Choosing an appropriatemethod of data collectionIn this paper Dympna Casey gives a personal accountof the factors affecting her selection of methods of datacollection for a case study examining nurses' health pro-moting practices in the context of an acute care setting

'^ >• non-participant observation0 > interviewing•^ > methods of data collection

> health promotion

IntroductionConducting real-world research, in particular for the novice researcher, is not

easy (Casey 2004). Choices have to be made concerning each stage of the

process, all of which are governed by the research question and/or aims of the

study. In making these choices researchers resort to textbooks as well as research

studies. Both sources are helpful, however, the latter may sometimes be more

helpful in terms of describing the practicalities of conducting research in the

context of real-life settings rather than just describing an abstract reality.

Capturing the subjective interactions between nurses and patients was an

important part of my study. Therefore the interpretivlst paradigm was used, as

the focus was on the meaning of experiences and behaviours, which are context

dependent. The use of multiple data collection methods, provide a more 'con-

vincing and accurate' case study (Yin 1994). In my case study 'within methods'

triangulation involving the use of both observations and interviews, (methods

of data collection from the same methodology) were used. This paper describes

the rationale and issues considered in selecting the most appropriate methods

of data collection as well as the researcher's account of her experience of using

these methods in undertaking a piece of research.

NURSERESEARCHER 2006, 13, 3 75

The complete participant, where the researcher attempts to hide his or her trueidentity and role as researcher.The participant as observer, here participants are aware of the researcher's role andthe research, and the researcher is a full participant.The observer as participant, here no long-term relationship is established. Theobserver doesn't participate in the work and is only a participant in the sense ofbeing in the setting.The complete observer where there is no participation.

Observations as a method of data collectionObservations as a method of data collection permit the identification of what

is occurring in a given context, who is involved and when and where things

are happening (Jorgensen 1989). This method was most appropriate for my

study as the aim was to obtain an understanding of the health promotion

practices undertaken by nurses in the context of their daily practice.

Role of observerCold (1958) identifies four modes of observation outlined in Table 1. Some

of these roles overlap, for example observer as participant and complete

observer (Holloway and Wheeler 2002). Hammersley and Atkinson (1995)

suggest that there is no single theoretical typology of participation, rather

the role of the researcher in field research varies between complete observer,

(non-participation), and complete participant. They question the value of

distinguishing between participant as observer and observer as participant.

In practice the extent of participation is governed by the nature of the setting

and the research question (Mays and Pope 1995).

Many researchers have utilised the role of non-participant observer to exam-

ine actions, interactions and exchanges in a variety of hospital and nursing con-

texts (Table 2). These studies highlight the suitability of observations as a means

of collecting data within nursing. Prior to making a final decision as to using

this method I undertook a review of research text books and research studies to

determine the advantages and disadvantages of the method.

Advantages and disadvantages of observations

One of the main advantages of observations is that it allows the collection of

76 NURSEKESEaRCHER 2006, 13, 3

information on a wide range of activities including how participants perform

and how people act and interact (Polgar and Thomas 1991, Lobiando-Wood

and Haber 1998, Patton 2002, Holloway and Wheeler 2002). Problems

identified with unstructured observations include: yielding a lot of data,

which makes analysis more time consuming; and selectivity bias may arise

whereby the researcher may focus only on aspects of the phenomena that are

of personal interest (Pretzlik 1994, Polit et al 2001, Patton 2002). There are

also potential problems from the Rosenthal phenomenon, when the research-

er's attitudes, emotions and personal interest influence the outcome (Polgar

and Thomas 1991, Bucknall 2000). It must be noted that these arguments are

also equally valid for other methods of data collection. Maintaining a reflec-

tive account during my study helped to reduce these problems.

Other difficulties with observational methods include the Hawthorne effect,

where research participants may alter their behaviour as a result of being

observed. Alder and Alder (1987) suggest that it is not possible to eliminate

observer effect completely. However the researcher can include steps that will

reduce or diminish it. For example, getting to know the environment and allow-

ing the ward staff become familiar with my presence. I also ensured that I spent

enough time (prolonged engagement) on the ward as indicated by the fact that

no new issues were emerging from the data (data saturation).

