Chin-Chih Ho Thesis

8/13/2019 Chin-Chih Ho Thesis

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A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WORK

VALUES, JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL

COMMITMENT AMONG TAIWANESE NURSES

BY

Chin-Chih HO

Bachelor of Business (FCU), Master of Health Administration (USC)

A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Health

Science in the Centre for Health Research,

Queensland University of Technology,

Australia

November 2006


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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet

requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the

best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously

published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature:

Date:

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KEY WORDS

Work values

Job involvement

Organisational commitment

Taiwanese nurses

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ABSTRACT

Aim: The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between work values,

job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses in Taiwan.The objectives of this study are to: (1) describe the work values of Taiwanese nurses;

(2) describe the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses; (3) describe the organisational

commitment of Taiwanese nurses; (4) identify variables that affect work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses; and (5)

identify the mediating effects of job involvement on work values and organisational

commitment among Taiwanese nurses.

Design: The study utilises a cross-sectional survey design. The sample consisted of

RNs (N=1,047) recruited from a convenience sample in nine regional and teaching

hospitals in Taiwan.

Methods: Data was collected using a survey instrument consisting of 86 questions,

including sociodemographic data, work values, job involvement, and organisational

commitment. The data was analysed using descriptive bivariate analysis, Pearson

Product Moment Correlation (PPMC), General Linear Model (GLM) analysis with

random effect, and structural equation modelling (SEM).

Findings: Four sociodemographic variables, age, SES (i.e., education status, personal

income, and position) were shown to be partially statistically significant to work

values, job involvement and organisational commitment. Subsequent GLM analysis

were shown work values were positively related to job involvement and

organisational commitment, and job involvement is positively related to

organisational commitment. Results of the proposed model using SEM revealed that

job involvement could play an important role with mediation, and that establishing a

higher level of job involvement may be more important than focusing only on

organisational commitment.

Conclusions: This study has implications for organisations attempting to enhance

organisational commitment through increased job involvement. It is anticipated that

by improving these various factors the outcome will be reduced turnover and

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absenteeism and more effective organisations. A more effective organisational

environment will be more conducive to good nursing practice.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1

1.1 Research background ........................................................................ 1

1.2 Research objectives ........................................................................... 3

1.3 Justification for the research ............................................................. 4

1.3.1 Areas for further investigation .......................................................... 4

1.3.2 Implications of successful research ................................................... 5

1.4 Research questions ............................................................................ 8

1.5 Benefits of the study .......................................................................... 9

1.5.1 Theoretical development ................................................................... 9

1.5.2 Implication towards policy ................................................................ 9

1.6 Theoretical framework ...................................................................... 10

1.6.1 Theoretical explanations ................................................................... 12

1.6.2 Summary of variables investigated ................................................... 13

1.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................... 16

2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 16

2.2 Work values ....................................................................................... 16

2.2.1 Work values: Definition and measurement ....................................... 17

2.2.2 Sociodemographic variables as related to work values ..................... 25

2.2.3 Summary ........................................................................................... 28

2.3 Job involvement ................................................................................ 28

2.3.1 Job involvement: Definition and measurement ................................. 28

2.3.2 Relevant theoretical models for understanding job involvement ...... 32

2.3.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to job involvement .............. 38

2.3.4 Summary ........................................................................................... 41

2.4 Organisational commitment .............................................................. 42

2.4.1 Organisational commitment: Definition and measurement .............. 43

2.4.2 Antecedents and consequences of organisational commitment ........ 49

2.4.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to organisational

commitment ...................................................................................... 55

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2.4.4 Summary ........................................................................................... 58

2.5 The interrelationships between work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment ............................................................... 59

2.5.1 Research on work values and job involvement ................................. 602.5.2 Research on work values and organisational commitment ............... 62

2.5.3 Research on job involvement and organisational commitment ........ 65

2.5.4 Randall and Cotes original and revised models ............................... 67

2.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 70

CHAPTER THREE: STUDY METHODS .............................................. 73

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 733.2 Research structure ............................................................................. 73

3.3 Recruitment strategy ......................................................................... 74

3.3.1 Study design and sampling ................................................................ 74

3.3.2 Sample size ........................................................................................ 75

3.4 Data collection ................................................................................... 76

3.5 Ethical considerations ....................................................................... 77

3.6 Research hypotheses ......................................................................... 78

3.7 Survey instrument ............................................................................. 793.7.1 Survey questionnaire ........................................................................ 79

3.7.2 Assessments of validity .................................................................... 83

3.7.3 Assessments of reliability .................................................................. 86

3.7.4 Testing the research instrument results ............................................. 87

3.8 Data analysis ..................................................................................... 97

3.8.1 Descriptive analysis ........................................................................... 97

3.8.2 Inferential analysis ............................................................................ 97

3.9 Limitations to the research design ..................................................... 102

3.9.1 Internal validity ................................................................................. 102

3.9.2 External validity ................................................................................ 103

3.10 Data cleaning ................................................................................... 103

3.11 Data considerations to improve analysis ........................................... 105

3.12 Sociodemographic profile ................................................................. 106

3.13 Definition of terms ............................................................................ 119

3.14 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 119

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Appendix E: Sampling Strategyand Sample Size Calculation .......................... 199

Appendix F: Cover Letter ............................................................................ 201

Appendix G: Ethical Approval Document ................................................... 204

Appendix H: Item-Total Statistics for Job Involvement Questionnaire ....... 210

Appendix I: Correlations of Variables ......................................................... 212

REFERENCES ........................................................................................... 214

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1 Relevant scales and dimensions of work values ...... 18

Table 2-2 Summary of the Wu et al. (1996) Work Values Inventory(WVI) ................................................................................... 23

Table 2-3 Relevant scales and dimensions of organisational

commitment .. 43

Table 3-1 Description of instruments used in previous studies ............ 79

Table 3-2 Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of

Work Values Inventory ........................................................ 88

Table 3-3 Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for Work Values

Inventory .............................................................................. 90

Table 3-4 Measures of reliability for the Work Values Inventory ....... 90Table 3-5 Factor analysis and reliability of Job Involvement

Questionnaire ....................................................................... 92

Table 3-6 Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of

Organisational Commitment Questionnaire ......................... 95

Table 3-7 Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for the Organisational

Commitment Questionnaire ................................................. 96

Table 3-8 Measures of reliability for the Organisational Commitment

Questionnaire ....................................................................... 96

Table 3-9 Identification of outliers ....................................................... 105Table 3-10 New groupings of classes within certain categories ............. 105

Table 3-11 Questionnaire response rates ................................................ 107

Table 3-12 Comparison between this study and previous studies

showing key demographic features .. 116

Table 4-1 Mean and standard deviation for scales and subscales and

ranking for major variables .................................................. 122

Table 4-2 Correlations between sociodemographics and the 17

variables ............................................................................... 132

Table 4-3 Correlations between work values and job involvement

variables ............................................................................... 135

Table 4-4 Estimated influence of work values on job involvement

after adjusted for demographics, design effect and

organisational commitment .................................................. 137

Table 4-5 Correlations between work values and organisational

commitment variables .......................................................... 138

Table 4-6 Estimated influence of work values on organisational

commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect

and job involvement ............................................................. 140

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Table 4-7 Correlations between job involvement and organisational

commitment variables .......................................................... 141

