Chile: Book of the National Defense 2002 · penses in Chile and Argentine, which both countries...

Managing Editor Ministry of National Defense of Chilewww.defensa.cl

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Copyright N° 129.743 Ministry of National Defense of Chile.

ISBN: 956-7728-03-8

First editionMay 2003

Translated in April 2004

Book of the National Defenseof Chile 2002

BOOK OF THE NATIONAL DEFENSE OF CHILE44 YEAR 2002

2.2. Threats to the Continent 342.3. A Governance In Security Issues 352.4. Interamerican Security Institutions 38

3. The Regional Context 384. The Neighboring Context 39

4.1. Chile and Argentina 394.2. Chile and Peru 414.3. Chile and Bolivia 41

3. International Conflicts 431. Risks And Threats 43

1.1. Conventional Threats 441.2. Non-Conventional Threats 44

2. Prevention and Reaction 452.1. Conventional Threats:

Prevention and Reaction 452.2. Non-Conventional Threats:

Prevention and reaction 463. Types of Conflicts 46

3.1. International Crisis 463.2. War 47

4. The Geostrategic Challenge 481. The Geostrategic Perspective 48

1.1. The terrestrial factor 481.2. The maritime factor 491.3. The Aerospace Factor 49

2. Conclusions of the Geostrategic Analysisof the National Territory 50

PART IIINational Defense Policy 511. Concepts and Definitions 52

1. Objectives of National Defense 522. Characteristics of Chile’s

National Defense Policy 533. Reference Framework 534. Sources of the Defense Policy 54

4.1. National Security Policy 544.2. The Global Political-Strategic Assessment

(AGPE) 56

2. Elements of the National Defense Policy 561. Elements of the Chilean Defense Policy:

NDB 1997 561. 1. National Objectives 561.2. International Context 561.3. World and Regional Stability 571.4. Defense and Security 57

2. Crux of the National Defense Policy 573. Use of the Defense Means 57

3.1. Deterrence 573.2. Cooperation 58

Table of ContentsForewordby the President of the Republic 7

Prologue by the Minister of National Defense 9

PART IThe State of Chile 151. Foundations And Characteristics 16

1. Basic Principles of the State 161.1. Institutional Order: Democracy and the

Constitutional State 171.2. National Objectives 17

2. Characteristics: State and Defense 172.1. Defense as a Function 182.2. Defense, Security and Development 182.3. Human Security 182.4. National Defense and the Internal Order

of the Republic 19

2. The Territory and Population of Chile 201. The National Territory 202. Chilean Geography 23

2.1. The Land 232.2. The Sea 232.3. The Airspace 242.4. The Polar Territory 25

3. The Population of Chile 253.1. National Identity 273.2. Data and Background Information 28

PART IIDefense Environment 291. International Security Trends 30

1. Diversification of Actors involved in International Security 30

1.1 The Economic Agents 301.2 The Civil Society 31

2. Changes in International Security Concepts 313. The State as Coordinator and

Regulator of the Globalization Process 314. Development of Global

Governance Regimes 315. A Greater Demand on UN Peacekeeping

Operations 32

2. International Settings that Influence Defense 331. The World Context 332. The Continental Context 34

2.1. America: A Region that Contributes to Strategic Stability 34


Support Organizations 1042.6. Branches and Services 106

3. Strategic Vision 1063.1. Scopes of Action 106

4. The Modernization Process 1074.1. Bases for Strategic Changes 1074.2. Objectives of the Modernization Process 1084.3. Stages of the Modernization Process 108

5. Planning 1086. Women in the Army 109

2. Chilean Navy 1101. The Navy’s Mission 110

1.1. In Peacetime 1101.2. In Wartime 110

2. Organization 1112.1. High Command 1112.2. High Level Organizations 1112.3. Combat Forces 1112.4. Special Support Organizations 112

3. Strategic Vision 1123.1. Scopes of Action of the Navy 1143.2. Objectives of the Navy for the Bicentennial 115

4. Planning 1165. Management Control 1176. Women in the Navy 117

3. The Chilean Air Force 1181. The Mission of the Air Force 118

1.1. In Peacetime 1181.2. In wartime 119

2. Organization 1192.1. High Command 1192.2. Combat Command 1202.3. Support Units 1202.4. Operational Units 1202.5. Means and Capabilities 1202.6. Support Organizations 122

3. Strategic Vision 1233.1. Scopes of Action of the Air Force 123

4. The Modernization Process 1245. Planning 1246. Women in the Air Force 125

4. The Professional Education Process in the Armed Forces 1261. Training Military Personnel 1262. Chilean Army 126

2.1. Officers 1262.2. Enlisted Personnel 127

3. Chilean Navy 1283.1. Officers 1283.2. Enlisted Personnel 128

4. Chilean Air Force 1284.1. Officers 1284.2. Enlisted Personnel 129

PART VIDefense Resources 1301. Analysis of Defense Spending 131

1. Defense Spending and its Relation to other Macroeconomic Variables 131

1.1. The Incidence of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 131

1.2. Level of Perceived Threats 1332. Defense and Fiscal Expenditures 1333. Defense Demand, GDP and Perceived

Threats: Their Effects 1334. The Armed Forces as a Purchasing Power 134

2. The Defense Budget 1351. The Budget Structure of the Ministry

of National Defense 1352. Budget Procedures and the Allocation

of Resources 1363. Modernization of the Budget Systems 1374. The Budgets of the Armed Forces:

Distribution and Composition 1374.1. Allocations by Use 1394.2. The Trend in Personnel Expenditures 139

3. The Defense Procurement System 1421. Description of the System 1422. Economic Issues and Financial Effects 1433. The Management Control System 1434. Offsets 144

4. The Social Security System of the Armed Forces 1461. Description of the System 1462. Composition of the Social Security

System Administered by Capredena 1462.1. The Common Benefits Fund 1462.2. The Severance Fund 1472.3. The Curative Medicine Fund 1472.4. The Social Help Fund 147

3. Beneficiaries and Basis of the System 1483.1. Beneficiaries 1483.2. The Bases for the Social

Security Framework 1484. Modernization Criteria 148

4.1. The Ongoing Situation 1484.2. The Modernization Process 148

5. Standardized Measurement of Defense Spending 1501. Problems of Comparative Estimates of

Defense Spending 1512. ECLAC Methodology 151

BOOK OF THE NATIONAL DEFENSE OF CHILEYEAR 2002 55PART I

3.3. Coercive Use of Military Power 58

3. The Defense Sector and International Policies 63

1. United Nations Peacekeeping Operations (UNPKO) 63

1.1. General Considerations 631.2. Chile’s Policy for Participation In UNPKOs 641.3. The Armed Forces in UNPKOs 651.4. Participation of Chile In

UNPKOs since 1997 662. Mutual Confidence Measures 663. Instruments of Cooperation and

Understanding 673.1. Cooperation Mechanisms 673.2. Cooperation Agreements 69

4. Policy on Humanitarian Demining 694.1. Humanitarian Demining under

the Ottawa Convention 694.2. Humanitarian Demining and Human

Security Policy 694.3. Implementation of the

Ottawa Convention 69

4. The Defense Sector and National Policies 721. Territorial Policies 72

1.1. Development Policies in Border Zones 721.2. Development Policies in Isolated Zones 741.3. Policies Related to Maritime Interests 751.4. Antarctic Policy 761.5. Space Policy 77

2. Development Cooperation Policies 792.1. Environmental Policy 792.2. Military Industry 802.3. Science and Technology 81

