotectionsorvocationalvalueforchildren.ThehazardousandheavyworkingconditionsinthesesectorsputthemoutsideofwhatispermissibleunderAfghanistan’slawsandinternationalcommitments.Childrecruitmentintoarmedconflictisestimatedtohavedoubledin2015overthepreviousyear.Atotalof116cases(115boysand1girl)weredocumented,ofwhich48wereverified.Thisincluded13casesattributedtotheAfghanNationalDefenseandSecurityForces,20attributedtotheTaliban,and15tootherarmedgroups.TheincreasesareespeciallynotableintheprovincesofKabul,Herat,Nimroz,KunduzandKhost.Thesechildrenareextremelyvulnerabletophysicalandsexualabuse.Somearmedoppositiongroupsaresaidtousechildrentoattackpoliceandorassexualbaitforentrappingseniorsecurityofficers.22

DriversofChildLabor

Aswithmanyotherrights-relatedareas,lawsandconventionsconcerningchildlaborinAfghanistanarewidelyignoredbecauseofwidespreadpovertyamongfamiliesaswellasweaksystemsofchildprotectionandlegalenforcement.AccordingtoUNICEF,neithertheAfghangovernmentnoritsdonorshavegivensufficientbudgetallocationforthesocialprotectionofvulnerablechildren,andonly1percentofthenationalbudgethasbeencommittedtosuchprograms.23HumanrightsmonitoringbytheAfghanistanIndependentHumanRightsCommission(AIHRC)hasindicatedthatchildren’searningscomposestheonlyincomefornearlyathirdoffamilies.24Ongoingconflictinthecountryhasfueledthecontinuingrecruitmentofunderagechildrenbybothgovernmentandoppositiongroups,despiteaPresidentialdecreecriminalizingthispractice.25Increasedinternaldisplacementandforcedreturnmigrationarealsoheighteningtheriskofchildlaborandearlymarriageamongrefugeefamilies,whooftenleftjobsinneighboringcountriesandhavelittlesavingstofallbackon.AccordingtofindingsfromarecentsurveybySavetheChildren,morethan70percentofreturneeparentsandcommunityleaderssaidthatearlymarriageandchildlaborweremajorriskstotheirchildrenwhowerecurrentlynotinschoolduetopoverty,lackofdocumentation,andproblemsaccessingschools.26Itisestimatedthatamongthe600,000familiesrepatriatedtoAfghanistanin2016fromneighboringcountriestherewere200,000childlaborers,addingtotheestimatesofovertwo

21Seeforexample:APPRO.(2017).AfghanistanRightsMonitorMonitoringCycle3:August–November2016,Kabul:APPRO,availablefrom:www.appro.org.af

22SeeOfficeoftheSpecialRepresentativeoftheSecretary-GeneralforChildreninArmedConflict,Afghanistan.Availableat:https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries-caac/afghanistan/

23UnitedNationsChildren’sFund(UNICEF).(November2014).ChildrenandWomeninAfghanistan:ASituationAnalysis2014.

24AfghanistanIndependentHumanRightsCommission(AIHRC).(2007).EconomicandsocialrightsinAfghanistanII25UNICEF.(2016).WeareChildrenNotSoldiers,Availablefrom:https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Afghanistan-Fact-Sheet-May-2016.pdf

26SeeThousandsofChildrenFaceEarlyMarriageandChildLaborasEducationCrisisTakesHoldAmongAfghanChildrenRepatriatedFromPakistan,availableat:http://www.savethechildren.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=8rKLIXMGIpI4E&b=9357115&ct=14967483

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millionchildrenbetweentheagesof8and14whoarealreadyworkinginthecountry.27Thesetrendsareexpectedtoworseninthesubsequentyears,withincreasinginstabilityandreturnmigrationleadingtoevengreaternumbersofoutofschoolchildrenwhoareatriskofchildlabor,recruitmentbyarmedgroups,traffickingandearlymarriage.28Alimitedbodyofresearchonfamilydecision-makingregardingchildlaborinAfghanistan–includingcomparisonofpoorfamilieswhodoanddonotsendtheirchildrentowork–showsthatanumberoffactorsbeyondpovertyinfluencefamilydecisionsonsendingchildrentowork.Theseareindebtedness,familialexperienceswitheducation,thestrengthoflocalsocialnetworks,andparentalperceptionsaboutthebenefitsofworktochildren.29Thisresearchaddstowhatisknownabouthowpovertyintersectswithotherfactorsincontributingtoprevalenceofchildlabor.Afinalconsiderationinformingthiscasestudyisthereligiousdimensionofchildlabor.Islamsetsmanyguidelinesforbothchildren’sdevelopmentandworkpracticesthatarerelevanttochildlabor,includingrestrictionsforemployersandemployees.Childrenwhoaresufficientlymatureareallowedtowork,butIslamexpresslyforbidsexploitativepracticesbyemployers,hazardousworkbychildren,andchildren’sworkthatdoesnotcontributetotheireducationaldevelopment.AnempiricalstudyofcommunityattitudestowardchildlaborinanIslamiccommunityinGhanashowsthatdespitegoodunderstandingofchildren’srights,thereisatendencytoexcusechildlabor,underthepresumptionthatworkconstitutedtrainingtopreparechildrentobecomeresponsibleadultsinfuture.30Notably,itisnotjustthestatethatisconsideredresponsibleforaddressingtheproblemofchildlaborinIslamicsocieties.Familiesandemployersarealsodirectedequallyto“performtheirduties”accordingtoreligiousteaching.31

FindingsfromEmpiricalEvidence

TypesofChildLabor

Thereweretwoconsistentthemesininterviewees’characterizationsofchildrenworkingintheircommunities:

1. Thediversityofoccupationsheldbychildren

27SeeRiseInChildLaborRaisesSeriousConcerns,availableat:http://www.tolonews.com/afghanistan/rise-child-labor-raises-serious-concerns

28SeeMoreThan1,100AfghanChildrenaDayExpectedtoDropOutofSchoolin2017,PuttingThematRiskofExploitation,SavetheChildrenWarns,availableat:http://www.savethechildren.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=8rKLIXMGIpI4E&b=9506655&ct=14988181&notoc=1

29Hunte,Pamela.(2009).BeyondPoverty:FactorsInfluencingRelianceonChildLaborinRuralandUrbanAfghanistan.Kabul:AfghanistanResearchandEvaluationUnit(AREU);Hunte,P.andA.Hozyainova.(2008).FactorsInfluencingDecisionstoUseChildLabour:ACaseStudyofPoorHouseholdsinRuralBadakhshan.Kabul:AERU;Kantor,P.andA.Hozyainova.(2008).FactorsInfluencingDecisionstoUseChildLabour:ACaseStudyofPoorHouseholdsinKabul.Kabul:AREU;andSim,A.andM.Hoilund-Carlsen.(2008).FactorsInfluencingDecisionstoUseChildLabour:ACaseStudyofPoorHouseholdsinHerat.Kabul:AERU.

30Al-Hassan,SeiduandAbdulaiAbubakari.(2015).Childrights,childlabour,andIslam:ThecaseofMuslimsintheTamaleMetropolis,Ghana.InternationalJournalofResearchInSocialSciences,5(2):27-36.

31Monawer,M.,Tabib,AbuandHossain,DewanMahboob.(2016).ChildLabour:IslamicPerspective.ESTEEMAcademicJournal,12(2):15-30.