Mulhall (2003) warns that most 'professionals are too busy to maintain

behaviour that is radically different from normal'. While Patton (1990) states

that the observer effect is overemphasised as participants frequently forget the

researcher's presence. Another difficulty is the halo effect (Polit and Tatano

Beck 2004), where the researcher's positive impression ofa participant might

result in recording the individual's activities in a positive way. The converse

is also possible. In my study non-participant observation was selected as this

permitted me to focus on recording at first hand the interartions between

nurses and patients, and to not be distracted by having to participate in the

work. Continuous self-monitoring, and ensuring that both methodological and

interpretive rigour was maintained, helped reduce potential problems.

Tvpes of observations

In choosing observations as a method of data collection researchers may

NURSERESEAKCHER 2006, 13, 3 77

Author Aim of the study

Booth et al To examine the effects of a stroke(2005) rehabilitation education programme

for nurses.

Bucknali (2000) To observe and describe the decisionmaking activities of critical care nurseswithin the natural clinical settings.

Cox and To discover how clinically effectiveAhluwalin (2000) nursing care is fostered among

clinical nurse specialists and nursepractitioners.

Dowswell et al To examine the positioning, handling,(2000) and mobilisation of stroke patients pre

and post an educational programme.

Forster et al To assess the effects of a(1999) physiotherapist led stroke training

programme for nurses working in arehabilitation ward.

Gott and O'Brien To examine nurses' knowledge and(1990) perspectives of health promotion and

patients perspectives.

Hertzberg and To identify and describe obstacles to aEkman (2000) well functioning relationship between

staff and relatives.

Henderson To examine factors relevant to patient(1997) participation from the patients' andHenderson nurses' perspectives.(2003) To explore and describe nurses' and

patients' views about partnership.

Latter (1994) To examine nurses' perceptions andMacleod Clark et practices of health education anda/(1992) health promotion.

Latter et al To evaluate educational preparation for(2000) health education roles in practice, in

relation to medication education.

Lundgren and To investigate the allocation of nursingSegesten (2001) time and organisation of care, after

the introduction of a patient focusedphilosophy and ward staff change, i.e.all qualified registered nurses.

Observer role

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Participant statedbut resembles nonparticipant

Non participant

Non participantobservations ofteaching sessions

Non participant

78 NURSERESEARCHER 2006, 13, 3

McGarvey et al To investigate factors influencing role(1999) performance of nurses working in the

operating department.

McCrea ef al To examine the influence of the(1998) midwife's approach on the care of

women, regarding pain relief duringlabour.

Neary (2000) To investigate nursing practicein relation to assessing clinicalcompetence of nursing students, andthe support they receive during nurseeducation programmes.

Rosalind and To explore the quantity and contentWright (1999) of verbal communication between

critical care nurses and unconscious, orsedated patients.

Twinn and Diana, To explore nurses' practice of health(1997) education in acute care.

Walker and To produce a set of indicators forDewar (2001) good practice that would facilitate

the involvement of carers in decisionmaking.

Woodward To explore the interpretations and(2000) values midwives and nurses attach to

the concept of caring, and how theseare manifest in the clinical setting.

Younger and To measure quality and theGeoffrey (2000) environment of care.

Hewison (1995) To examine the way nurses uselanguage and the effect this has onpatients.

Burden (1998) To observe the methods women useto maintain or preserve their privacywithin the ward environment.

Whyte and To examine the type of health relatedWatson (1998) information given to patients by

diploma nurses.

Zeit (2005) To describe what constitutes postoperative nursing monitoring in theinitial 24 hour period.

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Non participant

Participant observation- Observer asparticipant

Participant observation

Nurses wore themicrophones to collectthe data

Non participant

NURSERESEARCMER 2006, 13, 3 79

use either structured or unstructured observations (Polit and Tatano Beck

2004). The aim of structured observations is to quantify an explicit feature of

the phenomenon under observation. In stmctured observations, the aspect of

the phenomenon to be examined is decided in advance into predefined obser-

vational categories (Polit et ai 2001. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Structured

observations are appropriate for large-scale studies providing measurable quan-

tifiable data and are highly reliable (Pretzlik 1994). They involve collecting the

data in a systematic manner where '...the role of the observer is essentially that

of a follower of instmctions-that is the instructions laid down in the structured

observational schedule' (Pretzlik 1994). Although a standardised checklist is

beneficial, it can lead to uncategorisable activities being ignored. An altemative

observational tool is the unstructured approach.

Unstructured observations utilise an inductive approach and may be

described as qualitative observations. Unstructured observations are governed

by the paradigm that acknowledges the importance of context and the co-con-

struction of knowledge between researcher and 'researched' (Mulhall 2003).