PART IV

The Conduct and Organization of the National Defense 821. Conducting the National Defense 83

1. Conducting the National Defense 832. Superior Institutions of Defense 83

2.1. President of the Republic 842.2. Minister of National Defense 842.3. National Congress 842.4. National Security Council (COSENA) 852.5. Superior Council of National Security

(CONSUSENA) 853. Conducting at the Political - Strategic

Level 854. Conducting the Armed Forces at the

Strategic Level 865. Military or Joint Strategic

Conduct of the Armed Forces 876. Fields of Action 87

2. Ministry of National Defense 881. Organization of the Ministry

of National Defense (MOD) 882. Offices of the Undersecretaries of the

Ministry of National Defense 882.1. Office of the Undersecretary of War 882.2. Office of the Undersecretary of the Navy 892.3. Office of the Undersecretary

of the Air Force 892.4. Office of the Undersecretary of the Police

Force (Carabineros de Chile) 902.5. Office of the Undersecretary of the

Investigations Police 903. National Defense General Staff (EMDN) 914. Superior Council of National Defense

(CONSUDENA) 915. National Academy of Political

and Strategic Studies (ANEPE) 916. Head Office of National Mobilization

(DGMN) 92

3. National Mobilization and Military Service 931. National Mobilization 93

1.1. Mobilization of Manpower 932. Compulsory Military Service 94

2.1. Modernization of Compulsory Military Service 95

3. Reserve Forces 96

4. The Armed Forces 961. Military Policy 962. Mission of the Armed Forces 973. Functions of the Armed Forces 97

3.1. Joint Functions 973.2. Common Functions 973.3. Specific Functions 97

4. Considerations Regarding Jointness 984.1. Introductory Concepts 984.2. The Conduct of Joint Operations 984.3. Joint Operations 984.4. Conclusions about Jointness 98

5. Interoperability 98

PART VThe Means for Defense 1001. The Chilean Army 101

1. Mission of the Army 1011.1. National 1011.2. International 101

2. Organization 1012.1. High Command 1012.2. Operational Units 1022.3. Means and Capabilities 1022.4. Military Institutes Command (CIM) 1042.5. Administrative, Logistical and Technical


Ricardo Lagos EscobarPresident of the Republic of Chile

Foreword by the President of the Republic

As with all public assets, Defense must benefit everyoneequally, but it is a service that can only be provided bythe public sector.

This is why the citizens must take responsibility for ana-lyzing and determining the best defense policy, includingits objectives and direction, as well as the most effectiveand efficient way to achieve these with the public fundsallocated to this sector. This second edition of the Book ofDefense contributes to this analysis and allows for a moretransparent discussion of these issues, at both the nation-al and the international level. Of special importance inthis sense, is the standardized measuring of military ex-penses in Chile and Argentine, which both countries car-ried out in conjunction with the United Nations EconomicCommission for Latin America and the Caribbean(ECLAC). This standardized measuring constitutes anopen proposal to the region as a whole and to other devel-oping countries.

The Armed Forces are a part of Chile, a country that isintegrating rapidly into the world through an open andpluralistic democratic system, which aims to ensuregrowth with equity. They have regained their republicanstatus, which was ensured to them shortly after Chile ob-tained its independence as a nation. Today, as along withthe rest of the public sector, they are working towardsmodernization through democracy.

Consequently, the Armed Forces participate in the livinghistory of the Chilean people. Far from being predeter-mined, this history marked by our quests and by our dis-agreements, by our successes and our mistakes. On thenational level, in a democracy, this involves a search forinstitutions that serve all Chilean citizens. The purpose ofNational Security is to assure that this effort is not inter-rupted by external aggression.


The Ministry of National Defense directs this process,beginning with an appraisal of the regional and globalsecurity situation, which is flexible and must incorpo-rate the political, economic and social dynamics of inter-national relations. Modernization involves the incorpo-ration of strategic systems of the future, including sus-tained development to achieve full interoperabilityamong the Armed Forces services.

Chile’s objectives are not aggressive; they are dissuasive.Chile and its Armed Forces are working towards peace inthe region and in the world. It is therefore a cause ofpride to us to see our flag in Peacekeeping Operations ofthe United Nations.

There are still important issues that need to be addressed:a modern defense requires updating the Armed Forces so-cial security system and reorganizing the upper echelonsof the Ministry of Defense. The integration of women intothe Armed Forces will be an issue of growing importance.We have also opened a debate on how the annual De-fense budget should be financed.

The progress compiled in this Book of National Defenseand the definitions which we, as a country, will continueto adopt in this sphere, are and will be directed towardsachieving our will to guarantee peace in a safer world forall of us.


Michelle Bachelet JeriaMinister of National Defense

of Chile

Prologue by the Minister of National Defense

The publication of a National Defense Book five years af-ter a similar text appeared for the first time in Chile, isthe Chilean State’s response to the commitment it made atthat time. At the core of this formal commitment lies theGovernment’s political will to evaluate the internationalscene and ascertain which situations have remained un-changed and which have changed, to register the interna-tional commitments in Defense issues which the countrymay have made during this time, and to examine theircontents accordingly.

It also reflects the will of the Government to endow Defenseissues with a transparency that allows Chilean citizens andthe community of nations to evaluate the actions of theChilean State in this sphere in accordance with the inten-tions, objectives and capabilities we have publicly stated.

With respect to our society, the text strives to provideChileans with a greater knowledge and understanding ofthe tasks performed by Defense. It aims at demonstratingthat issues concerning this sector are not alien to oureveryday life and it attempts to be another way throughwhich citizens can give their support to the National De-fense Policy and to the men and women who make up thedifferent institutions in this sector. For these Chileans inparticular, both military and civilians, this book consti-tutes a working tool and a set of general guidelines for theactivities they must perform.

In addition to these objectives, the Book reflects Chile’scommitment to transparency towards the internationalcommunity. This statement of intentions, objectives andcapabilities toward other countries, helps to generate anew trust from inside and to open new doors for strategiccooperation. The publication of a Defense Book also pro-vides the community of nations with the possibility of re-quiring fulfillment of declared intentions and of observingdeclared capabilities. In other words, it has in its hands atool for measuring the responsibility with which a coun-try acts on the world scene and for verifying its compli-


ance with international commitments.This new Book of National Defense also expresses theGovernment’s will that the broad opportunity for dialogueand work between the representatives of the State, includ-ing the Armed Forces, and other academic, political andeconomic actors related to or relevant to Defense issues iskept active. All of these agencies contributed theirthoughts on various matters concerning our Defense tothe preparation of this text.

It was certainly an exercise in integrating legitimately dif-ferent perspectives: those of the military itself (land, sea,air and combined forces) and those of academic, politicaland technical sources from other sectors of the State andsociety. And this interaction took place within the frame-work of the political guidelines set by the President of theRepublic for the Defense sector within the Constitutionallegal system.

An effort of such magnitude is essential for getting the cit-izenry to take part in formulating a public policy, but alsofor the renewal of ideas, concepts and approaches. Thistask required an effort to organize the discussion and theresulting documentation and then to prepare successivedrafts before this final text could be made available to thereader.

In summary, transparency, trustfulness and participationwere, in my opinion, three important reasons that aremore than a formal commitment, that propelled the Gov-ernment to make the effort to publish a new version of theBook of National Defense.