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2. Childrenbeingunsuitablyyoungformuchoftheworkthattheyaredoing,includingvarious

typesofhardlaborForeachprovince,childrenundertakethefollowingtypesofwork:32

• Mazar-e-sharif(Balkh):streetvendor(sellinggames,vegetables,cigarettes,tea,mobilecredit,food,etc.),shoespolishing,deliveryofgoods,washingcars,collectinggarbage,painting,workinginrestaurants,supermarkets,bakeries,construction,includingbrickmaking.33

• Kandahar:workinginbrickfactories,industrialmanufacturing,agriculture(plantingandpickingmelons,collectingpomegranate,irrigatingfarms),hotels,bakeries,mechanicworkshops,metallurgy,tailoring,carwashing,carpentry,painting,shoespolishing,begging,sellingmobilecreditcards,involvementinarmedconflict.34

• Herat:polishingshoes,collectingplasticandrubbish,mechanicworkshops,metallurgies,hotels,restaurants,carpentry,streetvendor,servantswithbusdrivers,agriculturalwork(shepherding,collectingfirewood,farming),constructionwork.35

• Bamyan:shepherding,collectingfirewood,agriculture(plantingpotatoes,soilingpotatoes,collectingpotatoes,reapinggrassesandwheat),journeywork,housework,transportingrocksandwatertovillages,cooking,doinglaundryanddishwashing,servantathotels,bakeries,mechanicworkshops,carwashing,carpentry,movinggoods,painting,servantatshops,smithy,tinsmithy,tailoring,carpetweaving,streetvendor.36

Althoughnumeroustypesofworkbychildrenwerenamed,themajorityofthosecitedoccurredinmorethanoneorinallfourprovinces.Oneexceptionwaschildren’sengagementinarmedconflictbyarmedoppositiongroups,whichwasmentionedasoccurringinKandaharbutnotelsewhere.37Brickmakingandindustrial/factoryworkappearedtobemoreprevalentinBalkh,KandaharandHerat,thaninBamyanwheremorevarieddomesticandagriculturalchildlaboractivitiesweresaidtobemoreprominent.

WhyChildrenWork

Consistentwiththeliteratureonchildlabor,interviewees’viewsaboutwhychildrenintheircommunitiesworkincludedpovertyanddirefamilyneed.However,rationalesalsoextendedbeyondeconomicnecessity.Twofactorsinparticularweredescribedasintertwinedwithpovertyindrivingthe

32Theselistsshouldnotbetakentobeexhaustiveoftheworkundertakenbychildlaborersineachprovince.Theyinsteadreflectthetypesofworkthatintervieweesweremostawareofineachsetting.

33KI-M-Bal-NG-1,KI-M-Bal-NG-2,KI-M-Bal-Go-1,KI-F-Bal-Go-2,KI-M-Bal-Go-3,KI-M-Bal-Go-4,KI-M-Bal-Go-5,KI-M-Bal-Go-6,KI-F-Bal-Go-7,KI-M-Bal-CS-1,KI-M-Bal-CS-2,KI-M-Bal-CS-3,KI-M-Bal-CS-4,KI-M-Bal-CS-5,KI-M-Bal-CS-6,FGD-M-Bal-CS-1,FGD-M-Bal-CS-2,KI-F-Bal-PI-1

34KI-F-Kan-PI-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-6,KI-M-Kan-CS-5,KI-M-Kan-CS-4,KI-M-Kan-CS-3,KI-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-F-Kan-Go-7,KI-M-Kan-Go-6,KI-M-Kan-Go-5,KI-F-Kan-Go-4,KI-M-Kan-Go-3,KI-M-Kan-Go-2,KI-M-Kan-Go-1,KI-F-Kan-NG-2+1

35KI-M-Her-NG-2,FGD-F-Her-CS-1,KI-M-Her-Go-2,KI-F-Her-NG-1,KI-F-Her-Go-1,KI-F-Her-Go-3,KI-M-Her-Go-4,KI-F-Her-Go-5,KI-M-Her-Go-6,KI-F-Her-Go-7,KI-M-Her-CS-1,KI-M-Her-CS-2,KI-M-Her-CS-3,KI-M-Her-CS-4,KI-M-Her-CS-5,KI-M-Her-CS-6,FGD-M-Her-CS-2,KI-F-Her-PI-1

36KI-F-Bam-Go-1,KI-M-Bam-GO-3,FGD-M-Bam-CS-1,FGD-M&F-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-3,KI-M-Bam-CS-1,KI-M-Bam-CS-4,KI-M-Bam-CS-6,KI-F-Bam-PI-1,KI-M-Bam-Go-2,KI-M-Bam-Go-6,KI-M-Bam-Go-7,KI-M-Bam-NG-1,KI-F-Bam-NG-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-5,KI-M-Bam-Go-1

37FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-F-Kan-PI-1

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problemofchildlabor.Thefirstwastherelativewellbeingoffamilieswhorelyonchildlabor,especiallywhetherfamilieswereintactorweremissingkeybreadwinners(fathers).Thesecondwasfamilyattitudesaboutchildren’sworkandeducation,specificallyparents.Conditionswithinfamiliesandfamilialapproachestosolvingtheirproblemscouldalsopropeldecisionstorelyonchildlabor.Intervieweesmentionedtheseaspossiblyincludingthefollowingscenarios:38

• Parentsmightlackworkopportunities39• Parentsmightbedisabledandphysicallyunabletowork• Parentsmightbesenileortoooldtowork• Familiesmighthavelostfamilyeldersorbreadwinners(throughconflict,migration,etc.)• Withthedeathofamother,thefather’ssecondwifemightforcechildrentowork• Displacedfamiliesmightneedallfamilymemberstoearnincome• Parentsmightbeaddictedtodrugs

Manyofthechildreninterviewedforthisresearchdescribedbeing“compelled”towork,mosttypicallybyoneorbothparentsandalsobycircumstances,suchasasenseofdutytotheirfamily.AchildlaborerinHerat,forexample,explainedhissituation:“IhavetoworkbecauseIhavelostmyfatherandifIdonotwork,mysisterandmybrotherwillbehungry.”40Amother,alsoinHerat,explainedthatshehadnoalternativebuttosendhersontoworkbecauseofherstatusasawidow,despitethephysicalandpsychologicaltolltakenonheryoungson:

Isentmysontoworkandboughthimbrushesforpolishingshoesbuthedidnotearngoodmoney.Iamaloneandmustcoverallexpenses.Wedonothaveagoodeconomiccondition.Afterthat,Isenthimtosellicecream.HisrevenuefromeachicecreamwasjustoneAfghani.Hewasbringing30or50Afsdailybuthewasunderextremepressureandwascominghomeat10pmeveryday.Hewasfeelingverytiredbecauseheistooyoungandhecannotovercomethepressures.41

Asillustratedbythesepersonalaccounts,andstatedbyintervieweesinBalkhandKandahar,thelackofeffectiveorsufficientgovernmentprogramstosupportfamiliesinneedalsoindirectlydrovetheproblemofchildlabor.Implicitlytoo,thesefamilieslacksocialnetworksoraccesstocommunity-basedsupportsthatmightobviatetheneedtorelyonchildlabor.Beyondpoverty,however,somechildlaborwassaidtobemotivatedlessbydirematerialnecessityandmorebyotherfactors.Theseincludedanexpandingconsumerculture,perceptionsaboutalternativestowork(especiallyformaleducation),historicallybasedattitudesaboutage-appropriateactivitiesforchildren,andexploitativepracticesbysomefamilies.Thesearedetailedbelow.