These observations favour an interpretivist approach. The researcher observing

the phenomena of interest does not use predefined categories, but allows the

categories to emerge from the collected data (Polit et al 1995). Unstruaured

observations allow for more creativity and for the complexity of the situation

to be considered (Pretzlik 1994, Polit et al 2001). They allow the researcher to

see '...what there is to see without the blinders of hypothesis...' (Patton 2002).

The ultimate aim of unstructured observations is to arrive at a comprehensive

understanding of the phenomena under study.

Within nursing, unstructured observations are used less frequently (Mulhall

2003). In most of the literature I reviewed it was difficult to identify whether

researchers employed structured or unstructured observation tools. Reid (1991)

explicitly stated that an attempt was made to create an observational schedule,

but it was found to be too restrictive. However, most studies did not state the

type of observational tool employed (Hewison 1995, West 1996, Smith 1996,

Whyte and Watson 1998, Martens 1998, McCrea et al 1998, Offredy 1998,

Burden 1998, Jordan et ai 1999, Rosalind and Wright 1999. Cox and Ahluwalia

2000, Woodward 2000, Hertzberg and Ekman 2000, Lundgren and Segesten

2001, Bucknall 2000, Wallis et al 2001, Wikstrom and Larsson 2003).

80 NURSEKESE&KCHEK 2006, 13, 3

Molar and molecular categories

Observational tools can be viewed along a continuum, completely structured

at one end and completely unstructured at the other (Polit and Tatano Beck

2004). The degree of structure of the observational categories within any

observational tool is described as molar and molecular (Lobo 1992, Polit and

Tatano Beck 2004). Unstructured molar categories are broad based where the

category is not well-defined in detail, this increases the likelihood of observer

error. In contrast molecular categories are detailed and precise and allow for

more accurate recording. The more molecular categories used in the observa-

tional tool, the more structured the approach. However, reducing observations

to concrete and specific components may cause the researcher to ignore how

other smaller components contribute to the phenomenon under investigation

(Polit et al 2001, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). The research question and the

preference of the researcher govem ones choice in using molar or molecular

categories (Pretzlik, 1994, Polit eta/2001).

In my study an unstructured observational tool with molar categories was

used. This was chosen on the basis that it is difficult to delineate distinct health

promotion activities in nursing practice (Delaney 1994) as the concepts under-

pinning health promotion are broad based and complex (Maben and Macleod

Clark 1995. Whitehead 2004). Hence the suitability of molar categories.

However, this did yield a lot of data, making analysis time-consuming.

Observational sampling

Observational data seeks to obtain a representative example of the interactions

or behaviours being examined without observing an entire experience. The two

main methods of achieving this are time sampling and event sampling (Polit et al

2001, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Time sampling is where a certain time peri-

od is selected during which the observational data is collected. The time periods

may be randomly or systematically selected. Event sampling is where data is

collected on a particular interaction or event. Event sampling thus requires prior

knowledge of the specified event This type of sampling is also most useful if the

event is infrequent as it may be missed if time sampling were used.

The majority of studies I reviewed employed time sampling (Table 3) to obtain

a representative sample of the interactions or behaviours being observed. Only

NURSERESEARCHER 2006, 13, 3 81

Reid (1991) Forster eta/(1999)

Hewison (1995) Pound et a/ (1999)

West (1995) Cox and Ahluwalia (2000)

Routasalo(1996) Davies et a/(2000)

Burden (1998) Dowswell et ai (2000)

While et a/ (1998) Woodward (2000)

Whyte and Watson (1998) Younger and Geoffrey (2000)

Holyoake (1998) Lundgren and Segesten (2001)

Fitzpatrick et al (1999) Booth et ai (2001)

Rosalind and Wright (1999) Wallis eta/(2001)

Waters and Easton (1999) Wellard et al (2003)

a few studies appeared to focus on a specific event (Roach et al 1996, McCrea

et al 1998, Offredy 1998, Bucknall 2000, Walker and Dewar 2001, Zeitz 2005),

The length of each time sampling event described in the studies reviewed was

also diverse. Some studies clearly indicated the duration of each observational

period and this ranged from two to nine hours (Table 4). However, others were

less explicit (Roach et a/1996, Routasalo 1996, Forster et al 1999, Pound et at

1999, Hertzberg and Ekman 2000), giving either the total number of hours or

episodes of observational data collected. Other studies only indicated either the

type of shift during which data was collected, or the length of time during which

data was collected (Reid 1991, Smith 1996. Anderson 1997, Wigens 1997,

Taylor 1997, Burden 1998, Martens 1998, Offredy 1998, Whyte and Watson

1998, Jordan et al 1999, Walker and Dewar 2001, Lundgren and Segesten

2001, Wallis et al 2001). Some researchers considered a maximum of four-hour

observational session appropriate (Pill 1970, Brown 1989, Clifford 1997).