The Book of the National Defense 2002

Because the 1997 text was the first of its kind, it wasmainly directed towards providing an explicit definition ofNational Defense of a more ideological nature and to-wards determining its basic concepts in a common lan-guage, which largely determined the structure of the de-bates that took place in Chile during these last five years.In this new Book we have wanted to include the program-matic dimension of Defense. Although this edition main-tains the essential ideological aspects, we believe the newtext provides a clearer, more complete and more systemat-


ic product. It is truly a Book of public policy. In broadoutlines, the Book of National Defense describes Chile’sDefense Policy.

Complementarily, the Book takes a dynamic approach totackling the different areas of Defense. While conceptswere once approached from the point of view of how theyfit into a theory, now they are treated within the frame-work of analysis. Where the elements of a structure wereonce described in statistics, they are now described dy-namically in terms of how they work within that struc-ture. Therefore, in this book the emphasis is on describingprocesses rather than on explaining paradigms and orga-nizational charts.

This Book also attempts to use an more current languagein the analyses it includes and in the concept references itmakes. We believe that by updating the language used indiscussing Defense issues that may seem to be part of out-dated conceptual frameworks, they will be treated in amodern fashion, that coincides with the language used ininternational circles as well as in other sectors of thesame Chilean State.

In terms of its contents, the new Book addresses thechanges taking place on the international stage, to whichour Defense Policy must respond. Chile’s internationalcommitments in security matters have been updated andthe book delineates the progress made on these issues.This is particularly true with regard to participation inPeace-Keeping Operations, reporting the evolution of defi-nitions made by the Chilean State in this respect duringthe last five years; to the demining obligations incurredthrough the signing and ratification of the Ottawa Con-vention; and to the standardization with other countriesof the methodology for measuring defense spending. The2002 Book also deals with the modernization process ofthe Armed Forces, of the Compulsory Military Service, ofthe Ministry of Defense itself and of the economic man-agement and Defense resource allocation institutions. Fur-thermore, it addresses matters which are being currentlyapplied or developed in the field of Defense by countrieswith a greater development in this area, as with the caseof joint military operations and its corresponding princi-ples.


Contrary to the conventional image that exists in somesectors of society, Defense is a field of dynamic, continu-ing public activity. Together with elements of continuitythere are also components of change. Several of the sub-jects covered in this text were in the process of change asthe Book went to print; and there are also some issuesstill needing elaboration or reflection. It is the goal of theMinistry of Defense, as these issues come up for discus-sion at national and international levels, to update thisbook with specific annexes or through separate docu-ments.

The Defense Agenda

Certainly, this edition of the Book marks a step forwardin the fulfillment of the Government’s Defense Agenda.This agenda has been designed around three large, inter-dependent areas: updating of the contexts in which theNational Defense has been molded, modernization of theDefense sector, and development of the Defense interna-tional insertion.

Part of the first of these areas is precisely the text I amnow presenting to my fellow citizens and to the interna-tional community. Since Chile published the 1997 Book,debate on the generation of Defense policies within theframework of democratic regimes, and its expression inBooks of Defense, has been expanding throughout the con-tinent. Several countries have already published docu-ments of this kind, while others are at different stages ofthe process. The subject has also been incorporated in theagenda of the Hemisphere Security Commission of theOrganization of American States (OAS), which has con-tinually moved this initiative forward. It is my hope thatthis new version of the Chilean Book will serve as an in-centive to the region’s efforts to continue consolidatingsuch processes, which find in this type of document aconcrete measure of the trust that all American countriesare pledged to promote.

The second challenge is to continue the processes of modern-izing the different institutions that comprise the National De-fense, already mentioned in this Book, including institution-alizing the progress made in civilian-military relations as aresult of the general effort to modernize the Chilean State.


Lastly, our Agenda includes a strong thrust toward inter-national cooperation in security and Defense issues, inaccordance with the Foreign Policy objectives of the coun-try. We face security problems that are becoming increas-ingly global, and therefore common, but we also have dif-ferent responses that must be harmonized with the com-mon objective of cooperating to maintain peaceful andsafe international conditions so as to be able to work forthe well being of the people, including ours.

One of the main expressions of this effort is the commit-ment to support actions undertaken by the United Na-tions Organization, specifically, through participation inPeace Operations carried out under its mandate. Chile de-cidedly adheres to this particular commitment, which iswhy it has been gradually increasing its collaborationwith the UN in this matter. For identical reasons we havemoved forward in emphasizing the humanitarian dimen-sion of international security issues, by fulfilling the com-mitments we made through the Ottawa Convention con-cerning the banning of Anti-Personnel Mines within thegiven methods and timings.

With respect to the continental situation, Chile is awarethat a flexible architecture of security is emerging in theregion, formed by old collective security institutions andnew cooperative regimes. This new architecture has pro-vided the American region with a growing level of stabili-ty and governance within the sphere of security and De-fense, in order to face both traditional threats and threatsthat have emerged as a result of the globalization process.

In addition to fostering confidence building measuresand developing combined exercises and actions withthe Armed Forces of the region, we have encouragedother countries of the continent to adopt the CommonStandardized Methodology for Measuring DefenseSpending, which we established in 2001 in full agree-ment with Argentina. In this sense, our new Book ofNational Defense confirms the consolidation attainedduring the five years covered by the text, through thestrategic association process we have promoted withArgentina, as well as through the improvement of coop-eration with Peru on the basis of developing mutualtrust and transparency.


I would like to conclude by thanking the political authori-ties of the defense sector in office during the time the Bookof National Defense 2002 was being prepared. I especiallywish to thank my predecessor, Minister Mario FernándezBaeza, who initiated the project and directed it during thefirst phases of its preparation. During the entire time ofpreparation of this book, the Undersecretaries of the Min-istry of National Defense effectively supported both himand me. I would like to mention in particular, the Under-secretary of War, Gabriel Gaspar Tapia, who headed thework involved in preparing the Book. I would also like tothank the military authorities, especially the Chief andVice Chief of the National Defense General Staff duringthat period, for the outstanding role they played in thisinitiative. I conclude by thanking and congratulating allthe teams that worked in formulating and executing thisministry project, and in the drafting, design and printingof the final text.


















(AGPE) 56











of the Republic 19










Operations 32

















PART IV
















(DGMN) 92












PART IThe Conduct and Organizationof the National DefenseChile shares with many countries, espe-cially with those located on theAmerican continent, a number of institu-tional and cultural characteristics.However, it also possesses other charac-teristics which distinguish it not onlyfrom them, but from the whole communi-ty of nations in general. These distinctivefeatures are the result of the Chilean peo-ple’s historical experience, its culturalheritage, its traditions, and the evolutionof its public institutions from the time inwhich national independence was forged.

As a State, Chile participates in the inter-national system in the same way asother countries do, but it is preciselybecause of these distinctive features thatthe Chilean State must define the partic-ular way in which Chile take part.

The country’s population with its distinc-tive features, the national territory and

the institutions of the Republic are theobjectives of National Defense.

The State’s responsibility to protect theelements which are vital to it, includingthe sovereignty to make the decisions thataffect the future of the nation, entails theneed to report what we are, who we are,where we are located, and what we want.This is a pre-requisite for laying the foun-dations of what we want to defend.Therefore, finding a clear answer to theseissues and disseminating it to the peopleas a whole, through a tool such as thisBook of National Defense, help to outlinethe type of defense we need.

Because subjects related to the character-istics of the State, of the population andof the national territory are importantfoundations of Defense Policy, this bookbegins with a section devoted to thesetopics.