Table 4-8 Estimated influence of job involvement on organisational

commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect

and work values .................................................................... 143

Table 4-9 Model fit statistics ................................................................ 145

Table 4-10 Model comparisons .............................................................. 145

Table 4-11 Relationship regression weight between work values, job

involvement and organisational commitment ...................... 146

Table 4-12 Summary of standardised direct, indirect and total effects

for the hypothesised model .................................................. 149

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 The research model .............................................................. 12

Figure 2-1 The Expectancy Theory Model of Vroom (1964) ................ 33

Figure 2-2 The Job Involvement Theory Model of Rabinowitz and

Hall (1977) ........................................................................... 34

Figure 2-3 Schematic representation of the motivational approach to

involvement and alienation .................................................. 36

Figure 2-4 Classification of antecedents, correlates, and consequences

of job involvement ............................................................... 37

Figure 2-5 Steers causality model theorem of organisational

commitment .......................................................................... 50

Figure 2-6 The role sense model theorem of Stevens, Beyre and

Trice ..................................................................................... 50

Figure 2-7 Morris and Shermans multiple forecast model theorem

for organisational commitment ............................................ 51

Figure 2-8 Mowday, Porter and Steers causality of organisational

commitment .......................................................................... 52

Figure 2-9 Mathieu and Zajacs causality model theorem of

organisational commitment .................................................. 53

Figure 2-10 The causal variables of organisational commitment

proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986) ................................ 54

Figure 2-11 A model of relationships among work commitment

constructs .............................................................................. 68

Figure 2-12 Randall and Cotes revised model ........................................ 69

Figure 3-1 Age breakdown of respondents ............................................ 108

Figure 3-2 Age distribution of the respondents ..................................... 109

Figure 3-3 Marital status of respondents ................................................ 109

Figure 3-4 Employment status of respondents ....................................... 110

Figure 3-5 Education status of respondents ........................................... 111

Figure 3-6 Personal income of respondents ........................................... 111

Figure 3-7 Occupational position of respondents .................................. 112

Figure 3-8 Occupational position tenure ................................................ 113

Figure 3-9 Hospital tenure ..................................................................... 113

Figure 3-10 Nursing tenure ...................................................................... 114

Figure 4-1 A proposed model with latent constructs for exogenous

and endogenous variables ..................................................... 130

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Figure 4-2 Estimated standardized direct, indirect and total effects

for the revised model 148

Figure 5-1 The revised model ................................................................ 167

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KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS

NHI National Health Insurance

PWE Protestant Work Ethic

SES Socioeconomic Status

WVI Work Values Inventory

JIQ Job Involvement Questionnaire

OCQ Organisational Commitment Questionnaire

SET Social Exchange Theory

EFA Exploratory Factor Analysis

CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis

SEM Structural Equation Modelling

NFI Normed Fit Index

CFI Comparative Fit Index

GFI Goodness of Fit Index

RMSEA Root-Mean Square Error of Approximation

ICC Intracluster Correlation Coefficient

DEFF Design Effect

PPMC Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

GLM General Linear Model

CLT Central Limit Theorem

SCT Social Cognitive Theory

RJPs Realistic Job Previews

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Brian Oldenburg and Dr.

Gary Day for helping and supporting me through the completion of this dissertation.

I would also like to thank Dr. Diana Battistutta for her kind assistance and

specialised knowledge in statistics.

I would also like to thank Dr. Jing Sun, who assisted me in the use of the LISREL

software program for data analysis in the study. A special thanks to Martin Reese

who was committed to improving my scientific writing skills.

I would like to express my appreciation of my best friend, Dr. Vinesh Oommen,

classmate and room mate during my 3 years of doctoral study, for his strong support

and encouragement in everything I did.

I wish to thank Professor Dang-Ming Horng and Dr. Cheng-I Chu, who allowed me

the necessary time required to study at Queensland University of Technology (QUT).

I plan to apply this knowledge which I have gained from QUT to improve the overall

performance of my organisation.

I would like to acknowledge my heartfelt love to my beloved family, especially to

my wife (Jui Hsin), my daughter (Lee An), my son (Alan), and parents-in-law. Their

love, patience, encouragement, and understanding helped me throughout my course

of study.

Finally, I would like to thank all the lecturers at the School of Public Health who

have taught me and who have guided me during this 3 years of my doctoral studies.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The current research examines the relationships between work values, job

involvement and organisational commitment as evidenced by a population of nurses

in Taiwan. This chapter describes the background and the importance of the present

study. It identifies the importance of understanding more about the relationships

between these variables. The chapter then presents the justification for this research,

the research questions, the benefits of the study, and the research framework.

1.1 Research background

After the implementation of the National Health Insurance (NHI) system in

Taiwan in 1995, successive governments have developed policies which aim to

enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of Taiwans healthcare system (Tzeng,

2002). There has been an increase in the health consciousness of the population,

associated with a greater focus on measuring peoples satisfaction with the health

system. Along with the reform of hospital organisations, a higher proportion of

hospital employees have pursued further education. It is also likely employees

perceptions of work and work organisations have changed.

Chinese professional journals have recently documented important changes

in work ethics among the Taiwanese workforce. Employees belief in the traditional

work ethic, which dictates that hard work is a virtue in its own right and that hard

work and diligence are important attributes, has significantly declined in recent times

(Wang, 2000). Societys views about employment and organisations have also

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undergone dramatic changes, due to many different environmental, political, social

and organisational influences (Hung & Liu, 2003; Rosina, Linda, & Page, 1997).

These transformations have led Taiwanese workers to expect fulfilment of their

human needs from their employment, in addition to receiving a regular income and

job security. Moreover, this new form of work ethic has made employers realise that

employees loyalty to the organisation can no longer be taken for granted (Wang,

2000). In the future, unless organisations are able to meet a range of employee needs,

employees cannot be expected to be highly involved in their jobs or organisations

(Morrow, 1993).

The macro-economic environment has also changed over time to address

issues such as cost containment, the over-supply of nurses and an inflexible career

system. As a result, average turnover rate of new staff nurses in Taiwans hospitals

has varied between 22% to 40% in recent years (Chuang, 2002). Advances in

technology and the shortening length of patient hospitalisation have contributed to

decreased job satisfaction (Pierce, Hazel, & Mion, 1996; Tzeng, 2002).

It is important for managers of healthcare organisations to assess the impact

of these various influences on the way their employees view their jobs, and address

these challenges to the thinking, recruitment, motivation, and retention of their best

and brightest staff. In order to compete successfully in the healthcare environment,

and attract and retain the most qualified and experienced nurses, it is important for

organisations to implement strategies which increase job involvement and

organisational commitment (Brown, 2002). Reilly and Orsak (1991) argue that

future research can improve our understanding of the mechanisms that produce

turnover, absenteeism, and burnout in such a demanding profession.

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Research which attempts to understand these important workforce issues can

produce improved outcomes for organisations. For instance, if employee

commitment to their organisation is a desirable outcome, it is necessary to find out

how commitment can be cultivated. Employees develop commitment and positive

interaction styles when they perceive value in their interactions and experiences

within the organisation (Smallwood, 1998). The lack of positive employee values

and attitudes can make or break any system designed to create goodwill and loyalty

among staff. Dissatisfied employees can easily develop negative attitudes and

perceptions that can negatively influence other staff (Smallwood, 1998). In addition,

employees can intentionally or unintentionally convey their own attitudes to external

organisational contacts. Therefore, listening to and understanding the views of

employees, and using this information to satisfy their needs, is an essential step in

building commitment in a workforce. To this end, work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment are the issues investigated in this study, with a particular

focus on organisational effectiveness.