A less contentious issue was the emphasis on vigilance in maintaining concen-

tration during the data collection process. McCrea et ai (1998) took 'comfort

breaks' and observational sessions lasted between four and nine hours. Smith

(1996) did not report taking comfort breaks, however, she did comment on the

exhaustive nature of concentration during continuous observational sessions.

Likewise, Hewison (1995) highlighted the need to overcome what Spradley

(1980) termed 'selective inattention'. This emphasises the importance of having

observational periods that are long enough to capture what is happening and

short enough to reduce observer exhaustion.

82 NURSERESE&RCHER 2006, 13, 3

Author Total number of hours observed per sessionHewison (1995) 2.5 to 4 hoursNolan ef a/(1995) 6 hoursWest (1996) 2 hoursSourtzi eta/(1996) 3.17 hoursWhile eta/(1998) 2.5 hoursMcCrea et al (1998) 4 to 9 hoursWaters and Easton (1999) 2 hoursHolyoake (1998) 4 hours maxFitzpatrick eta/1999 2.5 hoursRosalind and Wright (1999) 4 hoursShiu eta/(1999) 2 hoursDavies et al (2000) 3 to 9 hoursBucknall (2000) 2 hQursCox and Ahluwalia (2000) 3 hQursWoodward (2000) 6 hoursYounger and Geoffrey (2000) 6 hoursBooth et al (2001) 6 hoursWellard eta/(2003) 2 hours

Henderson (2003) 20 minutes to 1 hourZeitz (2005) 4 hours

During the pilot for my stu(jy I found that a continuous four-hour observa-

tional period was too long. Therefore the observational periods selected ranged

from a minimum of two hours to a maximum of 3.5 hours at any one time.

Gathering the observational data-positioning approaches

The literature identifies three main types of positioning approaches, single, mul-

tiple and mobile (Polit et al 2001. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Single position-

ing is where the researcher occupies one location only and observes interactions

in that location alone. In contrast, multiple positioning is where the researcher

moves around the study site spending some time in a number of sites, observing

interactions from different locations. Finally, mobile positioning may be adopted

whereby the observer follows a person during a given activity or observation

period. Only a few of the reviewed studies provided detailed information as

to the positioning adopted by the observer Hewison (1995) highlighted the

NURSERESE&RCMER 2006. 13. 3 83

importance of occupying an observation point, which pennitted observation

of as many interactions as possible. McCrea et al (1998) and Rosalind and

Wright (1999) emphasised the importance of being within hearing distance of

the participants. Other researchers also commented on the importance of being

proximate to participants. Some commented that the researcher followed the

nurse 'like a shadow continually making notes' while also keeping a discrete

distance when 'intimate' practices or discussions were taking place (Lundgren

and Segesten 2001).

As health ptumotion is often opportunistic it was imperative in my study that

I was able to follow the nurse around from patient to patient as s/he delivered

care. Therefore mobile positioning was selected.

Recording observational data

Field notes '...represent the participant observer's efforts to record information

and also to synthesise and understand the data' (Polit and Tatano Beck 2004).

This method of recording was used in many studies to collect the observa-

tional data (Reid 1991. Wigens 1997, Anderson 1997. Burden 1998. McCrea

et al 1998, Offredy 1998. Waters and Easton 1999. Woodward 2000. Cox and

Ahluwalia 2000. Wallis et al 2001, Walker and Dewar 2001. Wikstrom and

Larsson 2003). However, as identified by Huxham and Vangen (2003), the

method means that details often have to be forfeited and there is a tension

between trying to write down observations as they occur, while simultaneously

trying to pay attention to what is happening.

Others researchers used field notes along with more structured observational

tools to collect additional contextual information (Routasalo 1996. Fitzpatrick

et al 1999. Forster et al 1999. Davies et al 2000, Dowswell et al 2000). Other

studies did not use the term 'field notes', however their description ofthe data

collertion process would be similar to the latter. Hewison (1995) and Rosalind

and Wright (1999) described recording the data by using detailed handwrit-

ten notes. Smith (1996) reported that she wrote down key words, which she

expanded and elaborated on at a later phase. Hertzberg and Ekman (2000)

reported that detailed notes and quotations were made and these were expand-

ed upon by the use of tape recordings after the observations.