1. Foundations and Characteristics

The principles of Chile’s institutional

republican and democratic order and

its national objectives play a crucial

role among the elements on which

National Defense is based. They are the

foundations of the Defense architecture

and they guide the State’s actions in

pursuit of external security. Through

them we can understand the impor-

tance of the security challenges the

country faces in the international

arena.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE STATE

The Political Constitution of the Republic, in itsFirst Chapter on “Foundations of an InstitutionalSystem” establishes the principles that guide thelegal and political system in Chile and that ex-press the continuity of the nation’s republicantradition.

They are principles which are also recognized byother countries also guided by the premises of ademocratic regime and of respect for human be-ings and their rights, but to which each country

imprints its personal seal in the daily process ofputting them into practice.

In Chile there is broad recognition of human be-ings, their dignity and rights, and the communi-ties in which they live, starting with the family.Full respect of the rights of the people requirethat the State abide by the objectives set out inbox 1 (See Box 1).

The equality and dignity inherent to every indi-vidual are the basis for the socio-economic ob-jectives that are a priority for the country, such

OBJECTIVES OF THE STATE!To be at the service of human beings and to promote the public welfare.!To respect and promote the essential rights that emanate from the human nature.!To protect the family as the core of society, and to work to strengthen it.!To protect the population.!To promote the harmonious integration of all sectors of the country.!To contribute to the creation of the social conditions that will allow each and every member of thenational community the best possible self-realization both spiritually and materially.

BOX 1


as cohesion, social integration and overcomingpoverty.

1.1. Institutional Order: Democracy and theConstitutional State

Chile is a democratic republic, as established inArticle 4 of its Political Constitution, governed bythe rule of law and the principles of constitu-tional supremacy, of due process, of judicial pro-tection and oversight of State administrative ac-tions. Within this context of democracy and plu-ralism, the State ensures the right of individualsto participate with equal access in national lifewith full use of their individual freedoms.

The State of Chile is a unified state with sover-eignty over its entire continental, island andAntarctic territories, as well as over air and seaspace, in accordance with the respective interna-tional laws and treaties. It exercises its sover-eignty through the people and the authoritiesthat represent them in accordance with its Polit-ical Constitution, recognizing as a limit of its ac-tions the essential rights that emanate from hu-man nature.

In its international relations, Chile fully adheresto the principles of peaceful resolution of con-flicts, of non-intervention in the domestic affairsof other states and of respect for international law.

1.2. National Objectives

The State of Chile pursues general objectivesthat are set forth in its constitution, which inturn is the result of the historical experience andpolitical and cultural heritage of the Chilean peo-ple. These objectives give rise to goals that cantherefore be considered as expectations of theChilean people as a whole. These goals guideand give consistency to the overall activities ofthe State, including Defense. Within this specificsphere, where they are known as permanent na-tional objectives, these goals are the basis for theplanning function. (See Box 2).

In the form in which they are expressed in box 2,these permanent national objectives are in keep-ing with Chile’s constitutional tradition and it isthe duty of each government administration,from its own political positions, to promote apublic agenda that implements them. In otherwords, the permanent national objectives are up-dated and carried out through decisions, instru-ments and actions that express the politic will ofthe Chilean democratic institutions.

Governments prepare these up-dated (or politi-cal) national objectives for a varying periods oftime, but the time schedules they set don’t gen-erally end with their own terms of office.

Naturally, it is easier to get citizens to make acommitment to defense and security if there is agreater awareness and consensus concerning thefinal objectives to be attained.

2. CHARACTERISTICS: STATE AND DEFENSE

The primary functions of the Chilean State aredomestic governance, foreign relations and ad-ministration of justice, gathering and allocationof financial resources and defense. Generallyspeaking, the functions of defense are to protectthe population, to preserve the national territoryand to safeguard the State’s capability to exerciseits sovereignty when faced with external threatsto these fundamental elements of the country, aswell as to support the achievement of nationalobjectives in the international sphere.

Defense must be considered a public asset in anoverall sense. It fulfills a basic social function forthe existence of society that only the State canprovide. As part of the security which the coun-try needs, Defense helps to make society’s de-velopment possible.

2.1. Defense as a Function

Defense is an asset available to all members ofthe national community; once it is produced no-

NATIONAL PERMANENT OBJECTIVES! Preservation of the Chilean nation.! Conservation and enrichment of its identity

and cultural patrimony.! Maintenance of its political independence.! Maintenance of its sovereignty.! Maintenance of its national territorial integrity.! The achievement of high, sustained and

sustainable economic development.! The achievement of a social development that

harmonizes with economic development and is based on individual capabilities and equal opportunity for all.

! Maintenance of a peaceful and cooperative coexistence among civilians.

! International projection.! Maintenance of good international relations.

BOX 2


body enjoys it to the detriment of others. In or-der to guarantee this effect, it is necessary thatthe following conditions be met:

a) The monopoly of the legitimate force mustbelong to the State.b) The State must organize it, endow it with re-sources and assign objectives of national signifi-cance.c) The State must carry out this task continu-ously over time, whether in peace or war.d) The exercise of this function must encompassall State entities needed for Defense since itssphere of action exceeds the limits of what isstrictly military.

2.2. Defense, Security and Development

The relationship between defense and securityand development is one of the most complexamong those existing in the public sphere. Thiscomplexity is due to theoretical and political doc-trines arisen after II World War, as well as to thetendency to use some concepts as interchange-able.

The security of the nation cannot be defined asany State action directed towards preserving thenation’s institutional legal system and ensuringthe free exercise of its sovereignty both internal-ly and externally. Rather, it is the result of a se-ries of actions carried out by the State in order tomake progress in achieving its objectives andsafeguarding national interests when dealingwith significant risks, threats or interference.Therefore, the establishment of security be-comes desirable since it allows for the imple-mentation of the objectives set forth by the na-tion and the State, particularly those of socialand economic development.

National security is achieved through well-de-fined state functions. External security is basi-cally achieved through diplomatic and defensefunctions. Internal security is achieved throughthe “Domestic Order” function and securityagainst catastrophes is achieved through the“Civil and Environmental Protection” function.The implementation of each one of these func-tions requires an organic structure capable ofplanning and execution, a supporting legalframework, funding and a guiding policy.

Even though security and defense are closely re-lated, the concept of defense is more specificthan that of security. Defense does not inherent-ly produce the security desired, but it is certain-

ly one of the essential factors in achieving it.

Defense contributes to the security of the coun-try, through both deterrence and internationalcooperation. One of the ways cooperation takesplace is through the participation in peacekeep-ing operations, in military interchanges and incombined multinational training exercises,which are part of the array of mutual confidencemeasures.

Within the overall function of security and ex-ternal security, and as part of security and de-velopment –which is, after all, the general objec-tive of the State– a dynamic relationship is creat-ed, but one in which security cannot be under-stood as an end in itself. The State function ofproviding security is limited by the requirementof providing the nation’s public welfare and ofserving humanity. Therefore, it not ethically per-missible to trample the permanent values of jus-tice and human dignity in order to achieve thesecurity of a nation.

2.3. Human Security

This is an emerging concept in the sphere of in-ternational policy which involves nations com-mitting to act within the framework of Interna-tional Humanitarian Law under internationalconflict scenarius; this commitment is similar tothat which countries owe to their own citizens inmatters concerning their rights and freedoms.The principal value of this concept lies in chang-ing the concern for security issues by comple-menting the traditional concept which is cen-tered on the State and shifting it to individuals,thus minimizing the negative effects producedby increasing insecurity and tensions. This in-troduces a new sensibility to the way securitymatters are handled, since it encourages an un-derstanding approach and takes into accounttheir multidimensional character.