1.2 Research objectives

The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between work values,

job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses in Taiwan.

The objectives of this study are to, (1) describe the work values of Taiwanese nurses;

(2) describe the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses; (3) describe the organisational

commitment of Taiwanese nurses; (4) identify variables that affect the work values,

job involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses; and (5)

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identify the mediating effects of job involvement on work values and organisational

commitment among Taiwanese nurses.

1.3 Justification for the research

A better understanding of the complex interrelationships between theory and

practice in the healthcare workforce in Taiwan will result in practical benefits for

healthcare organisations, with a particular emphasis on creating a positive

environment at work. Documenting the relationships between work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment can thus play a role in enhancing the

performance and quality of the overall Taiwanese health care system, by providing

clear parameters within which areas of need can be targeted, and identifying

opportunities for building a positive work environment.

1.3.1 Areas for further investigation

Although research into these topics has been carried out in non-health work

organisations, those findings cannot necessarily be generalised to the healthcare

system. This is because the hospital work environment is one of most complex work

environments in any sector, requiring staff to constantly upgrade their professional

skills. Thus further research across a wider range of professions and work

organisations is needed to more completely describe the various relationships

between the key variables outlined above. Moreover, within the literature one of

these variables in particular, the role of job involvement, has not been adequately

addressed. More specifically, job involvement as a mediator on the influence of

work values on various facets of organisational commitment (including values, effort

and retention commitment) remains unclear, and needs to be explored in this context.

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To take a closer look at the three facets of organisational commitment,

values commitment refers to the concept of a strong belief in, and acceptance, of

the organisations goals and values, effort commitment indicates the employees

willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation, and retention

commitment refers to an employees strong desire to maintain membership in the

organisation (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). In addition, the degree of

organisational commitment has yet to be shown to be related to the actual amount of

nursing work or labour intensity required in any nursing care environment (Corser,

1998; Tumulty, Jernigan, & Kobut, 1995).

1.3.2 Implications of successful research

The second justification for this research is that the potential benefits of this

study may be valuable in both a theoretical and practical sense. From a theoretical

perspective, the findings of this study may improve understanding of the potential

mediating role of job involvement in work values in particular, and various facets of

organisational commitment in a non-western work context.

From a practical perspective, the significance of work values within

organisations is high, because they influence a variety of organisational behaviours

and outcomes, such as organisational commitment (Aranya, Barak, & Amernic, 1981;

Knoop, 1994a; Saadia & Naeem, 2001), satisfaction and subsequent job behaviours

(Blood, 1969), and job performance (Sidani & Gardner, 2000; Siu, 2003). Better

work values can thus decrease costs to the organisation related to absenteeism and

turnover (George & Jones, 1996; Sims & Kroeck, 1994; Talyor & Covaleski, 1985).

Furthermore, identification of individuals work-value profiles, as described by

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Abboushi (1990), has been shown to be useful for managerial purposes. Brown

(1976) argues that individuals work values can be used to evaluate individual

motivation in certain jobs. Mankoff suggests that the organisations ability to

influence individuals work values can change workers feelings of achievement at

work (Mankoff, 1974). It should be noted that where a work environment is

perceived as being positive, employees are more likely to take personal

responsibility for their health and report a more positive social environment.

In terms of the practical value of the current investigation, previous research

has shown that decreasing job involvement and organisational commitment leads to

high staff turnover and increased absenteeism, both of which may result in lower

standards of patient care and productivity, as well as budgetary problems (Blau &

Boal, 1987; Brown, 1996; Koberg & Chusmir, 1989; Martin & Hafer, 1995; Mathieu

& Zajac, 1990; Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979; Steers, 1977). With cost

containment currently an important focus of hospital administration, it is clear that

initiatives which prevent staff problems will also reduce costs. It is expensive to

recruit and orient new nursing staff, and so the desired approach is to retain existing

staff through meeting their expressed needs. In one study, Jones (1990) noted that an

increase of one half standard deviation of job involvement could reduce absenteeism,

turnover, and shortage, thus saving one bank an estimated total of $11.31 per

month/per teller in expense, a saving of $125,160 per year. Scott, Cox, and Dinham

(1999) also found that job commitment has been linked to employee mental

wellbeing, both as a determinant and as an outcome.

Employee commitment to an organisation is vital because loyal employees

who identify closely with the organisation are viewed as an organisations most

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important resource. Donald and Siu (2001) demonstrated that organisational

commitment is a significant predictor of mental health outcomes such as

contentment, resilience and peace of mind for white-collar workers. Turnover is

lower among committed employees, thus reducing costs and increasing productivity

(Mowday et al., 1982). Research into these issues may be able to draw practitioners

attention to the influence of work values on job involvement and various facets of

organisational commitment, and consequently the necessity to deal with these effects

in order to improve their organisation.

Current findings on the relationship between the study variables and socio-

demographic characteristics (e.g., age, education status, personal income, and

occupational position) are inconsistent (Abboushi, 1990; Hu, 1999; Lodahl & kejner,

1965; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Saal, 1978). However, the results of some of those

studies indicate that differences in work values exist across cultures, socio-

demographics, and gender (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Hofstede, 1980). A more detailed

examination of these factors can thus provide empirical evidence for the importance

of socio-demographic characteristics as determinants of the study variables.

There is a growing awareness of the relationship between working conditions

and individual health, such that health and safety in the workplace is now a key area

of concern within organisations. The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines

health as, a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely

the absence of disease or infirmity (World Health Organisation, 1986). Thus health

is not merely the absence of ill-health, but rather when all three elements, physical,

mental and social well-being, are in harmony.

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Research has shown that the high levels of stress which are experienced in

many work environments can have a negative effect on individuals, such as low

morale and reduced job performance (Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Jex, 1998). If an

organisation can provide individuals with the basic elements they value, stress is

reduced (Knoop, 1994b). Work values are those values that individuals seek to attain

and gain through their job. Stress arises when individuals are confronted with a

demand which exceeds the persons capabilities for meeting that demand (Locke,

1976; McGrath, 1976).

Low morale can lead to decreased efficiency and effectiveness at work,

which in turn is associated with increased absenteeism. In Australia, about 4% of the

workforce has taken leave from work for at least one day, costing Australian

industry about $7 billion a year (Health Services Australia, 2002). Frequent

absenteeism leads to elevated levels of industrial conflict and issues with workers

compensation (Health Services Australia, 2002). Taiwanese studies have reported

comparable statistics (Yang & Huang, 2005).

In order to understand why low morale affects nursing staff in Taiwan, it is

necessary to discover the relationship between work values, job involvement, and

organisational commitment in this context. This research will allow a better

understanding of the effect of low morale on Taiwanese nurses.

1.4 Research questions

This research seeks to answer two key research questions:

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1. Are there differences in work values, job involvement and organisational

commitment across socio-demographic characteristics for Taiwanese nurses?

2. What are the relationships between work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment for Taiwanese nurses?