38FGD-M-Bal-CS-1,KI-M-Bal-NG-1,KI-M-Bal-Go-1,KI-M-Bal-Go-3,KI-M-Bal-NG-2,KI-M-Bal-CS-5,KI-M-Bal-Go-5,KI-F-Bal-Go-7,KI-M-Bal-CS-6,KI-M-Bal-CS-1,KI-M-Bal-CS-2,KI-M-Bal-Go-4,KI-M-Bal-Go-6,FGD-M-Bal-CS-2,KI-M-Bal-CS-3,KI-M-Bal-CS-4,KI-F-Bal-PI-1,KI-F-Bal-Go-2,KI-F-Kan-PI-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-6,KI-M-Kan-CS-5,KI-M-Kan-CS-4,KI-M-Kan-CS-3,KI-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-F-Kan-Go-7,KI-M-Kan-Go-6,KI-M-Kan-Go-5,I-F-Kan-Go-4,KI-M-Kan-Go-3,KI-M-Kan-Go-2,KI-M-Kan-Go-1,KI-F-Kan-NG-2,KI-F-Kan-NG-1,KI-F-Bam-Go-1,KI-M-Bam-GO-3,FGD-M-Bam-CS-1,FGD-M&F-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-3,KI-M-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-4,KI-M-Bam-CS-6,KI-F-Bam-PI-1,KI-M-Bam-Go-1,KI-M-Bam-Go-6,KI-M-Bam-Go-7,KI-M-Bam-NG-1,KI-F-Bam-NG-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-5,KI-M-Bam-Go-4

39Although“parent”ismentionedhere,giventheAfghancontextthistypicallymeansfathers.Mothersareunlikelytoworkoutsidethehomeunlesstheyarewidowed,andeventhenitcanbechallengingforthemtopursueworkoutofthehome.Thereisageneralassumptionthatfemale-headedhouseholdsareespeciallyvulnerabletorelianceonchildlabor,buttheissuehasnotbeenfullyinvestigated.

40FGD-M-Her-CS-241FGD-F-Her-CS-1

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Consumerculturewasafactorthoughttodrivesomeincidentsofchildlabor.Childrenthemselvesareincreasinglymotivatedtoworktopossesstoysandelectronicsthatfamiliesarenotabletobuy.42Inaddition,familiessometimescompetetoacquireanddisplaywealth,andthereforeneedchildrentoworktogenerateincome.43Anothernon-economicfactorsaidtocontributetorelianceonchildlaborwastheexistenceandnatureofalternativestowork,especiallyformaleducation.PerceptionsaboutthelowqualityofformaleducationornegativeattitudesaboutitweresaidtomotivatesomechildlaborinKandaharandHerat.Relatedtothis,formalschoolinghasonlyrecentlybecomewidelyavailableinAfghanistan.Historically,childrenworkbecauseitwasconsideredappropriate,especiallyinfamilybusinessesandfarms.InKandahar,intervieweesdescribedthatmostpeopletherehavetheirownbusinesses,andthereforecompeltheirchildrentolearnaprofessioninsteadofgoingtoschoolasameansofsecuringtheirownandtheirfamilies’futures.InMazar-esharif,childlaborersdescribedhowparentstherebelievethatwhenaboyreachesadultage,“hehastowork.”44Thus,beyondmaterialgain,workwasalsoviewedasanappropriatelifestageprogressionatafairlyyoungageforchildren.Fromthisperspective,workwasseenasawayto“keepchildrenbusy,”preventingthemfrominvolvementinbadbehavior,strengtheningsocialnetworks,andprovidingaproductiveoutlet.45Afinalfactorinfluencingrelianceonchildlaborbeyondeconomicneedwassaidtobesomefamilies’exploitativeandimmoralbehaviortowardtheirchildren.IntervieweesinBamyan,forexample,describedsome“misbehavior”withchildren.Similarly,inHerat,somehouseholdsweresaidnotto“performtheirdutiesfortheirchildren”andinsteadexhibita“deficientculture.”46

EmployersandChildLabor

Acrossthefourprovinces,intervieweespointedtotwooverarchingreasonswhyemployersemploychildren.Thefirstrelatedtothestandardrationaleforchildlabor:childrenarecheapertoemploythanadultsandareeasiertocontrol.Adultworkersmustbepaidmoreandplacegreaterdemandsonemployersforthingslikefood,leaveandotherconsiderations.47Childrenarethoughttobeeasiertocontrolandmoreobedientinworksituations,withemployersabletotakeadvantageoftheirmistakesandchildrenhavingnorecourseagainstunfairabuses.ThiswasillustratedinanexampleprovidedbyacommunityelderinHerat:

42-FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-M-Kan-Go-6.ItisnoteworthythatthiscommentwasmadeonlybyintervieweesinKandahar,wheresomemayhaveimplicitlybelievedthatchildlabordoesnothaveseriousnegativeconsequences.

43KI-F-Bam-PI-1,KI-M-Bam-CS-4,KI-M-Bam-CS-3,KI-M-Bam-Go-6,KI-M-Bam-Go-244FGD-M-Bal-CS-2.Thisstudydidnotexamineatwhatageintervieweesviewedboysandgirlsasreachingadulthood.

45KI-F-Kan-PI-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-6,KI-M-Kan-CS-5,KI-M-Kan-CS-4,KI-M-Kan-CS-3,KI-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-F-Kan-Go-7,KI-M-Kan-Go-6,KI-M-Kan-Go-5,KI-F-Kan-Go-4,KI-M-Kan-Go-3,KI-M-Kan-Go-2,KI-M-Kan-Go-1,KI-F-Kan-NG-2,KI-F-Kan-NG-1

46KI-M-Her-CS-547KI-F-Kan-PI-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-6,KI-M-Kan-CS-5,KI-M-Kan-CS-4,KI-M-Kan-CS-3,KI-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-F-Kan-Go-7,KI-M-Kan-Go-6,KI-M-Kan-Go-5,KI-F-Kan-Go-4,KI-M-Kan-Go-3,KI-M-Kan-Go-2,KI-M-Kan-Go-1,KI-F-Kan-NG-2+1

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Iwasworkinginashop,andachildwasworkingwithusaswell.Onedayheaccidentlyspilledoilandtheemployerneitherpaidhiswageandnormine.[Theemployer]couldnotdothiswithanolderemployee.48

Thesecondreasonprovidedbyintervieweesexplainingwhyemployershiringchildrenisfamiliessometimesadvocateforemployerstohireandtraintheirchildreninordertosecureincomeandasustainableprofessionforthem.Arepresentativeofacraftsmenunionparticipatinginthisresearchconfirmedthatsomefamilies“pressure”employerstohiretheirchildren,withemployerssometimeshiringchildrenoutofasenseofobligationratherthanneed.49Theseparentsappearedtohaveanapprenticeshipmodelofchildlaborinmindinpursuingpositionsfortheirchildren.Indeed,inHerat,Kandahar,andMazar-e-sharifaspectsoftheapprenticeshipmodelofchildlaborwereevidentinsomeinterviewees’descriptionsofemployers’motivationstohirechildren.InMazar-e-sharif,forexample,employersweresusceptibletohiringthechildrenofrelativesandfriendsinorderto“teachthemtheirskillsandcrafts.”Althoughmanyoftheseemployersweresaidtoupholdtheirdutiestowardtheirchildlaborers,providingfood,givingappropriateresponsibilities,andtreatingchildrenfairly,punishmentscouldbestringentandnoone—notevenparents—couldholdemployersaccountableforthemistreatmentofchildworkers.Thephysicalabuseofchildrenbyemployersappearedtobecommonplaceandacceptedbyparents,asshowninanexamplesharedbyachildworkerinBalkh:

Ifwedonotperformthejobcorrectlytheypunishus.Forinstance,onedaymybrotherwhoisanapprenticeinamechanicworkshopfoughtwithanotherapprenticewhiletheemployerwasnotpresent.Whenhereturned,withoutaskingabouttherealeventorthecauses,hepunishedmybrotheranddidnotgivehimlunchthatday.Whenmybrothercamehomeandtoldthestorytomyfather,myfathertoldhimthatyouremployerdidagreatjob.Myfathersaidhealreadytoldtheemployerthat:‘Myson’smeatisfromyouandhisbonesarefromme.’(Thisisalocalexpressioncondoningthepunishmentofapprenticeswhentheymakemistakes).Nobodyasksaboutourworkplaces.50

ItisunknownwhatproportionofchildlaborinAfghanistanisappropriate,occurringwithintheparametersofthelawandunderaframeworkofapprenticeship.Moreover,itisunknownwhatproportionofchildrenareabused,eitherthroughengagementinhardanddangerouslaborunsuitabletotheirageorthroughotherformsofexploitation.Anecdotalevidence,however,suggeststhatchildlaborersareparticularlypronetoabuseandviolenceonthejob.IntervieweesinKandarhar,Herat,andBamyannotedthatsomeemployershavenefariousintentionsinhiringchildren.