This approach serves as a basis for handlingproblems typical of the globalization era. Manyof these problems transcend the sphere of inter-national conflicts and therefore cannot be ap-proached through defense policies. Such is thecase, for example, of efforts to reduce the exist-ing technological gap between developed andpoor countries, to reduce the impact of criminalviolence in large cities or to address the conse-quences of a spreading pandemics such as AIDS.But the concept is applied in relation to UnitedNations Peacekeeping Operations and could beapplied in actions taken to handle conflicts that


may give rise to crimes against humanity orcause regional crises and increase the level of in-security among affected persons.

Although the human security approach still of-fers some aspects in need of a more precise def-inition, it represents progress in conceptualizingthe notion of security and for this reason it hasdrawn growing international support. This is dueto international law’s acknowledgment of the in-dividual and to the importance that observanceof human rights has acquired in the internation-al agenda. To help create mechanisms that trulypermit safeguarding the life of each personagainst conventional and unconventional threatsconstitutes a political objective of Chile’s inter-national action.

2.4. National Defense and the Internal Order ofthe Republic

The functions of National Defense have to dowith external security, which is defined by soci-ety’s consensus of what differentiates externalsecurity from the tasks of internal order and pub-lic safety that the Political Constitution of the Re-public delegates to the Police Force and the In-vestigations Bureau.

For certain emergency situations, Article 39 andfollowing of the Constitution set up the rules forthe use of the Armed Forces in tasks of internalorder: internal war or internal disturbance, se-vere disruption of internal order or evidentthreat to national security of internal an origin,and public disaster.1

✪ 1 States of emergency defined in the Constitution are: a State of Siege (can be declared by the President of the Republic, with the approval of theNational Congress, in the event of internal war or internal disturbance); a State of Emergency (can be declared by the President of the Republic,with the approval of the National Security Council, in the event of severe disruption of internal order, damages or threats to national security by acause of internal origin), and a State of Catastrophe (can be declared by the President of the Republic, with the approval of the National SecurityCouncil, in the event of public disaster).

❦


2. The Territory and Population of Chile

Protecting the territory and its popula-

tion is, ultimately, the essential objec-

tive of Defense. For this reason, the dis-

tinctive features of the national territo-

ry and of the Chilean people constitute

the basic references to be considered in

drawing up a National Defense Policy.

The following pages describe the most

relevant characteristics of our territory,

its geography and the people who

inhabit it.

1. THE NATIONAL TERRITORY

The Chilean territory is defined and delimited byborders that are the result of existing treaties,freely and legitimately agreed upon, and by arbi-tral award. Of the 6,630 km comprising its bor-ders, it shares 180 km with Peru, 850 km with Bo-livia and 5,600 km with Argentina2 (See Box 3).For administrative purposes, the land portion ofthe national territory is divided into thirteen re-gions (See Figure 1).

The area of Chile in the American continentmakes it the longest and narrowest country in theworld. Proportionally, it is also the country withthe largest sea and air space, where internationallaw allows the country to exercise varying degreesof sovereignty. In general, it has sovereignty overa trapezoid that borders on Peru (to the north), Bo-

livia and Argentina (to the east), includes EasterIsland (to the west) and the South Pole. This largeland space, with its corresponding sea and airspace, but not including the high seas within it, iswhat we understand as “national territory”.

The continental portion of the national territorycovers a surface area of 756,626 km2. Its peculiargeographical features have given it island char-acteristics: in the north, it has vast areas ofdesert and arid lands; in the south the DrakePass; in the east of its territory the high Andesmountains rise, further south the mountainspenetrate into the land stretching towards theocean. The Strait of Magellan crosses the territo-ry between the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans.

In addition to the continental portion, the sea is-lands and the Chilean Antarctic Territory alsoform part of the Chilean territory.

The island portion of the national territory in-cludes several islands in the South Pacific. Theclosest of these are the Robinson Crusoe Archi-

✪ 2 Figures are approximate.


EXISTING TREATIES AND BORDER AGREEMENTS

With Argentina!Border Treaty of July 23, 1881.!Protocol of May 1, 1893.!Expert reports from Barros Arana and Moreno of August 29, September 3, and October 1, 1898; Minutes ofConferences between Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Argentine Plenipotentiary Ambassador in Santiago, on September 15 and 22, 1898.!Fourth Meeting of the Demarcation Commission (Puna de Atacama), of March 24, 1899.!Award by His Britannic Majesty Edward VII, of November 20, 1902.!Protocol on Reinstallation and Placement of Boundary Marks along the Chilean-Argentine Border of April 16,1941!Arbitration Award by Her Britannic Majesty, Elizabeth II of December 9, 1966 (Palena)!Arbitration Award by Her Britannic Majesty, Elizabeth II of April 18, 1977 (Beagle Channel).!Peace and Friendship Treaty of November 29, 1984.!Presidential Statement about Boundaries between the Republic of Chile and the Republic of Argentina ofAugust 2, 1991.!Award by the International Arbitration Tribunal on the tracking of the borderline between Boundary Mark62 and Fitz Roy Mount of October 21, 1994 (Laguna del Desierto).!Agreement of December 16, 1998 to state precisely the tracking of the borderline between Fitz Roy Mountand Daudet Hill.

With Bolivia !Peace and Friendship Treaty between Chile and Bolivia of October 20, 1904.!Agreement relating to the Replacement of the Boundary Line along two Stretches of the Border, of May 1,1907.!Protocol on the Conservation of Boundary Marks and Additional Act of August 10, 1942.

With Peru !Peace and Friendship Treaty of October 20, 1883.!Ancillary Treaty and Protocol of June 3, 1929.!Certificate determining the Border Line between Chile and Peru, of August 5, 1930.!Statement about Maritime Zone of August 18, 1952 (Chile, Peru and Ecuador).!Agreement on the Special Maritime Border Zone of December 4, 1954 (Chile, Peru and Ecuador).!Certificate of the Chilean-Peruvian Commission for the field study for the installation of delimitation marksvisible from the sea, to give form to the parallel of the maritime border originating in Boundary Mark N° 1, of26th April 1968.!Act of the Chilean-Peruvian Joint Commission in charge of verification of the position of Boundary MarkN° 1 and of marking up the maritime boundary, of 22nd August 1969.!Agreement on the Conservation of Boundary Marks at the Common Border of 6th March 1997.

BOX 1

pelago, at 360 nautical miles (667 km) from thecontinent and the islands of San Félix and SanAmbrosio at 500 nautical miles (926 km). Themost distant ones are the Island of Sala y Gómezat 1,870 nautical miles (3,463 km) and Easter Is-land at 2,000 nautical miles (3,700 km) from thecentral coast. These latter islands enlarge theChilean continental shelf from 200 to 350 nauti-cal miles, which provides Chile with a total seabed of 4,633,615 km2, a little over six times thesurface area of its South American continentalterritory.

The Chilean Antarctic Territory is located southof Drake Pass and beyond the South Americancontinent, forming a rounded triangle stretchingtowards the South Pole between meridians 53ºand 90º west, with an approximate surface areaof 1,250,000 km2. On the basis of valuable geo-graphical, historical and juridical and adminis-trative title deeds, these boundaries were statedprecisely by Executive Decree Nº 1,747, datedNovember 6, 1940. The area possesses potentialfishing, mining and water resources, which areunder investigation by several countries, includ-


FIGURE 1


ing ours. Chile has exploited part the marine re-sources; the development of potential mining re-sources has been banned for the next 50 years, asfrom February 18, 1998, when the Protocol forthe Protection of the Antarctic Environmentcame into force. The potential of water resourcesfrom the ice represents an enormous wealth forthe future, which has not been appraised.