Some studies revealed that detailed audio taped commentary of observed

84 NURSEKESEARCHEK 2006, 13, 3

events was made. Bucknall (2000) reported that a head-mounted audio

recording device was used, allowing the observer to move with participants

while recording information. Similarly. Whyte and Watson (1998) focused on

obtaining accurate verbatim accounts from participants. Building on Macleod

Clark work (1982). which used microphones to investigate nurse-patient inter-

actions, they asked each participant to carry a microphone in their pocket, with

the radio receiver located outside the ward area. However, collecting spoken

word alone, without resource to other contextual information may be some-

what limiting.

Video recording was another method of collecting observational data identi-

fied. If mobile positioning is required, then more than one person or camera

is recommended (Latvala et al 2000). However, this makes the use of video

recording prohibitive in terms of expense and intrusiveness (Whyte and Watson

1998). Furthermore audio recording, unlike video recording allows the capture

of live anecdotal information which may not be captured by video.

In my study audio recording was used. Firstly I wore head mounted audio

equipment to record contextual information while the nurses simultaneously

recorded direct verbatim dialogue via the use of a lapel microphone connected

to a small portable recording device in their pocket. This ensured that I cap-

tured the context and direct verbatim speech. After each observational period I

listened to the tapes and matched the contextual data with the verbal dialogue

between nurse and patient. Although I found this very time consuming it

ensured that the verbal interactions were analysed within their context.

Interview dataThe second method of data collection utilised in this study was interviews.

Research interviews are one of the most common methods employed to col-

lect data (Parahoo 1997. Clarke 1999. Polit et al 2001. Holloway and Wheeler

2002. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). A research interview involves the collec-

tion of verbal information carried out with the '...purpose of collecting valid

and reliable data to answer particular research questions' (Parahoo 1997).

Interviews seek to elicit what people are thinking and to ascertain things we

cannot overtly see (Patton 2002). Again the literature was reviewed in relation

to the advantages and disadvantages of this method of data collection.

NURSERESEARCHER 2006. 13, 3 85

Advantages and disadvantages of interviewing

A number of advantages to interviewing are cited. These include flexibility

in allowing in-depth exploration of the topic and immediate clarification of

issues (Bums and Grove 2001, Holloway and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano

Beck 2004). Also response rates are usually high (Burns and Grove 2001, Polit

and Tatano Beck 2004). Disadvantages include the fact that it is time consum-

ing, demanding of the interviewer's skills (Bums and Grove 2001, Holloway

and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004), sample sizes are usually small

(Parahoo 1997. Bums and Grove 2001, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004), inter-

viewer effect or social desirability, where the interviewee changes their response

to please the interviewer or to cast themselves in a good light (Bums and Grove

2001, Holloway and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004).

I selected interviewing as a method of data collection as potential problems

could be reduced by spending time with participants so they would trust me

(Holloway and Wheeler 2002). Interviews would also allow me to interpret

the significance or otherwise of observational data. Furthennore combining

interviews and observations to collect the data would enable comparisons to be

made between nurses reported behaviour and actual behaviour. In this way any

differences between what respondents said, and what they actually did, could

be identified (Mays and Pope 1995).

Types of interviewing strategies

Within the literature a number of different names are given to similar inter-

viewing strategies. Patton (2002) describes three interviewing strategies, which

are not mutually exclusive. These are the informal conversational interview,

general interview guide approach and standardised open-ended interview.

This classification closely corresponds to unstmctured, structured, and semi-

structured interviewing identified by other writers (Polit et al 2001, Holloway

and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Other classification includes

face-to-face, one-to-one interviews, group interviews and telephone interviews

(Creswell 2003).

Unstmctured interviews are flexible in the wording and order of the questions

(Parahoo 1997, Patton 2002). These are used when researchers are unsure as to

what it is they do not know about a particular phenomenon (Polit and Tatano

86 NURSEKESEARCMER 2006, 13, 3

Beck 2004). Structured interviews use an interview schedule that contains pre-

designed questions, which each interviewee is asked in exactly the same order

as listed on the schedule (Patton 2002, Holloway and Wheeler 2002). The aim

Is to obtain standardised responses to a set of predetermined questions (Parahoo

1997. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Semi-structured interviews loosely follow

an interview guide, which outlines the main topic areas to be covered, the

sequence of questions differs for each participant, depending on the process of

the interview (Holloway and Wheeler 2002). In addition the researcher is free

to focus more on different areas in the interview as required (Clarke 1999).