1.5 Benefits of the study

1.5.1 Theoretical development

This initial study will provide a theoretical and empirical basis for further

study of nursing issues in Taiwan. A review of the nursing literature in Taiwan

reveals that little attention has been given to a simultaneous investigation of work

values, job involvement, and organisational commitment in Taiwanese nurses.

Moreover, previous research has not attempted to investigate the relationships

between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment among

Taiwanese nurses. Thus, some practical and potential strategies for improving

workplaces in the healthcare environment may have been overlooked. The current

theoretical model may be used as a basis for similar studies in other health-related

organisations.

1.5.2 Implications for policy

As previously discussed, increased competition and workforce mobility in

healthcare environments has led organisations to heavily invest in recruiting, training,

and retaining new staff nurses, which in turn has passed an increased financial

burden to staff members (Yang, Peng, Chen, Yang, & Chao, 2004), and led to

problems with the quality of patient care (Cooper, 2003). According to Jones (1990),

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the costs of nursing turnover can be over US$10,000 per Registered Nurse (RN), the

equivalent of 11% of annual nursing salaries in a hospital. In Taiwan, the mean

hiring cost per RN was documented as US$1,090 in a private hospital in 1988 (Yang,

1992). Of course, along with the financial costs of staff turnover there is also the

inevitable loss of experience, knowledge and commitment that contribute to the

overall workplace environment (Izzo & Withers, 2002).

An increased understanding of the complex interrelationship between work

values, job involvement and organisational commitment, and the factors that

contribute to the development of these relationships, can help to facilitate

appropriate measures to counteract the issue of high turnover and low morale within

an organisation. It is thus possible that organisational costs due to lower staff

turnover and decreased absenteeism can be reduced, by increasing job involvement

and organisational commitment. In a similar manner, such measures may be able to

improve an organisation productivity. Organisations need employees whose values

align with their organisational culture, as well as possessing the knowledge, skills

and abilities needed for the job. They also rely heavily on employees with a high

level of organisational commitment and who invest time and effort in the job and the

organisation to enhance overall organisation performance (Sidani & Gardner, 2000;

Siu, 2003).

1.6 Theoretical framework

It is proposed that work values and a sense of life purpose can be major

factors in the level of commitment and personal involvement people have in their

workplace. This study focuses on three specific determinants of work commitment,

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namely work values, job involvement and organisational commitment. The

framework for this study is based on a modified version of Randall and Cotes

Model (Randall & Cote, 1991) and Randall and Cotes Revised Model (Cohen,

1999). These models were chosen because the various determinants of work

commitment have not been the focus of much comparative study in Taiwan, and as

such are not yet fully understood (Randall & Cote, 1991). Furthermore, most

existing studies treat the facets of work commitment in isolation (Morrow, 1983).

Randall and Cote (1991) and Cohen (1999) are two of the few investigations that

have focused on the interrelationships and linkages between different facets of work

commitment. As these studies are fundamental to the research design, they will be

discussed in more detail. A proposed model, with linkages supported by a literature

review, provides the framework for the examination of relationships among variables

in the current study (see Figure 1-1). These major concepts in this framework are

sociodemographics, work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.

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Figure 1-1. The research model.

Work values

Terminal values:1.Self-growth2.Self-realisation3.Self-esteem

Instrumental values:1.Social interaction

considerations2.Security and economic

considerations3.Stability and freedom from

anxiety considerations4.Recreation, health and

transport considerations

Job

involvement

Organisational

commitment

Values commitmentEffort commitmentRetention commitment

Sociodemographics

AgeSocioeconomic status (SES):1.Education status2.Personal income3.Occupational position

1.6.1 Theoretical explanations

A path model (Figure 1-1) is used to depict the relationships among the

variables investigated by the current study. The model describes the effect of work

values and job involvement on organisational commitment. It is hypothesised that

individuals who are highly committed to the importance of work may develop a

strong loyalty to the organisation where they work. It is also hypothesised that

having work values results in increased job involvement which would subsequently

lead to increased organisational commitment.

The basic structural framework of the proposed research model is based on

Randall and Cotes model (1991), Randall and Cotes revised model (Cohen, 1999)

and involves a synthesis of the models of job involvement of Rabinowitz and Hall

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(1977), Kanungo (1982) and Brown (1996). It is also incorporates the organisational

commitment models of Steers (1977), Stevens, Beyer, and Trice (1978), Morris and

Sherman (1981), Mowday et al. (1982), Mathieu and Zajac (1990) and Huang (1986).

These models will be discussed in Chapter Two. Randall and Cotes original and

revised model explains that job involvement is an important and influential causal

factor in the development of organisational commitment. Job involvement itself was

also strongly affected by the Protestant work ethic (PWE), which has a key role in

influencing an employees affective responses in the workplace.

There is, however, an essential difference between the proposed research

model and Randall and Cotes original and revised models which needs to be

highlighted. These earlier authors suggest that in the future a direct relationship

between Protestant work ethic and organisational commitment might need to be

included in constructs of work commitment in general (Randall & Cote, 1991). The

present model, therefore, includes more tentative causal relationships between work

values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.

1.6.2 Summary of variables investigated

The theoretical significance of each specific variable, and its linkage with the

proposed model, will now be discussed. The following section briefly summarises

the empirical evidence presented in Chapter Two. This study concentrates on three

dependent variables, work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.

The study sites are regional teaching hospitals in Taiwan.

Sociodemographics: Given the general consensus that work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment are influenced by dispositional

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characteristics (Brown, 1996; Huang, 1986; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris &

Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Steers, 1977;

Stevens et al., 1978; Torres & Kapes, 1990), four personal demographic values will

be examined as the antecedent correlates to work values, job involvement, and

organisational commitment. This research explores a complex set of demographic

variables such as age, socioeconomic status-SES (e.g., education status, personal

income, and occupational position) in the context of work values, job involvement

and organisational commitment.

Work values: Zytowski (1970) and Super (1970a) suggest that people hold

values, called work values, which are related to the characteristics of certain

occupations. Values indicate a strong personal preference for what is important to

the individual. In general, work values are personal values that lead to expectations

about work. Rosenberg (1957) posits the origins of work values on the deficit need

status within the individual. Note that this notion is similar to the hierarchy of needs

presented by Maslow (1943).

Job involvement: The most commonly used definition of job involvement is

the early formulation put forward by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). In this original

treatise, job involvement was defined by Lodahl and Kejner (1965) as, the degree to

which a persons work performance affects his/her self esteem (p.25). Subsequent

conceptualisations by Kanungo (1982) have further developed the concept in an

effort to overcome the conceptual ambiguities and measurement inadequacies which

were inherent in the previous assessments (Morrow, 1993). Kanungo (1982) regards

job involvement as a term descriptive of an individuals beliefs about ones present

job, a function of the satisfaction of the individuals present needs.

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Organisational commitment: Organisational commitment is defined as the

relative strength of an employees identification with, and involvement in, a

particular organisation (Mowday et al., 1979). Many studies have found that

organisational commitment increases productivity. Although research findings have

not always been consistent, they suggest that organisational commitment is related to

several desirable outcomes, including low turnover and low absenteeism (Mowday et

al., 1979; Steers, 1977). Mathieu and Zajac (1990) also found that organisational

commitment was related to a number of attitudinal variables including job

satisfaction, occupational commitment, and job involvement.