2. CHILEAN GEOGRAPHY

The national territory is closely related to na-tional defense, not only because its protection isone of the purposes of defense, but also becauseits distinctive geographical features requireunique defense approaches, originating uniquegeostrategic problems, difficult to face and solve.

2.1. The Land

Chile’s territory on the South American conti-nent is formed by a long narrow belt which inpart lies between the Andes Mountains and thePacific Ocean, or incorporating the Andes into avast area of its southern sector, with a profusionof islands and coastal archipelagos. Its totallength is 4,300 km and its maximum width is 460km. It is located between latitude 17º30’ and56º00’ S and between longitude 66º30’ and74º40’ W, not including the occasional sea is-lands or the Antarctic territory.

Seen from another perspective, the American ter-ritory of Chile is divided into three large geo-graphical areas to which the sea islands andAntarctic territory must be added. The first areais located to the north of the country (regions I, IIand III). It has a desert climate, a low populationdensity, and is rich in mineral and marine re-sources. It is endowed with important, fullyequipped ports that provide the necessary ship-ping services from and into Chile as well as fromand into Bolivia, extending Chile’s influence to-wards the center of the South American conti-nent. The second area (regions IV through X)forms the large central zone. With a temperateclimate, it houses more than 85% of the nationalpopulation and the largest portion of industry. Itis the main production and consumer sector ofthe country. Here are located the most importantport and airport complexes of the country. Theyare responsible for the dispatch of 65% of nation-al cargo. Finally, the third area, is the southernzone, (regions XI through XII). Its climate is cold,and it is characterized by the presence of a greatnumber of islands and small coastal villages,

which end at Region XII of Magallanes and theChilean Antarctic. This latter region dependsmainly on its sea and air routes to connect itselfwith the center of the country. Its main port, thecity of Punta Arenas, also offers air and sea con-nections with the Antarctic continent. The inte-roceanic passages of the Strait of Magellan andthe Drake Pass constitute salient features of thesouthern zone. The Beagle Channel also consti-tutes an important sea route in this area.

2.2. The Sea

The national sea territory is equivalent to the“Chilean Sea.”3 It comprises all the oceanic wa-ters that bathe or encircle territories under or en-titled to national sovereignty up to 200 nauticalmiles (370 km). Taking into account that Chilehas a latitudinal coastline of 4.300 km, its seasurface area totals 3,464,462 kms2, not includingthe maritime projection of the Antarctic territo-ry, over which Chile has jurisdiction in accor-dance with existing international legal instru-ments applicable to this area. This sea areaplaces our country in a privileged position on anocean that is gaining in importance day by day,in addition to having, in proportion to its territo-ry, one of the largest coastal surface areas in theworld.

Within this sea territory it is necessary to keep inmind the following conceptual definitions:

a) Territorial Sea, of 12 nautical miles (22km) of surface area, measured from the baselines, over which full sovereignty is exer-cised, acknowledging the right of innocentpassage to foreign vessels pursuant to theterms of the United Nations Convention onthe Law of the Sea.

b) Contiguous Zone, of 24 nautical miles (44km), measured from the base lines wherethe width of the territorial sea is calculated.Inspections are carried out in this zone bothto prevent as well as to penalize violations ofcustoms, government, immigration or sani-tary laws and regulations.

c) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), under-stood as the sea area extending up to 200nautical miles (370 km), measured from the

✪

3 Defined in Executive Decree Nº 364, of May 30, 1974..


base lines, where the State exercises sover-eign rights with respect to the exploitation,exploration, preservation, and administra-tion of living and non-living natural re-sources that exist in the water mass, oceanfloor and ocean subsoil, as well as jurisdic-tion with respect to the installation and useof artificial islands, facilities and structures,marine scientific research, protection andpreservation of the environment and otherrights recognized by the United Nations Con-vention on the Law of the Sea.

In addition, Chile conceives as “Presential Sea”the ocean space comprised between the borderof our Exclusive Economic Zone and the meridi-an that going through the western side of thecontinental shelf of Easter Island stretches outfrom the parallel of Boundary Mark Nº 1 towardsthe Southern Pole. This concept expresses thewill to have a presence in this area of high seasfor the purpose of projecting maritime interestswith respect to the rest of the international com-munity, monitoring the environment and pre-serving marine resources, with unrestricted ad-herence to International Law.

The Convention on the Law of the Sea, on thedrafting and approval of which Chile played anactive and important role, the existence of otherinternational agreements ratified by Chile andthe existence of national legislation on the Envi-ronment, as well as the Fishing Law both cur-rently in force and the current policy on the useof the Coastline4 are clear and intense expres-sions of Chile’s maritime vocation. Internationallegislation on the sea comprises a set of conven-tional and customary rules and regulating in-struments for specialized issues that are at pres-ent under negotiation. It is essential for thecountry to maintain an active participation inthe forums that address this issue, to express itscontinuing maritime vocation, to protect its sov-ereignty and rights on the basis of the treatiesand international agreements that support themand to project its interests on this subject.

In addition to the opportunities offered to Chileto develop and exploit its maritime resources,the international law of the sea contains otherimportant areas that our country must work onin the future to ensure essential resources.Among them, the study of the Antarctic conti-nental shelf in the light of the principles andmethods contained in the United Nations Con-vention on the Law of the Sea, the maritime de-limitations of the Chilean Antarctic territory and

the preservation of Antarctic living sea re-sources, in compliance with applicable regimes,need to be stressed.

With respect to trade, the sea provides a fast, safeand efficient communication route for the trans-portation of large volumes of cargo. The fast de-velopment of nations located at the other side ofthe Pacific basin, which has made them attrac-tive markets for national and regional products,allow us to consider this ocean as an importantsea faring route of fast growing activity which wemust utilize and control properly. However, ourexport and import trade is not restricted to thePacific basin area but also encompasses the eastcoast of the United States, Europe, the MiddleEast and all the trading centers of the world.

Statistical studies point out that approximately90% of our foreign trade is carried by sea. Ourmain export product (copper) and our main im-port product (oil) are transported entirely by sea.Their protection, therefore, is of special impor-tance. It is also important to safeguard live andmineral resources of our Exclusive EconomicZone, which requires permanent monitoring andmeans to stop depredation.

Within this context, Chile has acceded, since1929, to the International Agreement for theSafety of Human Life at Sea, and has acquiredspecific responsibilities of sea rescue and salvageon the southeastern quadrant since 1953. It con-tributes to the General Oceanic BathymetricCharter since 1962, acts as Coordinator of the Pa-cific Southeastern Maritime Area for the Inter-national Office of Hydrography since 1987 andfor the Maritime Traffic Control since 1989. Inaddition, Chile is an active member of the RedAlert against Tsunamis on the Pacific Ocean Net-work. All of the above falls within the frameworkof a maritime zone of national responsibility ex-ceeding the 30,000,000 kms2 measured frommeridian 131º W, which the country must honorbefore the international community, and musthave available the necessary navy and maritimemeans for proper fulfillment of its commitments(See Figure 2).