Semi structured interviews are usually used when the researcher wants to ensure

specific topics are addressed (Polit and Tatano Beck 2004).

In keeping with a qualitative approach, I selected the semi-structured one to

one interview and used an interview guide. This allowed me more flexibility in

identifying participant's understanding of health promotion and the extent to

which they felt they undertook or were involved in health promoting activities.

Role of interviewer

The skills of the interviewer are crucial for effective interviewing (May 1991).

The onus is on the interviewer to put respondents at ease. Therefore, the first

few minutes might consist of 'small talk' to relax the interviewee (Polit and

Tatano Beck 2004). The interviewer must listen attentively (/V\ay 1991, Patton

2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004) and build up a rapport via empathy and

understanding, and provide positive feedback by smiling and nodding as

appropriate (Patton, 2002). A successful qualitative interview is where the

interviewee is relaxed and the interviewer adopts a passive role and gives the

interviewee time to answer (Morse and Field 1996).

Questions need to be clear unambiguous and non directive (Patton 2002,

Holloway and Wheeler 2002, Polit and Tatano Beck 2004). Patton (2002)

identifies six types of interview questions, which can be used to investigate any

topic area. These are experience and behaviour questions (if I had been on the

ward with you, what would I have seen you doing?): opinion and value ques-

tions (what do you think about...?): feeling questions (how do you feel about

that?): knowledge questions (how do you cope with this illness?): sensory ques-

tions (when you walk through the door of the ward what do you see?): and

NURSEiSESEARCHER 2006, 13, 3 87

background or demographic questions. The interviewer may also use probes to

deepen the response and to clarify meaning (Burns and Grove 2001, Holloway

and Wheeler 2002. Patton 2002. Polit and Tatano Beck 2004).

I adopted an open relaxed posture, sitting close to respondents, maintain-

ing eye contact, smiling and nodding appropriately, conveying to them that

what they had to say was important. At the commencement of the interview I

explained that occasionally I would be glancing at the recorder to ensure that

it was recording. This was to make sure that respondents were not perturbed

when I lost eye contact for a few seconds during the interview.

Recording interview data

Morse and Field (1995) recommend that the interviewee choose the location

which ideally should be a quiet place free from interruptions. However in hos-

pital situations this Is not always possible (Holloway and Wheeler, 2002, Polit

and Tatano Beck 2004). In my study the nurse respondents selected the venue

for the interview. All were interviewed at their place of work. Each respondent

was interviewed individually, and the duration of the interview ranged from

between 30 to 50 minutes. Patient respondents were also given a choice of

venue, either on or off the ward. All opted to be interviewed at the bedside.

Interview data may be recorded in three ways, audio recorded, recorded via

note taking or it may be recorded via note taking immediately after interview

(Burns and Grove 2001, Holloway and Wheeler 2002). Audio recording is

the best method to use. allowing the researcher to acquire verbatim accounts

and to concentrate more on what is being said (Holloway and Wheeler 2002,

Patton, 2002). The recorder must be placed near the interviewee, but not so

that it causes a distraction (Bums and Grove 2001. Holloway and Wheeler

2002). A good recording device is advocated (Patton 2002, Holloway and

Wheeler 2002) for example, a Sony /V\iniDlsc recorder (Holloway and Wheeler

2002). Sometimes respondents prefer not to be audio recorded (Patton 2002,

Holloway and Wheeler 2002) and note taking should be used instead.

In my study most of the interviews were audio recorded using a Sony

MiniDisc recorder. A lapel microphone was attached to or placed as close to the

respondent as possible to reduce noise pollution. In one instance the respond-

ent preferred that I take notes rather than audio record. In this instance 1 jotted

88 NURSERESEARCHER 2006, 13. 3

down key words, and, where possible, some direct quotations. These were all

written up immediately after the interview.

ConclusionIn choosing the most appropriate methods of data collection, an examination

of research textbooks and research studies is required. In particular studies

reported in research journals and personal accounts of researcher's experi-

ences of using different research methods can be invaluable as they provide

practical advice based on first-hand experience as to 'why' and 'how ' meth-

ods of data collection may be utilised in the context of real-world research.

Dympna Casey RGN, BA Communications (Hons), MA Health Promotion(Hons), PhD, Lecturer, Centre for Nursing Studies, National University ofIreland, Galway, Ireland

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