1.7 Conclusion

This first chapter has provided an introduction to the study, and a summary of

the background theory, research objectives, justification and benefits of the study,

and the key research questions. Chapter Two provides a detailed review of relevant

literature examining work values, job involvement and organisational commitment,

and their interrelationships. Chapter Three describes the study methodology and

research hypotheses, and Chapter Four presents the results of the study. The final

chapter includes a discussion of the findings, implications for both theory and

practice, the strengths and limitations of the study, and recommendations for further

research.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to review the current literature on work values,

job involvement, and organisational commitment. The first section explores the

development of definition of these variables, the different categorisation systems that

have been proposed, and their use in various environments. This provides a

comprehensive overview from which to identify the most relevant areas for study.

2.2 Work values

There are major differences between Western and Taiwanese culture, such

that Taiwanese people are described as being situation-centred, valuing family and

tradition, harmony, emotional restraint, conformity, and obedience to authority (Ho,

1986; Yang, 1970), whereas those in the West value individualism, autonomy, and

original thinking (Feather, 1986; Gardner, 1989; Hsu, 1972). However,

modernization has had an effect on traditional Taiwanese work values (Hui & Tan,

1996). The Taiwanese have recently become more individualistic and egalitarian

with respect to work values than previous generations (Marsh, 1996). Thus, these

changing Taiwanese work values need to be studied closely.

In this first section of the literature review, work values are defined with a

particular view to establishing the most relevant definition for a Taiwanese context.

A discussion of the complex development of categorisation of work values that has

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taken place is then presented. Instruments to be used in this study are reviewed,

again with particular attention to their use in the Taiwanese context. Justifications for

category choices are stated, by synthesising the key values repeatedly recognised by

researchers. This section then presents a comparison of use of these values in

different empirical studies, commenting upon their relevance to this study.

2.2.1 Work values: Definition and measurement

Before proceeding with reviewing the concept of work values, it is necessary

to examine the meaning of values as a wider concept. A value is a principle or

standard held in high esteem by an individual, and is related to all aspects of ones

personal and work life. Values develop so that individuals can meet their needs in

socially acceptable ways (Rokeach, 1973). The more individuals know about their

own values, the better they will be at determining which work environment best fits

their personal and professional needs, and the skills they want to use and develop

there. Research suggests that values are stable and predictable of behaviour over

time (Meglino, Ravlin, & Adkins, 1989; Rokeach, 1973). Thus, values play a central

role in human motivation and achievement (Mankoff, 1974) and decision-making

processes (Brown & Assoiates, 2002). Work values are thus one aspect of an

individuals values system.

Various studies have developed a multitude of conceptualisations of work

values, and have developed instruments to measure what they define as work values.

Table 2-1 provides a depiction of these studies. Like most attitudinal concepts which

social scientists wish to research and understand, there is no gold standard measure

of work values.

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Table 2-1. Relevant scales and dimensions of work values.Author Work Value Scale Dimensions of Work Values

Ginzberg,

Ginsburg,

Axelrod, &

Herma

(1951)

1. Intrinsic work values: interesting, useful to society,

challenging, achievement, independence, creativity, and

the inside satisfaction of employees

2. Extrinsic work values: pay, promotions, job security and

prestige.

3. Concomitant values: social relations (supervisory

relations)

Blood (1969) Protestant Work

Ethic - PWE (8

items)

1.Pro-Protestant ethic

2.Non-Protestant ethic

Super

(1970a)

Work Values

Inventory - WVI

(45items)

15 dimensions: Altruism, Aesthetics, Creativity,

Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, Independence,

Prestige, Management, Economic Returns, Security,

Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of

Life and Variety.Wollack,

Goodale,

Wijting, and

Smith (1971)

Survey of Work

Value - SWV (54

items)

1. Intrinsic aspects of work: pride in work, job involvement

and activity preference

2. Extrinsic aspects of work: attitude toward earnings and

social status of job

3. Mixed characters: upward striving and responsibility to

work

Hales and

Fenner

(1972)

Ohio Work Values

Inventory - OWVI

(77 items)

11 dimensions: altruism, object orientation, job security,

control, self-realization, independence, money, solitude,

task satisfaction, idea/data, prestige

Rokeach

(1973)

Rokeach Value

Survey

1. Terminal values: a comfortable life, an exciting life, a

sense of achievement, a world at peace, equality, family

security, freedom, happiness, inner harmony, maturelove, pleasure, salvation, self-respect, social recognition,

true friendship, and wisdom

2. Instrumental values: ambitious, broad-minded, capable,

cheerful, clean, courageous, forgiving, helpful, honest,

imaginative, independent, intellectual, logical, loving,

obedient, polite, responsible, and self-controlled

Miller (1974) 1. Intrinsic: Altruism, Esthetics, Creativity, Intellectual

Stimulation, Achievement, and Management

2. Extrinsic: Independence, Prestige, Economic Returns,

Security, Surroundings, Supervisory Relations,

Associates, Way of Life, and Variety

Kalleberg(1977) 1. Intrinsic work value2. Extrinsic dimensions: convenience, financial,

relationships with co-workers, the opportunities the job

provides for a career, and resource adequacy

Lofquist and

Dawis (1978)

Minnesota

Important

Questionnaire -

MIQ (210 items)

12 dimensions: ability utilization, achievement, activities,

compensation, independence, security, variety, work

condition, advancement, authority, recognition, status, co-

worker, moral values, social service, company policies,

supervision of human relations, creativity, responsibility,

supervision of technical skills

Jurgensen

(1978)

10 dimensions: security, hours, pay, benefits, working

conditions, advancement, type of work, company, co-

workers, and supervisor

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Table 2-1. Relevant scales and dimensions of work values (continued).Author Work Value Scale Dimensions of Work Values

Pryor (1979) Work Aspect

Preference - WAPS

(52 items)

13 dimensions: self development; security; independence;

creativity; helping others; supervision; money; prestige;

friendships; physical activity; detachment; life style;

environment

Hofstede

(1980)

Value Survey

Module - VSM (31

items)

4 dimensions: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance,

Individualism and Masculinity

Elizur (1984,

1996)

1. Modality of the outcome: material or instrument (i.e.,

pay, hours of work, security, and working conditions),

affective or social (i.e., co-workers, supervisor,

recognition for doing a good job and esteem), and

psychological or cognitive (i.e., advancement, type of

work, status, achievement, responsibility, independence,influence, use of ability, meaningful work, contribution

to society and company)

2. Task performance: reward or resource

Chen (1987) 15 dimensions: Altruism, Aesthetics, Creativity,

Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, Independence,

Prestige, Management, Economic Returns, Security,

Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of

Life, and Variety

Peirson,

Simnett, and

Pratt (1989)

4 dimensions: Career Orientation, Certainty Seeking,

Altruism, and Conflict-Avoidance

Harringtonand O'Shea

(1993)

14 dimensions: creativity, good salary, high achievement,independence, job security, leadership, physical activity,

prestige, routine activity, supervised work, variety-

diversion, work with hands, work with mind and work with

people.