2.3. The Airspace

In accordance with international law, the sover-eignty of the State of Chile also extends to the airspace over its territory and territorial sea. Thisspace is determined by the presence of gases, es-pecially oxygen, which permit the flight of craftsustained on the aerodynamic resistance offered


by gases to moving objects at specific speeds.The upper limit of this space is located within arange of 80 to 100 kilometers in height whichmarks the border with outer space a universalheritage of humanity.

For air traffic control purposes, the InternationalCivil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recognizesChile’s protection over an area which in generalextends from the northern border (latitude 18º21’ N) to the South Pole, and from the interna-tional political boundary to the east as far asmeridian 131º 00’ W. As a total, the air space un-der Chile’s control covers a surface of 26.8 mil-lions of km2, which includes its continental andisland territories, its jurisdictional waters and thehigh seas they contain (See Figure 3).

2.4. The Polar Territory

This cannot be confused with the land and seaterritory, and least of all, with the air space.

The Chilean polar space delimited by meridians53º y 90º West has an area of 1,250,000 kms2.

Contemporary international law does not haveuniversally accepted rules about the way to ac-quire and preserve sovereignty over polar space.It is for this reason that the Antarctic Treaty, inforce since June 23, 1961, decided to restrict theuse of the Antarctic to peaceful and scientific ac-tivities and placed a 30-year freeze on litigiousclaims without altering the positions of the sig-natories either in favor or against alleged sover-eignties.

3. THE POPULATION OF CHILE

During the process of becoming a nation, its in-habitants developed a number of distinctivecharacteristics and a wide spectrum of specificfeatures that would later differentiate it fromother nations. Normally, through this sameprocess a nation organizes itself politically into aState which it endows with the basic functionsrequired for its development, including the func-tion of defense. The population of a country isthe most valuable asset that its defense mustprotect.

FIGURE 2


FIGURE 3


3.1. National Identity

The defense as such is ultimately based on themost elementary parts of the national State.These parts —compiled or expressed in the Prin-ciples and Objectives of the State— correspond toelements that form part of the goods and pur-poses that Chile is decided to protect, since theyare what give it life and provide it with an iden-tity among the nations. Chilean society is thespecific result of the combination of differentethnic groups, all of which have enriched thepopulation of Chile5 through the mixing of races.

a) The Chilean PeopleFrom a historical perspective, the process of de-velopment of our national identity is associatedwith another long process: the culture mixing re-sulting from Spanish rule through the conquestof the territory. In Chile it began in 1535, withthe arrival of the first Spanish expedition, whichhad traveled from Cuzco towards the southernlands. The collision of European civilization withthe indigenous cultures reveals, as nothing elsecan, the painful and bloody process of initial syn-cretism in the construction of the sense andmeaning of Chilean people. The imposition ofthe political authority of the Spanish King overthe native people of the New World, and the lat-ter’s natural and legitimate rebellion, resulted ina disposition to resist adverse conditions, a lega-cy that would leave an imprint on both culturesand constitutes an integral part of our character.

As years went by, the shaping of language, tradi-tions, values, customs, religion, the rules andstructures, were slowly being integrated into theincipient social texture of the Capitanía Generalde Chile. This process denotes a feature of ouridentity which is already very much our own, be-cause in no other place in America was thatprocess so long and so hard. As a result, Spanishculture remained dominant and many elements,particularly those of a religious and cultural na-ture, were deeply ingrained in our ethos as a na-tion. Because of this, the mixing of races in Chilewas very peculiar and quite different from whathappened in other Spanish-American countries.

Successive social and political changes broughtwith them the incorporation of new elements,which were to form part of the so-called “identi-fying deposits”. For example, the process ofemancipation from Spain was a significant mile-stone because it produced a national feelingwithin the population of Chilean-born Spaniards.Republican institutionalism, the common desire

to strive for progress and to a community liferuled by freedom and growing participation arecomponents which had already been incorporat-ed by the 19th century, even though the task ofperfecting them has fallen to successive genera-tions of Chileans

Some essential aspects of the legacy of westernculture that have contributed to these “deposits”that form our national identity, are expressed inthe chapter on “Institutional Foundations” of thePolitical Constitution: for example: the dignity ofhuman being, the protection of the fundamentalrights which such dignity requires, the consider-ation of the family as the core of society and theconsideration of the State as an entity at the serv-ice of humanity. In short, the elements compiledin those “Institutional Foundations” constitutesubstantive features that society as a whole mustsafeguard.

b) Contribution of Defense to National Identity The effects associated with military activity inthe different periods of our history were influen-tial in the process of shaping the national identi-ty described above. Historians, sociologists, an-thropologists and, in general, people who havestudied Chilean society agree that the conflictand the human tragedy it entailed explains someof the characteristics involved in the formationof Chile as a unique national unit.

Many episodes that took place during the 19th-century conflicts, starting with the battles for in-dependence, helped shape the traditions andsymbols of the Republic and the nation. Theseare the traditions and symbols that have nour-ished the Armed Forces, which have in turnhelped to transmit and revive them within socie-ty.

It should also be noted that, on the whole, duringthose historical moments in which new ele-ments were incorporated into the Spanish matrixof Chilean society, already distinguished by theheritage of the struggle between the Spanish andMapuches, other events also left their imprint onthe Armed Forces: the early settling of Englishimmigrants in the Valparaiso area and the earlyBritannic influence on the Navy which had al-ready started during the battles for independ-ence; and the importance of French culture inChilean society in the mid-1800s, which also in-fluenced the army. The opening of the countryto German immigration at a time when Germanyenjoyed its greatest prestige in 19th-Century Eu-

tants. So then, in ten years, Chile’s populationhas increased, in absolute figures, by 1,768,034inhabitants.

In terms of gender distribution, the number ofwomen and men is balanced; with women num-bering 7,668,740 and men 7,447,695. With regardto the population as a whole, these figures revealthat women account for 50.7% of the populationand men for 49.3%. These figures are similar tothose obtained in 1992. With respect to popula-tion distribution, the recent census showed thatthe urban population had reached 13,044,221 in-habitants (86.6%) and that the rural populationtotals 2,006,120 (13.4%), which places Chileansociety of the early 21st century among the oth-er modern industrialized societies of the 20thcentury. In addition to this information is thefact that, during these ten years, the distributionof the population by regions has not experienceda significant change, since 40,1% of the total pop-ulation is concentrated in the Metropolitan Re-gion of Santiago, 12.3% in the Bío-Bío Regionand, in third place, 10.2% in the Valparaiso Re-gion, figures that are similar to those obtained inthe previous census.

Population density is presently 19.9 inhabitantsper km2. In other words, there have not been anysignificant changes, which indicates that thepopulation increased more slowly than in thefirst half of the 20th Century.7


❦

rope and the Prussian influence on the Army ofthe late 1800s and early 1900s, among others.

It can be said that during this long process, theArmed Forces have found a double role to theirexistence. They formally emerged as organiza-tions in a national sense, prepared to assume thedefense of the Chilean people, their territory andtheir sovereignty expressed in the national State.At the same time, they emerged as institutionsassociated with the values in which this defenseis founded. To the sovereignty and freedom ofspirit that sprung up from independence fromSpanish rule, the demands for harmonious coex-istence, for organization, for development, andfor equity and stability are to be added.

3.2. Data and Background Information 6

The number of inhabitants and the different as-pects of population distribution are both relevantdata from the point of view of defense, given theconditions they impose on the use of human re-sources which the country must use to maintainexternal security.