IntervieweeswereuniformlysurethatemployersinAfghanistanareunawareoflaborlaws,includingwhatistheminimumageforemployment.Moreover,someemployerswhoknowthelawsweresaidtocarelittleaboutthembecausethereislittlemonitoringorenforcement.Partofthereasonemployersaresounawareofthelawwassaidtobethatmosthaveveryminimalliteracy.51Anotherreasonwasthelackofawarenessprograms.52Ignoranceofthelawamongemployersandlackofenforcementhascontributedtoavarietyofcruelandexploitativepracticestowardchildlaborers.Theseweredescribedbyintervieweesasincludingcursing,beating,belittlement,prohibitingplayandrest,providing

48FGD-M-Her-CS-249KI-M-Her-CS-650FGD-M-Bal-CS-251KI-F-Kan-Go-4,KI-F-Kan-PI-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-6,KI-M-Kan-CS-5,KI-M-Kan-CS-4,KI-M-Kan-CS-3,KI-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-F-Kan-Go-7,KI-M-Kan-Go-6,KI-M-Kan-Go-5,KI-M-Kan-Go-3,KI-M-Kan-Go-2,KI-M-Kan-Go-1,KI-F-Kan-NG-2+1

52KI-M-Her-Go-4,KI-M-Bal-Go-5

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unhealthyfood,withholdingfood,physicalandheathdangersaswellasdeviateandsexuallyabusivebehavior.53Someintervieweeswerethemselvesconfusedaboutthelaborlawspertainingtochildren,includingregulationsaroundtheminimalageforemployment.MostthoughtthatAfghanlawpermittedchildren15andoldertowork,butdidnotappeartoknowthelegalrestrictionsapplyingtothoseaged15-17.Childrenthemselveswerealsounawareoftheageatwhichtheycanlegallywork.Intervieweesbelievedthatincreasedawarenessofthelawwouldreducetheabuseofchildworkersbyparents,employers,thepoliceandothers,asevidencedbyachildlaborerBalkh:

Thereshouldbeawarenessprogramsforouremployersandparentsuntiltheydonotforceusanymoretowork.Whenwegettothecityforwork,thepolicearebeatingus.Whenwedonottakeoutourflocksofanimals,ourfathersfightwithusandthreatenus.Wedonotknowatwhatagewehavetowork.54

SexualAbuseandChildLabor

Childrenarevulnerabletobeingmadetodo“privatework”foremployers,includingsexualabuseanddrugdealing.Childrenworking“inthestreet”aswellasinotherfamilies’householdsmaybeparticularlyvulnerabletosexualexploitation.Presenceonthestreets,unprotected,presentsagravedangertomanyyoungboyswhoareatriskofbeingkidnapped,sexuallyassaultedorenslaved,andsometimeskilled.Forexample,

Aboywasworkinginthemarketwithawheelbarrow.Onedayheencounteredawomanwhohadboughtmanyvegetables.Sheaskedhimtodeliverthevegetablesinherhouseandtheboyaccepted.Whentheboyreachedherhouse,sheaskedhimtotakethevegetablesinside.Whenhewentinside,sheclosedandlockedthedoor.Theboyyelledbutshecoveredhismouth.Shesaid,‘Nowyoudonotbelongtoyourfatherandmother.Ihavesoldyoutosomeonefor5000Afghani,andtheyareontheirwaytogetyou.’Afterawhiletheycame,tieduphishandsandfeetanddeliveredhimsomewhere.Whentheboyopenedhiseyesheasked,‘Wherehaveyouguysbroughtme?Whyhaveyoubroughtmehere?’Thepeoplearoundhimlookedwild.Theytoldhim,‘Ifyouraiseyourvoicewearegoingtokillyourfamily.’Theytoldhimtoputonadressanddance,buttheboyrefusedandsaidIcannotdancebecauseIdonotknowhow.Againtheywarnedhim,andsaid,‘Ifyoudonotdancewearegoingtokillyou.’Theyforcedthedressonhimandplayedmusic.Thenallofthemclapped.Theboydancedwithtearsinhiseyes,untilfinallyhewentunconscious.Whenhewokeupitwas2am.Hegotupandrantowarddoorbutitwaslocked.Thenherantowardthetoiletandsawabighole.Heescapedthroughoutthatwhole.Onhiswayhesawabathhouse.Thebathhouseownerrantowardtheboyandaskedwhathappened.Hetoldtheentirestorytoownerofbathhouse.Alloverhisbodywasblood.Hewashedandchangedhiscloths.Thebathhouseownerthenreturnedtheboytohisfamily.55

Thereisasubstantialamountofanecdotalevidenceaboutthesexualabuseofyoungboyswhoworkonthestreetsasbeggars,peddlers,shoeshiners,teamakers,andcarcleaners.Sexualabusestreetchildren,particularlyboys,isafunctionoflackofprotectiononthestreet,highlevelsofcriminalityandimpunityofcriminals,andthepracticeofbachabazi(or“playingwithboys”,awidespreadformofpedophilia)widelyignoredbythosewhowitnessitandusuallyblamedonthevictimsratherthanperpetrators.

53KI-F-Bam-Go-1,KI-M-Bam-GO-3,FGD-M-Bam-CS-1,FGD-M&F-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-3,KI-M-Bam-CS-1,KI-M-Bam-CS-4,KI-M-Bam-CS-6,KI-M-Bam-PI-1,KI-M-Bam-Go-2,KI-M-Bam-Go-6,KI-M-Bam-Go-7,KI-M-Bam-NG-1,KI-F-Bam-NG-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-5,KI-M-Bam-Go-4

54FGD-M-Bal-CS-255FGD-M-Bal-CS-2

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AcceptabilityofChildLabor

Intervieweesacrossthefourprovinceshadclearviewsaboutthetypesofworkandworksituationsappropriateforchildren.Workwasconsistentlyjuxtaposedtoeducation,andtheforemostcriterionintervieweesusedtocharacterizeworkthatwasappropriateforchildrenwasthatitwasconducivetoeducation,bothintermsofnotinterferingwithschoolattendanceandintermsofprovidingmentalandphysicalskills.Forexample:

Thebestworkforchildreniseducationortodosomekindofworkthatgivesthemmentalandphysicalgrowth.Throughthis,childrencanlearnaprofessionfortheirfutures.56

Atthesametime,however,intervieweeswereuniformintheirviewsthatchildrenwhobothworkandgotoschoolfacenumerouschallengesthatunderminetheireducation.Forexample,sometimesemployers,suchasanumberofthoseinterviewedinKandahar,donotallowchildrenwhoworkforthemtoattendschoolbecausetheywillthennotfinishtheirwork.57Teacherstooweresaidtosometimesundermineworkingchildren’seffortstopursueeducationbypreventingthemfromtakingmissedexams.Consideredahumiliation,workingchildrencouldfacestigmatizationbytheirclassmateswhoonlyattendschool.58Attemptingbothtypicallyleavechildrentootiredtostudyandtheyarecompelledtoquitschool.59Consistentwithinterviewees’emphasisontheimportanceofeducation,suitableworksituationssuchasapprenticeshipswerealsodescribedasbeneficialandeducationalforchildren.Thistypeofworkwasconsideredespeciallyappropriateforchildrenwholeaveschoolanddonotlikeformaleducation.60Suitableworkforchildrenwascharacterizedas“professionalwork”thatwouldbehelpfultotheirfuturesandanticipatoryoffutureeconomicconditionssuchascomputer-basedwork.61Accordingtooneoftheworkingchildreninterviewed,“thebestworkforchildrenisprofessionaltradesliketailoringorbeing[anassistant]inashopbecauseitgivesthemthechancetoworkinthemarketthemselvesinthefuture.”62Someoftheemployersintraditionalindustriesandservicesfeelthatallchildrenshouldstudyandiftheywork,itshouldbeparttimeandunderthesupervisionoftheirparents.Thebenefitofchildlaboristhatchildrencanbesocialinthefutureandtheycanlearnaprofession.63Additionalcriteriamentionedinjudgingwhetherworkissuitableforchildrenarethattheworkisappropriatetochildren’sphysicalandmentalstateofdevelopment,consistsofonlyafewhoursperday,and/orconsistsoffamily-baseddomesticandagriculturalactivities.