Wang (1993) 1.Terminal values: internal remuneration, external

remuneration, collective benefit and security

2. Instrumental values: capability, rationality, modesty,

grace, self obedience, pragmatism and incorruptibility

Wu, Lee,

Liu, and Ou

(1996)

Work Values

Inventory - WVI (49

items)

1. Terminal values: self-growth tendency, self-realisation

tendency and self-esteem tendency

2. Instrumental values: social interaction tendency,

organization security and economic benefit tendency,

stability and anxiety-free tendency and recreation health

and transport tendency

Meyer,

Irving, and

Allen (1998)

3 dimensions: Comfort and Security (Comfort),

Competence and Growth (Competence), and Status and

Independence (Status)

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Super (1970b) and Holland (1973) have proposed theories of vocational

choice, suggesting that people seek vocations and work environments consistent with

the values and attitudes they hold. According to early authors Paine, Deutsch, and

Smith (1967), the perceptions that an individual has of her/his job and the factors

which satisfy her/his needs are important in goal setting. Further research by Super

(1970a) suggests that a persons valued work outcomes can determine his or her

choice of a career or training program. Chen (1987) argues that work values are the

overall subjective value determination for work experience or work achievement,

and belong to the attitude or emotional response area. As a result, Chen (1987)

suggests that individuals assessments of the relative importance of their jobs depend

on the variance between the actual and expected values in their work environments.

The most well-known classification of work values is described in Super

(1970b). Super (1970b) suggests that to understand the values of students, customers,

or employees, it is helpful to identify their goals and establish a variety of training

systems. In order to test the practicability of his own theory, Super (1970a)

developed a set of Work Values Inventory (WVI) undertaken within a career pattern

study, to quantify and evaluate the psychologically systematic ideal for individuals

in their working conditions. The research explored work values as divided into 15

dimensions related to the value of individual life experience. Miller (1974) suggested

that Supers WVI could be sub-classified into intrinsic and extrinsic scales.

Pryor (1979) focuses on work values in their function as preferences. Pryor

(1979) argues that the term work value is poorly formulated and ambiguous, and

to deal with this developed work aspect preferences. They were defined as, a

statement of the relation between a person (the subject of the relation) and a

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particular quality of work (the object of the relation). The nature of the relation

between these two is of greater or lesser liking when the person has the opportunity

to make a choice (p.254). According to Pryor (1979), it is important that work

values should be associated more with preference than moral imperatives.

However, whenever someone shows preference for a position, work values are

frequently and closely correlative to moral imperatives. Lee (1994) also indicates

that work values can be viewed as a proportion of personal value systems, and that

all evaluations and preferences related to work can be held as the expression of work

values.

Wu (1996) defines work values as endurable beliefs and standards which

judge the worth of what is done through work, justify the work experience and

express ones working behaviours and the pursuit for work goals whenever the

individual is engaging in his or her own job. Wu et al. (1996) examined college

students and university graduates in order to develop a localised inventory about

work values. They divided work values into two major realms, terminal values and

instrumental values. The two major realms and seven dimensions are detailed in

Table 2-2.

Chen (1987) modified the dimension-measuring-inventory created by Super

(1970b). They applied this modified dimension-measuring inventory to high school

students preparing for the College Entrance Examination, to serve as a consulting

reference for degree majors and future career options. After the modification, the

dimension-measurement inventory of work values emerged with 15 dimensions.

Wang (1993) adopts the two major realms of terminal values and instrumental

values to create the dimension-measuring inventory for work values.

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Table 2-2. Summary of the Wu et al. (1996) Work Values Inventory (WVI).Realm Dimension Definition

Terminalvalues

The degree of importance which an individual places onpursuing personal growth, exerting personal talent andcreativity, improving quality of life, obtaining a sense ofachievement and leadership and also commanding respectand recognition from others during the course of theirwork.

Self-growth The degree of importance which an individual places onacquiring new knowledge, self growth, exerting creativity,and promoting personal development during the course oftheir work.

Self-realisation The degree of importance which an individual places onfulfilling their lifelong goals, application of personal talent,improving quality of life and enhancing their social welfare

during the course of their work.Self-esteem The degree of importance which an individual places on a

sense of personal achievement, self recognition andautonomy, respect from others and senior managementduring the course of their work.

Instrumentalvalues

The degree of importance which an individual places onobtaining a level of excellence in social interaction, aharmonious social relationship, freedom from worry, andwhere their life desires are sufficiently satisfied through

balance achieved between services within theorganizational systems, and a holistic environment to fulfiltheir sense of security and to maintain their needs whilethey are working.

Social interactionconsiderations

The degree of importance which an individual places onachieving an excellent level of social interaction andsharing their daily emotional experiences with colleaguesand superiors, as well as establishing harmonious socialrelationships with others during the course of their work.

Security andeconomicconsiderations

The degree of importance which an individual places onreaching reasonable economic remuneration throughholistic organizational systems, to satisfy their sense ofsecurity during the course of their work.

Stability and freedomfrom anxietyconsiderations

The degree of importance which an individual places onregularly and stably performing his job without tension,anxiety, chaos or fear.

Recreation, healthand transportconsiderations

The degree of importance which an individual places onattaining sufficient physical energy, recreation activitiesand availability of convenient traffic transport optionsduring their work.

Work values, as proposed by Chen (2000), provide an internal impetus, in

that they drive the individual to chase lifelong goals and orient his/her behaviours,

direction and motives. Chen (2000) also argues that they influence personal

standards that allow individuals to measure and prioritise their tasks. On a more

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personal level, work values include the individuals overall understanding of,

orientation to, and satisfaction with the workplace.

Rokeach (1973) argues that work values and attitudes are independent

concepts. Researchers have investigated work values as correlates of attitude, and

personal values can help individuals explain and understand their attitudes and the

behaviours in which they engage. However, Rong (1998) states that merely

observing the attitude of an individual cannot help us predict the values one holds.

In summary, a review of the literature has demonstrated the importance of

work values as an influence on attitudes to work. Although researchers have

attempted to establish a consistent definition of the construct, the term work values is

currently used to encompass a variety of notions, ranging from work ethics (Blood,

1969), and personal needs (Super, 1970a), to work preferences (Pryor, 1979). As

discussed earlier, some researchers have posited two themes of work values along an

intrinsic-extrinsic dimension, or a terminalinstrumental dimension. This two-factor

concept of work values has been applied to the majority of the concepts and

instruments researchers have used to measure work values (Miller, 1974; Super,

1970a; Wu et al., 1996). On the basis of the existing literature work values in the

current study are operationally defined as enduring beliefs and standards that

influence an individual when he/she evaluates his/her job and work environment.

Work values was measured using a localised Work Values Inventory (WVI)

developed by Wu et al. (1996), based on Supers WVI.

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2.2.2Sociodemographic variables as related to work values

According to various sociodemographic indicators there has been increase in

the diversity of the work force in recent years, which has raised questions about the

needs and values of diverse groups of employees (Jehn, Chadwick, & Thatcher,

1997). In Taiwan, women constitute about 2.2% of the yearly increment of the

labour force (Taiwan Council of Labour Affairs in Executive Yuan, 2004). Female

nurses form a very high proportion (99.0%) of the healthcare system in Taiwan

(Chen, 1998). Consequently, there is a growing interest in the unique characteristics

of members of this group, as concerns their attitudes towards work, such as work

values. Previous research on the role of various sociodemographic variables in work

values has included examinations of socio-economic status, ethnicity, society and

economic conditions (Torres & Kapes, 1990). Thus these are the types of factors

which may influence the development of an individuals expectations and work

values. The following section reviews and discusses the key variables viewed as

being important when understanding work values.

Age

Cherrington (1977) reports that senior employees are more work-oriented

than younger staff, due in part to the personal socialisation process, in which a

workers experience affects individual work values. Jurgensen (1978) finds that as a

workers age increases, some work values undergo enhancement while others are

diminished. Pu (1988) demonstrates that as workers age, they emphasise internal

values of work and social status more, but give remuneration less attention. Chiu

(1993), in contrast, found that younger employees pay more attention to social

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relations considerations than older employees. In another recent study, results

suggested that respondents of different ages showed variance on the dimensions of

stability and freedom from anxiety considerations (Lee & Chung, 2001). Liau

(2001) studied 320 nursing staff born between 1965 and 1980, finding that values of

nursing staff did not vary significantly as they age. McNeese-Smith and Crook (2003)

examined 412 nurses in three hospitals in Los Angeles County (California, U.S.A.).

They found that the values of nurses from different generations differed little,

although younger generations placed higher values on economic returns and variety

in employment.

Wu (1996) states that job takers in the 19-30 age bracket, with a bachelors

degree, show higher scores on social interaction considerations, security and

economic considerations, and stability and freedom from anxiety considerations

than those of job takers in the 31-40 and 41-50 age brackets with similar educational

backgrounds. Chang (2001) concluded that when comparing respondents ages, work

values and organizational commitment, there was no significant difference in either

terminal values or instrumental values.

Education status

Pu (1988) found that employees with higher educational backgrounds were

more attentive to internal values, promotion and social status values of work, while

employees with less education paid more attention to work remuneration values.

Chiu (1993) supported this earlier study by demonstrating that higher educated

employees are more attentive to self-confirmation and performance than lower

educated employees. Lee and Chung (2001) found that employees who only had a

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2.2.3 Summary

Many studies have been conducted into work values in general, as well as

possible differences in work values across different cultures, socio-economic groups

and gender. The results of some studies (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Hofstede, 1980)

suggest that differences in work values exist. The current study will shed light on the

relationship between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment

among Taiwanese nurses.

2.3 Job involvement

In theory, job involvement is necessary for nurses professional growth. It is

assumed that the higher the level of involvement, the higher the degree of

professional growth (Elloy, Everett, & Flynn, 1995). Job-involved individuals who

perceive opportunities for growth in their job have less intention to leave or suffer

burnout (Elloy et al., 1995). However, given that the current nursing workforce

experiences a relatively unstable health field, it is possible that these disturbances

may have a negative affect on how involved nurses are in their jobs (Morrow, 1993).

Therefore, continuing job involvement under such circumstances requires close

study, both to determine the salience of the concept of job involvement, and the

factors that affect it. This section introduces definitions of job involvement, together

with measurements of job involvement, relevant theories and empirical studies.

2.3.1 Job involvement: Definition and measurement

The term job involvement is used to refer to many different aspects of

employment (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Newton and Keenan (1983), Saleh (1981),

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and Saleh and Hosek (1976) have conducted research which explores the complexity

of the concept of job involvement. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) have proposed two

types of definitions for job involvement, one relating to self-esteem, and the other to

self-image. They argue that job involvement is considered by many to be intimately

tied to a strong work ethic and people who place work at, or near, the centre of their

lives (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Lodahl and Kejner (1965) believe the main

determinant of job involvement is a value orientation toward work learned early in

the socialisation process. An individual who has internalised the work ethic will thus

probably be highly job involved, regardless of the context within which he or she

might be employed (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977).

Bass (1965) points out that job involvement is representative of the

employees ego-involvement in his/her job and is thus related to performance.

Lawler and Hall (1970) argue there was no difference between the two (self-esteem

and self-image) definitions proposed by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). These

researchers believe that the first definition means the real essence of job involvement,

whereas the second definition was in consistent with expectancy theory, namely the

concepts of internal motivation. Lawler and Hall (1970) refer to internal motivation

as the degree to which a jobholder is motivated to perform well because of some

subjective reward or internal feelings they expect to experience as a result of

performing well. Thus, intrinsic motivation is correlated with personal performance.

However, job involvement does not always correlate with personal performance. Job

involvement rather represents personal concentration or emotional commitment to

ones job. The goal identified by job involvement is the job itself.

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Both Lawler and Hall (1970), and Blau (1985) propose that job involvement

involves only a single aspect, namely, the degree to which a person perceives the

total work situation to be an important part of life, and to be central to their identity,

because of the opportunity to satisfy important needs. Blau (1985) proposes that an

individual engaged in his/her job would care about the tasks to be undertaken.

Although one might hence conclude that job involvement and job satisfaction are

essentially identical, they have generally been considered distinctly different

concepts. Job involvement is the psychological identification with, or importance of

ones job, while job satisfaction is the emotional state of liking ones job (Lawler &

Hall, 1970).

Saleh and Hosek (1976) reviewed a range of literature related to job

involvement and from this formulated four definitions for job involvement. These

were, the job is of critical importance in personal life, the individual will be

actively involved in his/her own job, the individual will cognise the influence of

personal performance onto self-esteem, and the congruence between work

performance and self-concept. Saleh and Hosek (1976) suggest that whenever these

four definitions are satisfied, the individual will be involved in his/her own job.

Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) also assessed definitions and literature

discussing job involvement. They concluded that, at that early point, more research

needed to be undertaken to isolate dimensions related to job involvement. Their

paper identifies two classes of definitions of job involvement. The first class links

performance to self-esteem, essentially the extent to which self-esteem is

affected by level of performance. The second class identifies job involvement as a

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component of an individuals self-image, that is, the degree to which the individual

psychologically identifies with his/her job.

According to Kanungo (1982), involvement either in the context of a

particular job, or with work in general, can be viewed as a cognitive state of

psychological identification. An individuals psychological identification with a

particular job (or with work in general) in turn depends on the salience of his or her

needs (both extrinsic and intrinsic) and the perceptions he or she has about the need-

satisfying potentialities of the job (or work) (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo (1982)

further suggested that individuals will be affected by their past socialised

experiences, and that their current social codes are associated with various value

orientations. Thus values drive individuals to develop various external and internal

desires. Whenever the desires are unsatisfied, ones surroundings will become

alienating. According to Kanungo (1982), job alienation and involvement are two

superficial phenomena of a single object, two polarised trends of one aspect. When

job involvement is decreased to a certain extent, it will trigger job alienation.

However, whenever job alienation is reduced a certain extent, it creates a sense of

job involvement (Kanungo, 1982).

In previous studies, investigating job involvement has been characterised by

conceptual ambiguities and problems related to measurement (Lodahl & Kejner,

1965; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Saleh & Hosek, 1976). Because the construct of job

involvement is associated with many different definitions (as described above), it has

become a major source of conceptual ambiguity (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo

attempted to resolve this uncertainty (Elloy, Everett, & Flynn, 1991). According to

Kanungo (1982), earlier job involvement questionnaires, such as those of Saleh and

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Hosek (1976) and Lodahl and kejner (1965), did not differentiate between work

involvement and job involvement. Job involvement and work involvement are

hypothesised to be two distinct constructs (Paullay, Alliger, & Stone-Romero, 1994).

One other problem with Lodahl and Kejners (1965) scale in particular is that

although the scale has factor stability, because there is some similarity in the factor

structure across different groups, there is no interpretation of the nature of the factors

(Cummings & Bigelow, 1976).