56KI-F-Kan-PI-157KI-M-Kan-NG-1,KI-M-Kan-Go-5,KI-M-Kan-Go-7,KI-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-3,FGD-F-Kan-CS-2,KI-F-Kan-PI-1,KI-M-Kan-CS-4,KI-M-Kan-CS-5,KI-F-Kan-NG-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-6,FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-M-Kan-Go-6,KI-F-Kan-Go-1,KI-M-Kan-Go-2,KI-M-Kan-Go-3,KI-M-Kan-Go-4

58KI-M-Bal-Go-1,KI-M-Bal-CS-1,KI-M-Bal-Go-459KI-F-Her-PI-1,KI-M-Her-Go-560KI-M-Bam-Go-3,FGD-M-Bam-CS-1,KI-M-Bam-CS-1,KI-M-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-3,KI-M-Bam-CS-4,KI-F-Bam-NG-2,KI-M-Bam-Go-5

61KI-M-Her-Go-2,FGD-M-Her-CS-2,KI-F-Her-NG-1,KI-M-Her-NG-2,KI-F-Her-Go-1,KI-F-Her-Go-3,KI-F-Her-Go-5,KI-M-Her-Go-6,KI-F-Her-Go-7,KI-M-Her-CS-1,KI-M-Her-CS-3,KI-M-Her-CS-4,KI-M-Her-CS-5,KI-M-Her-CS-6,FGD-F-Her-CS-1

62FGD-M-Her-CS-263KI-M-Bam-CS-6

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HarmfulChildLabor

Thereweresomesimilaritiesandsomedifferencesacrossprovincesininterviewees’viewsaboutthetypesofworkconsideredinappropriateforchildren.Consistently,workthatinvolveshardlaborandpermanentemploymentthatisphysicallyandpsychologicallydemandingwasconsideredinappropriate.Intervieweesdifferedsomewhat,however,inthespecificexamplesprovidedforworkconsideredharmfulforchildren.Thiswaslikelyduetodifferencesintheworkmostavailableindifferentsettings.InMazar-eSharifintervieweesconsideredworking“inthestreets”,sellingitemsorperformingservicessuchasshiningshoestobeespeciallyharmful,becauseofthephysicallydemandingnatureoftheworkaswellasthesecondaryrisksofphysical,sexualandpsychologicalabusetochildren.64InBamyan,intervieweeswereespeciallyconcernedwithworkthatisbeyondthesupervisionoffamilies,includinghardlabor,drugdealingandthievery.65Bamyanwasalsouniquewithsomeintervieweesobjectingtochildrenbeingemployedasservants,inarrangementsinwhichachildisrecruitedforaperiodoftimetododomesticchoresforanotherfamily.InKandahar,intervieweesweremostworriedaboutworkinfactoryandindustrialsettingsthatcanimpedechildren’shealthyphysicalandmentalgrowthandthatpresentdangerstotheirhealthandwellbeing,includingbecomingmaimed.66InHerat,avarietyoftypesofworkwereseenaspotentiallydetrimentaltochildren,includingsometypesofagriculturalwork,suchasshepherding,harvesting,andplowingland.67Additional,specifictypesofworkandworksettingsconsideredinappropriateforchildrenaccordingtothoseinterviewedinclude:

• Herat:workinginhotels,polishingshoes,washingcars,collectinggarbage• Kandahar:workinginmines,brickfactories,metallurgy,movingrocksandstones• Bamyan:workinginblacksmithshops,mechanicalrepairshops,hotels,bakeries,carpet

weaving,mines,haulingitems,domesticservitude,heavyagriculturalwork• Mazar-eSharif:factorywork,shoeshining,haulingitems

ImpactofWorkonChildren

Otherthanearningmoney,intervieweessawveryfewpositiveoutcomesofchildlaborforthechildren.InKandaharandBamyanmanyintervieweescontendedthatchildlaborcouldbeinstrumentalforlearningaprofession,understandingfamilyandcommunityresponsibilities,becomingmoresocial,andachievingself-confidence.68However,eventhesebenefitswerethoughttobecontingentonchildren’s

64FGD-M-Bal-CS-1,KI-M-Bal-NG-1,KI-M-Bal-Go-1,KI-M-Bal-Go-3,KI-M-Bal-NG-2,KI-M-Bal-CS-5,KI-M-Bal-Go-5,KI-F-Bal-Go-7,KI-M-Bal-CS-6,KI-M-Bal-CS-1,KI-M-Bal-CS-2,KI-M-Bal-Go-4,KI-M-Bal-Go-6,FGD-M-Bal-CS-2,KI-M-Bal-CS-3,KI-M-Bal-CS-4,KI-F-Bal-PI-1,KI-F-Bal-Go-2

65KI-F-Bam-Go-1,KI-M-Bam-GO-3,FGD-M-Bam-CS-1,FGD-M&F-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-3,KI-M-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-4,KI-M-Bam-CS-6,KI-F-Bam-PI-1,KI-M-Bam-Go-1,KI-M-Bam-Go-6,KI-M-Bam-Go-7,KI-M-Bam-NG-1,KI-F-Bam-NG-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-5,KI-M-Bam-Go-4

66KI-F-Kan-PI-1,FGD-MKan-CS-1,FGD-M-KanCS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-6,KI-M-Kan-CS-5,KI-M-Kan-CS-4,KI-M-Kan-CS-3,KI-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-F-Kan-Go-7,KI-M-Kan-Go-6,KI-M-Kan-Go-5,KI-F-Kan-Go-4,KI-M-Kan-Go-3,KI-M-Kan-Go-2,KI-M-Kan-Go-1,KI-F-Kan-NG-1

67KI-M-Her-Go-2,FGD-M-Her-CS-2,KI-F-Her-NG-1,KI-M-Her-NG-2,KI-F-Her-Go-1,KI-M-Her-Go-2,KI-F-Her-Go-3,KI-F-Her-Go-5,KI-M-Her-Go-4,KI-M-Her-Go-6,KI-F-Her-Go-7,KI-M-Her-CS-1,KI-M-Her-CS-2,KI-M-Her-CS-3,KI-M-Her-CS-4,KI-M-Her-CS-5,KI-M-Her-CS-6,FGD-F-Her-CS-1,KI-F-Her-PI-1

68KI-F-Bam-Go-1,KI-M-Bam-GO-3,FGD-M-Bam-CS-1,FGD-M&F-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-3,KI-M-Bam-CS-1,KI-M-Bam-CS-4,KI-M-Bam-CS-6,KI-M-Bam-PI-1,KI-M-Bam-Go-2,KI-M-Bam-Go-6,KI-M-Bam-Go-7,KI-M-Bam-NG-1,