Kanungo (1982) went on to develop another ten-item scale in which job

involvement is defined as the importance of the job to ones self-image. Kanungos

measures are more internally consistent than previous instantiations, even though

many of the items are based upon the earlier Lodahl and Kejner (1965) job

involvement measurements (Blau, 1985; Blau & Boal, 1987; Kanungo, 1982;

Morrow & Wirth, 1989). According to Blau (1985), the job involvement

questionnaire developed by Kanungo (1982) is more appropriate for assessing job

involvement than the earlier Lodahl and Kejner (1965) measurement. Kanungos Job

Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) instrument has been used in many studies and its

reliability and validity examined extensively. The Cronbachs across the samples

ranged from .74 to .90.

2.3.2 Relevant theoretical models for understanding job involvement

Relevant models for understanding the relationship between job involvement

and its antecedent and outcome variables include Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964),

Integrated Theory (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), the Motivational Approach (Kanungo,

1982) and Causality Theory (Brown, 1996).

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Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory suggests that administrators should make good use of

personal expectancy to inspire employees. This is based on the rudimentary concept

that inclination for an individuals action is determined by possible expected results

and the relationship between the results and the action adopted. To take a different

approach, job involvement for an employee is determined by his/her expectancy

level, which results in incentives for action. The results of this interaction are

displayed in Figure 2-1. If expectations are lower than the inducement provided by

the organisation, job involvement will increase. On the other hand, when

expectations are higher than the inducement provided by the organisation then job

involvement will decrease.

Figure 2-1. The Expectancy Theory Model of Vroom (1964).

Expectancy < inducement offered by organisation = job involvement

Expectancy > inducement offered by organisation = job involvement

Integrated Theory Model

Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) reviewed and integrated previous research in this

field and used this basis to develop three major conceptualisations. For Rabinowitz

and Hall (1977), job involvement is related to three classes of working variables, the

dispositional approach held by the individual, the situational determined approach

held, and the influence of the interaction between these approaches. In this model no

single class of variables shows a stronger relationship to job involvement than any

other. That is, dispositional and situational variables are about equally important in

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explaining job involvement (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). The integrated theory model

of job involvement is depicted in Figure 2-2.

Dispositional

Situation

Interaction:Dispositional

Situation

Job involvement

Figure 2-2. The Job Involvement Theory Model of Rabinowitz and Hall (1977).

In the dispositional approach, job involvement is viewed as dependent on

individual personalities. The influence exerted by some stable personal

characteristics such as age, gender, marital status, external and internal control

features, job seniority, dwelling locations, the intensity of high-level work demands

in terms of time and responsibility, and the Protestant work ethic will ensure

individuals hold different work attitudes and behaviours. Two such work attitudes

are job involvement and job satisfaction. The individual is thought to own a certain

amount of desire or value, and the demand or value will drive them to work harder or

impede them from job involvement (Sekaran & Mowday, 1981).

Job involvement is also a personal characteristic, and thus it is never changed

easily within an organization (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). In a situation-determined

approach (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), job involvement can be viewed as the personal

attitude towards the particular job. In this conceptualisation, job involvement will be

affected by leadership style, the opportunities the individual has to be involved in

decision-making, social factors, job features and other conditional influences. Values

are thus internalised with job attitude.

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The interaction between disposition and situational approaches is labelled the

dispositional situation. In this approach, personal characteristics and the environment

in interaction are used to explain personal work attitudes and behaviours. When

personal characteristics and the situation reach congruence, the individual will

develop high job involvement.

Motivational Approach

The motivational approach of Kanungo (1979, 1982) integrates the different

approaches to job involvement, including both psychological and sociological

factors, using the basic concept that job involvement is affected by the potential for

personal socialisation experience and the likelihood that the work environment can

satisfy personal demand. A diagrammatic representation of Kanungo (1979, 1982)

motivational approach is outlined in Figure 2-3.

Kanungo (1979, 1982) hypothesises that employee perceptions concerning a

jobs potential to satisfy their needs represents a more proximal influence on job

involvement. Kanungo contends that individuals develop beliefs that a jobs context

potentially provides an opportunity for them to satisfy their most important future

needs. Consequently, job involvement depends on employees needs (both extrinsic

and intrinsic), as well as their perceptions of the jobs potential to satisfy those needs.

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Figure 2-3. Schematic representation of the motivational approach to

job involvement and alienation.Source: Kanungo, R. N. (1979) The Concepts of Alienation and Involvement Revised,Psychological Bulletin, vol.86, no.1, pp.119-138.

Causality Theory Model

The job involvement theory proposed by Brown (1996) incorporates the

findings of previous research shown as Figure 2-4. This model includes antecedents

(i.e., personality variables-concept of work ethic), the pivotal mediator role of job

involvement, and its consequences such as organisational commitment. This model

also depicts the relationships between job involvement and organisational

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commitment. In addition, work ethic is shown to play a significant role in job

involvement.

Figure 2-4. Classification of antecedents, correlates, and consequences of job

involvement.Source: Brown, S. P. (1996) A Meta-Analysis and Review of Organizational Research on JobInvolvement,Psychological Bulletin, vol.120, no.2, pp.235-255.

In summary, the antecedents and products of job involvement have been

extensively studied. Available evidence supports the argument that personal and

situational factors are strong influences on job involvement. Job involvement is also

an important factor in other work related attitudes, and is linked to work behaviours.

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2.3.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to job involvement

The literature on job involvement highlights the role played by personal and

situational factors, as well as attitudinal concepts such as organisational commitment,

job satisfaction and achievement motives. Individuals are affected by a range of

antecedent variables which may impact on their identification with, and attitudes

towards their job. Although Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) found personal and

situational variables play equally important roles in explaining job involvement,

other researchers have argued that personal factors play a more crucial role than

situation variables in influencing an individuals job involvement (Lodahl & Kejner,

1965). Personal characteristics examined in this review are sociodemographic

variables. This section focuses on the experimental results of international and local

research projects with particular reference to key variables in the current study.

Age

Lodahl and Kejner (1965) conducted research using 137 nurses, revealing

that the age of nurses was positively correlated with job involvement (r= .26, p 2 * (3.24)2 * (.9)2 / 12 = 17

Comparing max 9 categories within group => 17 * 10 = 170

Response rate (40%) => 170 * 1.6 = 272

Confounder (15%) => 272 * 1.15 313

Contingency (10%) => 313 * 1.1 345

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Appendix F Cover Letter

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Queensland University of Technology

A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement, andorganisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses

Principal investigator: Chin-Chih Ho, School of Public Health, QueenslandUniversity of Technology, Australia. Ph. +617 (07) 38645478. Department ofHealth Administration, Tzu Chi College of Technology, Taiwan. Ph. (03)8572158 ext. 422.

This research project is being undertaken by Chin-Chih Ho, a Health ServiceManagement doctorate student, School of Public Health at the Queensland

University of Technology.The purpose of this research is to identify nurses work values, whether their workvalues influence their commitment to the organisation through job involvement andhow work values, job involvement and organisational commitment related to oneanother among Taiwanese teaching hospitals. The study is seen as significant asmost of the research come from education or industry. The restricted range of

professional fields sampled may limit our understanding, because findings fromeduc

Chin-Chih Ho Thesis

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