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workbeingregularlyoverseenbytheirrelatives,asdescribedbyanNGOrepresentative:“Thefamilyofworkingchildrenshouldatleastonceaweekgototheirworkplacesandmakesurethattheyarenotfacinganyproblemsorabuse.”69Althoughtheincomefromworkingchildrenandthebenefitsoflearningatradewerethoughttojustifytheapprenticeshipmodelofworkforchildren,childreninapprenticeshipsareverypoorlypaidandinsomecasesnotpaidatall,particularlyduringtheinitialinductionphasetoapprenticeships.Insomecasesparents,ratherthanthechildren,typicallyreceivethepayment,rangingfrom120to200AfghanisperweekinBalkhandKandahar,100to150AfghanisperweekinHerat,andonly50to100AfghanisperweekinBamyan.70Incontrast,childrenworkingasstreetvendorswerethoughttoearn100to150Afghanisperdaywhilechildrenworkinginconstruction,restaurantsandcarshopscouldearnfrom500to1,500Afghanisperweek.71Thenegativeimpactsofchildlaborweresaidtobemorenumerousthanthepositiveimpacts.Mostfeelthatchildren’seducationisinevitablycompromisedbyworking.Employersareknownto,orsuspectedof,treatingchildrencruelly,humiliatingandphysicallyviolently,leadingtolong-termdepression,deviancy,and/ordrugabuseamongsomeofthevictims.72Evenifworkingchildrenattendedschool,itislikelythattheywouldbetootiredanddistractedtofocusonandlearn.73Childreninvolvedinagriculturalworkwerethoughttofacethedangersofwildanimalsandfallingfromcliffsormountains.74Employersandfellowworkers,mostofwhomareuneducated,areseenassourcesofabuse,neglectandexploitationofworkingchildren,andverymuchontheoppositesideofacceptablemodelsofapprenticeship.Forexample:

Most[adult]workersareilliterateandtheyarenotfamiliarwithacademicapproachesoftraining.Therefore,theyjustbelittleandbeatthosethatworkunderthem[apprentices]becausetheybelieveifthechildrenarenotbeaten,thentheycannotbetrainedandcannotlearn.Thisisthereasonwhychildrenfacepsychologicalproblemsandthiswillcausedefectivepersonalitiesfortheminthefuture.75

Childrenhurtonthejobarenotcaredforbyemployers,andthereisahighprobabilityofsexualabuseintheworkplaceandchildrenbeingforcedintodrugsanddrugtrade.InHeratsomefearedthatexperiencesassociatedwithchildlaborcouldunderminechildren’s“religiousmorals.”InKandaharintervieweescommentedthatthearrayofnegativeimpactsfromchildlaborcouldperpetuateacycleofabuseandcrueltyinthefuture,astoday’schildlaborersbecometheparentsofanewgenerationof

KI-F-Bam-NG-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-5,KI-M-Bam-Go-4,KI-F-Kan-PI-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-6,KI-M-Kan-CS-5,KI-M-Kan-CS-4,KI-M-Kan-CS-3,KI-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-F-Kan-Go-7,KI-M-Kan-Go-6,KI-M-Kan-Go-5,KI-F-Kan-Go-4,KI-M-Kan-Go-3,KI-M-Kan-Go-2,KI-M-Kan-Go-1,KI-F-Kan-NG-2,KI-F-Kan-NG-1

69KI-M-Bal-NG-170KI-F-Her-PI-1,KI-M-Her-Go-5,KI-M-Kan-NG-1,KI-M-Kan-Go-5,KI-M-Kan-Go-7,KI-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-M-Kan-CS-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-3,FGD-F-Kan-CS-2,KI-F-Kan-PI-1,KI-M-Kan-CS-4,KI-M-Kan-CS-5,KI-F-Kan-NG-2,KI-M-Kan-CS-6,FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-M-Kan-Go-6,KI-F-Kan-Go-1,KI-M-Kan-Go-2,KI-M-Kan-Go-3,KI-M-Kan-Go-4

71FGD-M-Bal-CS-1,KI-M-Bal-NG-1,KI-M-Bal-Go-1,KI-M-Bal-Go-3,KI-M-Bal-NG-2,KI-M-Bal-CS-5,KI-M-Bal-Go-5,KI-F-Bal-Go-7,KI-M-Bal-CS-6,KI-M-Bal-CS-1,KI-M-Bal-CS-2,KI-M-Bal-Go-4,KI-M-Bal-Go-6,FGD-M-Bal-CS-2,KI-M-Bal-CS-3,KI-M-Bal-CS-4,KI-F-Bal-PI-1,KI-F-Bal-Go-2

72KI-F-Bam-PI-1,KI-F-Kan-PI-1,FGD-M-Kan-CS-1,KI-F-Kan-Go-473KI-M-Bal-NG-274KI-M-Bam-CS-175KI-M-Her-CS-5

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vulnerablechildren.76Employers’badbehaviorisgenerallynotmollifiedbyparentalpresenceoroversight.77

ViewsonWorkingChildren

Thereareconsistentviewsthatemployersshouldtreatthechildrentheyemployastheirownandaccordingtothelaw,specificallyavoidingassigningthemheavydutiesandrequiringlonghours,providingfortheirphysicalsafetyandhealth,andensuringthattheyreceivevocationaltrainingwhileenablingthemtopursueeducation.Similarly,theworkingchildrenshouldbeprotectedfromabuse,violence,and“deviance”(sexualabuseanddrugs)intheworkplace.78Parents’viewsaboutchildlaborappeartobeidealized,withemployerstreatingthechildrenwell,providingthemwithasafeenvironment,lightduties,sufficientfood,andtimeforprayers.Atthesametime,therewaslittleindicationofatendencyamongparentstoconductoversightoftheirchildrenatwork,believingthatworkingwasbeneficialfortheirchildren.Therewasalsoindicationthatparentscondonedisciplineintheworkplace,andasanimportantaspectofthechildren’slearning.79ThenarrativegivenbyemployersalsotendedtobeidealizedandremovedfromwhatisknownaboutchildlaborinAfghanistan.Theemployerscontendedthatanemployershouldconceiveofhimorherselfasthe“instructorandtrainer”ofachildlaborer,includingtakingresponsibilityforthechild’ssafetyandprotection,payingadequatewages,andavoidingpunishingchildrenfor“smallmistakes.”80Therewas,nevertheless,somenuancingbyoneoftheemployers:

[Howworkingchildrenaretreatedbyemployersdependson]employers’faithandconsciences.Italsodependsontheworkenvironmentandsituation.Anemployerinamechanicworkshopshouldknowhisresponsibilities.Workinginamechanicworkshopisnotfitforachild.Infactoriesitisdifficulttomaintainconditions[appropriate]forachildlaboreralthoughemployers,accordingtotheirconsciences,shouldmaintainreasonableworksituationsforthechildworker.81

Thechildrenthemselvescomplainofmistreatmentincludingbeatings,foullanguage,andexposuretodruguse.Theydescribehavingnorecourseotherthantoaccepttheconditionsoftheiremployment,withparentstypicallynotonlyacceptingabusivebehaviorbyemployers,butalsoconcurringwithit.Employersaresaidtosometimeswithholdchildren’spay.Insum,thechildren’sexperienceandexpectationsofemployersappearstobetheoppositetothoseoftheirparentsandemployers.Forexample,

Weexpectemployerstohavegoodbehaviorwithchildrenandnottobeatusbecauseitaffectsourbrains.Employersshouldtrainusandnevergiveushardtasks…Whenwemakemistakesheshouldnotbeatusandweexpecthimnottowithholdourmoney.Wewouldbegladifheadvisedus.82

76FGD-M-Kan-CS-1+KI-F-Kan-Go-4+KI-F-Kan-PI-177FGD-M-Her-CS-278KI-M-Bam-GO-1,KI-M-Bam-GO-7,KI-M-Bam-GO-6,KI-M-Bam-GO-2,KI-M-Bam-GO-3,KI-F-Bam-GO-5,KI-M-Bam-GO-4,KI-M-Bam-NG-1,KI-M-Bam-NG-2,KI-M-Bam-PI-1,KI-M-Bam-CS-2,KI-M-Bam-CS-1,FGD-M-Bam-CS-2,FGD-M-Bam-CS-1,KI-M-Bam-CS-4,KI-M-Bam-CS-3,KI-M-Bam-CS-6,KI-M-Bam-CS-5

79KI-M-Her-CS-6,FGD-F-Her-CS-1,FGD-M-Bal-CS-180KI-M-Bam-CS-5,KI-M-Bal-CS-5,KI-M-Kan-CS-681KI-M-Her-CS-682FGD-M-Her-CS-2

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Similarly,

Employers[should]treatusastheirownchildren.Donotbeatus.Giveusoursalariesproperly.Andteachustheworkcorrectlybecauseweworkforthemfrommorningtilleveningandtheyimposeheavydutiesonus.Nobodyistheretoquestionthem,evenourfathers.Wheneverwetellourfathersaboutourproblemsintheworkplace,[ourfathers]say:‘Itdoesnotmatter,eventuallyyouwilllearn.’Itisthesamething[thatfathers]sayaboutusbeingbeatenatschool,thatitisokay,becauseteacherspunishtheirstudents[sotheylearn].83

And,

Employersbeatchildrenseverelyandpunishthemfortheirsmallmistakes.Becausechildrenandtheirfamiliesareinneedofmoney,childrenwithstandthesemistreatmentsanddifficultiestoprovidesomemoneyfortheirfamilies.Employersshouldhavefriendlybehaviorwithchildworkers.84

ConclusionandRecommendations

Findingsfromthisresearchunderscorethemultifacetednatureoftheproblemofchildlabor,whichconsistsofavarietyofemploymentsettingsandcircumstancesandcreatesarangeofpredictableimpactsonchildren–someofwhicharepotentiallypositiveandconstructive,butmostofwhicharecurrentlydeleterious.Addressingthemulti-facetedandcomplexproblemofchildlaborwillrequireamulti-prongapproachincludingpublicizingtheimmediateandlongertermimpactsofchildlabor,enforcingexistinglaws,extendingexistinglawandpolicy,andcreatingalternativestorelianceonchildlaborforfamilieswithnochoiceinsecuringasteadyincome.Sincethistypeofsolutionwillrequireresources–mostlystatesubsidyorotherformsofmaterialassistance–itisunlikelythatimmediatestepswillbetakentoprovidefamilyassistancebyagovernmentwithgreatdifficultyinfullyfinancingitscurrentoperations.Themaininsightsfromthisresearchmaybesummarizedasfollows.Consistentwithpriorresearchonchildlabor,thisresearchfindsthatpovertyisamajordriverofchildlabor.Acuteandchronicpovertyforcesmanyfamiliestoviewtheirchildrenasassetsthatcouldbetradedforgeneratingincomeorreducingfamilydebt.Atthesametime,thereissubstantialnuancetorationalesforjustifyingchildlabor.Childlaborintersectswithtraditionalandreligiousideasandsocialpracticesconcerningchildren’smaturationtoadulthood,themultiplebenefitsofwork(includinglearninganddiscipline),andfamilyresponsibilities(suchasoldersiblingscaringforyoungersiblingsandtheirmothers).Childrenenteringthewageeconomyappeartoneedconnectionsandsometimeslobbyingemployersbyfamiliestohiretheirchildren.Children’sworkisalsoamajordetrimenttotheirformaleducation.Manyfamiliesprefertosendtheirchildrentoschoolratherthantowork,atleastuntilanageofmaturity.Atthesametime,however,formaleducationforchildrenhasonlyrecentlybecomeavailableasanalternativetoworking.Manyfamiliesinruralareascontinuetohavepoorornoaccesstoeducationfortheirchildrenandmanyofthefamiliesthatdohaveaccesshavenotyetacceptedschoolingasaviablealternativetoworkingfortheirchildren.

83FGD-M-Bal-CS-284FGD-M-Kan-CS-2

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Accesstoeducation,whileavailableatamuchwiderscalethantheperiodpriorto2001,remainslimitedwithonlyafewhoursofformaleducationforthemanymillionchildrenwhogotoschool.Manyparentswanttoseetheirchildren“keptbusy”andlearningasawaytoacquiredisciplineandworkskills.Workisseenasalegitimatewaytoaccomplishthis,whileprovidingsomeincomeforthefamily.Somefamiliesrelyonchildlaboroutofdireeconomicnecessity.Thisincludesfamiliesundersomespecificduresssuchdeath,departure/migration,addiction,oldage,orhealthissuesoftheofmainbreadwinner(s)inthefamilyordisplacementofthewholefamily.Inthesecircumstances,giventhemanyprohibitionsaboutwomenworking,childrenareseenasanacceptablealternativeforgeneratingincomeforthefamily.Atthesametime,familiesgenerallydonotwanttosendtheirchildrentobestreetvendorsorcleaners,ordoingheavyphysicalwork,withoutprotectionunlesstheytrulyhavenootheralternative.Thefactthatveryyoungchildrenareputtoworkimpliesthattherehasbeenaruptureinsocialnormsregardingtheparentaldutyofchildprotectionandabreakdownofcommunalmutualaidthatmightotherwisehavebeenrelieduponbyfamiliesinneedoffinancialandmaterialassistance.Therisksofphysicalandsexualabuseanddenialofeducationarestrongnegativeconsequencesofchildlaborattheindividuallevel.Childlaboralsocarriessignificantsocietalconsequenceswithmanyworkingchildrenbecomingthenextgenerationofadultshavingcomeofageindeprivedandabusiveconditionswithlittleornofamiliaritywithhealthyfamilyenvironmentsornurture.Itisprobablethatsomeofthesechildrenwillbecometheabusersofthenextgenerationofchildren,includingsexualpredators.Theproblemofchildlaboriscomplex,giventhefactthatsometypesofworkareappropriateandbeneficialtothechildrenwhileothersareinappropriate,hazardousandillegal.Themosthazardousandworstformsofchildlabor,includingbondedlaborandillicitworkinnarcoticsanddangerousindustries,eachrequiretheirownsetofmultifacetedinterventionsandawarenessprogramming.Evenbeneficialchildlabor,whichoccursunderanapprenticeshipmodel,requiresadditionalinterventionandoversighttoensurethatchildrenarenotphysicallyandsexuallyexploitedorabused,andthattheyreceiveappropriatecare,compensationandtraining.

Recommendations

Thefollowingrecommendationsarebasedonsuggestionsfromtheinterviewees.

Employers

• Employersshouldbemoreproactiveinsupportingfamiliesinneed,creatinganetworktogaincommitmentsfromunionsandfactoryownerstoensurethesecurity,safety,andhealthofworkingchildren.

• Craftsmenunionsshouldbeheldaccountableinundertakinginternalmonitoringofmembers’workplaces.

• Businessandfactoryownersshouldworkwiththegovernmentonincentivesbythegovernment,usingtaxdeductionsandothermeans,tocreateafoundationtocollectanddispersefundstoneedyfamiliesandtherebyreducechildlabor.

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Government

• Shouldimplementtheexistingwork-relatedlawsandeffectconstitutionalprovisionsconcerningchildlaborbycreatingbetter,implementablepoliciestopreventchildrenfromhardlaborwhileensuringthatemployersthatdeviatefromregulatoryrequirementsarepunished.

• Thereisambiguityaboutwhichgovernmentdepartmentshaveauthorityoverchildlaborandrelatedissues,suchasdruguseinworkplaces.Governmentshouldidentifyandpublicizeareasofworkpermissibleandnotharmfulforchildren.

• Shoulddoabetterjobofidentifyingandsupportingchildrenandfamiliesthatareatparticularriskofrelianceonchildlabor,suchasfemale-headedhouseholds,indebtedfamilies,andfamilieswithdrugaddictedparents.

• Shouldassistorphanagesandjuvenilehomesinmoreconsistentlyprovidingeducationalandvocationaltrainingtovulnerablechildren.

• Shouldmakeeducationmandatoryuptoaminimumlevelof6thgrade,forexample.• Shouldputinplacemechanismsforthecollectionofaccuratestatisticsabouttheincidenceof

childlaborincludingthewaysinwhichfamilyeconomicconditionsleadtochildlabor.

MosquesandMedia

• Mosquesandmediashouldplaymajorrolesinraisingawareness,andadvocating,abouttheperilsofchildlabor.

Additionalrecommendationsmaybemadebasedonthefindingsfromthisresearchasfollows.

LegislationandChildLabor

Noamountoflegislationaloneisgoingtostoptheexploitationofchildreninthelabormarket.Concurrentwithlegislation,thereisneedforabetterunderstandingofthefamilyandworkplacedynamicsthatresultinchildlabor.Thiswillrequirededicatedassessment,research,andongoingmonitoringofthecurrentconditionsofworkingchildren,includingdistinguishingbetweentraditionalapprenticeshiparrangementsforworkingchildrenandexploitativechildlabor.Inaddition,parents,communityleaders,andcraftsmenunionscouldbeengagedbygovernmentauthoritiestoprovideoversightofchildren’svocationallyorientedemployment.Thisoversightshouldbeguidedbyconcretestandardsandprohibitionsthatarewidelydisseminatedandunderstood.

Children’sRightsinApprenticeships

Workingcloselywithemployersandparents,government-ledeffortsshouldensurethattherightsofchildrenworkingasapprenticesinrecognizedandlegitimatetradesarerecognizedandrespectedbyemployers.Theserightsincludeaccesstoformalandpractical(on-the-job)training,protectionintheworkplaceagainstheavyphysical,physicalinjury,andsexualabuse,availabilityofmechanismsthatcouldbeusedbychildrenfacedwithphysicalandsexualharassment,andaccesstosufficientfoodandadequatesanitaryprovisions.Theseeffortsshouldbealignedwithtrade-basedvocationalandapprenticeshipprogramssupportedbyinternationaldonors.

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PreventionofIllicitChildLabor

Inunregulatedandnotfullylegitimateoccupationsprotectingchildren’srightsisparticularlydifficult.However,muchmorecouldbedonebytheMinistryofLabor,SocialAffairs,MartyredandtheDisabled,forexample,throughsurpriseinspectionsandfiningemployersthatexploitchildlaborinillegalworksuchashardphysicallabor.Thistypeoflawenforcement,however,islikelytosucceedonlyifitisbackedupbythepoliticalwillofthegovernmentandhasthesupportoftheparentsandthecommunitymorebroadly.

ChildLaborandSchoolDropouts

Schoolsmustassumeamorededicatedroleintrackingdropoutsandtheirlinktochildlabor,workingcloselywiththeparentsand/ortheirassociations,MinistryofEducationandtheMinistryofLabor,SocialAffairs,MartyredandtheDisabledtodevisewaysinwhichdropoutscouldbebetterpreventedandmanaged.

LegalAgeinEmployment

Manyofthelegalprovisionsgoverningchildlaborareage-based.Whiledifficultandperhapsbeyondthecurrentfinancialcapacityofthegovernment,effortsshouldbemadeforthedigitizationofbirthrecordsasameanstoverifytheageofchildrenbeingrecruitedintoworkplaces.Employerscouldthenbecompelledtoprovetheagesofthechildrenworkingforthem.

ChildrenandArmedConflict

Topreventtherecruitmentofchildrenintoarmedconflict,especiallybythepoliceandthearmy,ageverificationguidelinesmustbeimplementedduringrecruitment.Theremustalsobeinvestigationandprosecutionofcasesoftherecruitmentanduseofchildrenbythenationalsecurityforcesinarmedconflict.Donoragencies,especiallymilitaryaiddonors,mustdemandthatsecurityauthoritiescrackdownontherecruitmentofchildrenbythesecuritysector.Intheeventofchildrenbeingusedasfootsoldiersorusedforsexualentertainmentofsecurityofficials,everyeffortmustbemadetoprosecutetheperpetratorsanddenouncethispracticebasedonteachingsfromIslamthroughongoingnationwideawarenesscampaigns.

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Appendix1:InterviewsandFocusGroupDiscussions

KII/FGD Type Number LocationKII Elders 8 4centersKII Mullahs 8 4centersKII TeachersandSchoolAdministrators 8 4centersKII Government* 5 4centersFGD Children 12 4centersFGD Parents 12 4centersKII HeadofCraftsmenUnion 4 4centersKII NGOsworkingforchildren 8 4centersKII AfghanistanIndependentHumanRightsCommission 4 4centersKII LineDrivers 8 4centersKII Restaurants 8 4centersKII HumanRightsDepartmentoftheAfghanNationalPolice 4 4centers

*Thisincludedprovincial/departmental-levelrepresentativesfromtheMinistryofLabor,SocialAffairs,MartyrsandDisabled,MinistryofEducation,MinistryofRuralRehabilitationandDevelopment,provincialcouncils,andtheMinistryofPublicHealth

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Appendix2:CodingandGuidingQuestions

KI=KeyInformantFGD=FocusGroupDiscussionM=MaleF=FemaleNG=Non-Government(e.g.,craftsunions)Go=GovernmentCS=CivilSociety(e.g.,elders)PI=PublicInstitutions(e.g.,restaurants)Bam=BamyanHer=HeratKan=KandaharBal=BalkhExamples:KI-M-Bam-NG-1(KI=Keyinformant,M=Male,Bam=Bamyan,NG=Non-government,1=Sequence)KI-F-Bam-CS-2(KI=Keyinformant,F=Female,Bam=Bamyan,CS=CivilSociety,2=Sequence)GuidingQuestions:1- Whattypeofworkdochildrendoinyourcommunity/province?Listanddescribe.2- Whydochildrentakepaidwork?Listanddescribe.3- Whydoemployersemploychildren?Explain.4- Whydoparentsallowtheirchildrentowork?List.5- Arethereanylawsaboutchildrenworking?Nameanddescribe.6- Wherecaninformationonlawsaboutworkingchildrenbeobtained?List.7- Whichgovernmentornon-governmentorganizationsprovideprotectionforworkingchildren?List

anddescriberoles.8- Doesworkingaffectchildrenpositivelyornegatively?9- Doesworkingaffectchildren’sabilitytoattendschool?How?Describe.10- Doesworkingaffectchildren’searlyagedevelopment?How?Describe.11- Whoorwhatorganizationsshouldprotectchildren’ssafetyatwork?12- Howdoemployerstreatchildren?Describe.13- Whattypesofrisksdoworkingchildrenface?Listanddescribe.14- Doyouknowofanycasesofmistreatmentofworkingchildrenbytheiremployers?Listand

describe.15- Shouldsenfs(unions/craftassociations)havearoleinprotectingthewellbeingofchildrenatwork?

How?Describe.16- Shoulddepartmentofeducationplayaroleinprotectingthewellbeingofworkingchildren?17- Shoulddepartmentofpublichealthplayaroleinprotectingthewellbeingofworkingchildren?18- Shouldmosquesplayaroleinprotectingthewellbeingofworkingchildren?19- Shouldelders(rishsafeeds)playaroleinprotectingthewellbeingofworkingchildren?20- Whataretheemployer’sresponsibilitiestowardworkingchildren?Listanddescribe.21- Whichtypesofworkarebestsuitedforchildren?Listandexplainwhy.22- Whichtypesofworkareworstchildren?Listandexplainwhy.23- Howcanworkingchildrenbebetterprotected?Describe.