In recent years, Chile has experienced a notice-able change in its quality of life. Nevertheless,the country has remained one of the countrieswith a lower population growth. The census car-ried out in April, 2002 has revealed the variationsoccurring in the last ten years and statistical fig-ures indicate that Chile’s current population is15,116,435. In other words, it has risen by 13.2%over the figures from the previous census carriedout in 1992, which reported 13,348,401 inhabi-

✪ 6 National Institute of Statistics [Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas(INE)], Census of 2002, Preliminary Figures. June 2002.

✪ 7 This calculation does not include the 1.250.000 kms2 of surfacearea of the Chilean Antarctic Territory, and the area encompassedby interior waters, in accordance with the census methodology ofINE, Census of 2002.


















(AGPE) 56











of the Republic 19










Operations 32

















PART IV
















(DGMN) 92












PART IIDefense EnvironmentNever before has the world been so inter-

connected and so interdependent. Longdistances have been surpassed by thespeed of communications. Problemsemerging in far away countries affectours, and this forces us to be constantlymonitoring and analyzing the differentscenarios that have a bearing in thepolitical and economic decisions thatChile feels are appropriate for ensuringits development.

In many ways these scenarios have aparticular effect on the decisions ourcountry must make on Defense issues.Thus is the State that must respond bydrawing up a policy, which while pre-serving its most stable elements has thenecessary flexibility to adjust to the con-stant changes that these scenarios experi-ence over time. This is particularly truein present times, when these changes arefaster and more comprehensive than inthe past.

New technologies, new internationalactors and new types of threats are someof the factors influencing these changes.As a result, a new world order hasemerged that forces States to look, throughnew international systems, for new waysof reducing the level of uncertainty inwhich they evolve. Finally, uncertaintyremains as a component of the conditionsin which the world develops.

Today, the different segments of theworld scenario, the peculiarities of ourregional environment, the type of rela-tionships we keep with our neighbors, thetype of threats that surround us and thegeostrategic characteristics of our territo-ry, are elements that shape our defense.

In summary, the subjects contained inthe second part of the Book and issuesaddressed in Part I constitute the basesfor Chile’s National Defense Policy.


1. International Security Trends

The nation’s defense policy requires a

systematic analysis of the evolution of

trends and in particular of international

conflicts, from both a conceptual and

empirical perspective. Even though the

period of time from 1997 (the year in

which the first Book appeared) to

today is relatively short, the interna-

tional system has undergone substan-

tive changes whose influence on the

sphere of defense need to be appraised.

The international analysis performed in 1997was done using the end of the Cold War as aframework of reference and globalization as theemerging phenomenon. However, at the begin-ning of the 21st century, the most importantcharacteristic of the international system is theconsolidation of the globalization process which,in recent years has begun to introduce politicaland strategic changes of a qualitative character.Some of these transformations are the following:

1. DIVERSIFICATION OF THE ACTORSINVOLVED IN INTERNATIONAL SECURITY

Globalization has diversified the type of actorsthat take part in the international system whichwas formerly restricted to States. Transnational-ization and the globalization of the economywith the consequent increase in the movementof goods, information and people, have createdthe necessary conditions for enterprises, non-governmental organizations inspired by the most

diverse objectives, and even individuals, have allgained a greater capacity for action within inter-national spheres, a situation that has conse-quences to Security and Defense.

1.1 The Economic Agents

The consolidation of globally operating marketshas allowed several economic agents, particular-ly enterprises, to make decisions that directly af-fect the international system in a relatively au-tonomous manner and in real time. Among oth-er effects, economic globalization has stimulatedthe deregulation of international economic rela-tions, which has triggered integration processes.These processes, in turn, have encouraged thegrowth of cooperation among states involved indifferent spheres of activities –including De-fense– and have brought changes in the politicalrelationships between them. We can see thistrend in several places of the world, such asNorthern America, the European Union, South-ern Africa, Central and South America.

BOOK OF THE NATIONAL DEFENSE OF CHILEYEAR 2002 3311PART II

1.2 The Civil SocietyDiverse civil society groups, with varying de-grees of organizational development, have alsobecome international actors. Non-GovernmentalOrganizations (NGOs) concerned about a varietyof issues have developed the capacity to createinternational political agendas and to influencedecision-making of States, either formally,through participation in international institu-tions, or informally through direct action. Theactivities of NGOs can also have direct or indi-rect effects on the international security sphere,and on Defense, either at the global level or atthe regional and national levels. For example, therole played by NGOs was decisive for the 1997approval of the Convention on the Prohibition ofthe Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer ofAnti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction.

2. CHANGES IN INTERNATIONALSECURITY CONCEPTS

The concepts of international security wereformed on the basis of the fact –which was trueuntil a few years ago– that the only actor able toexercise real political action in the internationalsphere was the State. With the consolidation ofglobalization and the emergence of new interna-tional actors, the concept of state-centered inter-national security has undergone changes insome of its basic assumptions: the State is nolonger the exclusive objective of security; thereare now other claimants of security which arenot the State. This is why, for some time now,the international community has been makingefforts to review the concepts of international se-curity and develop notions that take into accountthe new realities. These were the lines followed,for example, by the debate regarding human se-curity - a concept first formulated by the UnitedNations Development Program (UNDP) in 1994.8

3. THE STATE AS COORDINATOR AND REGULATOR OF THE GLOBALIZATIONPROCESS

It is particularly important to re-establish and de-fine the importance of the State in the context ofglobalization. Even though it no longer has a mo-

nopoly on international policy and its relativepower has lessened and the use of force as amean of resolving certain types of conflicts hasdecreased within the framework of growing in-terdependence, the State still retains essentialcharacteristics:

!It is still the only agent with the capaci-ty to organize the democratic representa-tion of society.!It is still the only agent with the powerto establish rules of law, either directly orindirectly, through international organiza-tions. The effectiveness of these rules alsorests ultimately with the State.!It is still the only international actor thathas the capacity for legitimate use of forceduring international conflicts, whether be-tween states or within a single state.!It is still the only actor empowered toput the lives of some of its members injeopardy, in pursuing some of its essentialobjectives.!Lastly, it is still the actor endowed withthe greatest and most complex resourcesof power.

4. DEVELOPMENT OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE REGIMES

Faced with the new international scenario,which has been taking shape in recent years,governments have responded by redefining con-cepts and practices applied in international poli-cies, particularly within the field of security.However, as this process intensifies, some com-mon responses have emerged. Examples are thetendency to favor a greater international cooper-ation, especially within the scope of the UnitedNations and regional organizations. If this trendis adequately supported by countries it can con-tribute to international security, even in caseswhere disparities observed in the capacities ofstates interested in cooperation make it difficult.International agencies for cooperation are be-coming more and more effective instruments foraddressing international conflict between states(the ‘traditional agenda’). There are many exam-ples of this trend, particularly the strategic agree-ments between Russia, the United States and theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).9

✪ 8 See the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) 1994 Re-port on Human Development. The Chilean position on matters of hu-man security appears in Part I, Chapter II, of this report.

✪ 9 On May 14, 2002, the United States and Russia signed a treatyon the disarmament of the strategic nuclear stockpiling. On May 28,2002, Russia was accepted as a member of NATO.


A similar development has arisen in the case ofthe ‘new security agenda’, generally comprisedof elements derived from the globalizationprocess. In effect, even though they face prob-lems of a different nature (generally threats of anon-state character and with a transnational di-mension), the most efficient responses are thosebased in intensifying international cooperation,which has been particularly evident in the caseof the international struggle against terrorism.

In summary, the globalization process has had,until now, an apparently paradoxical result:while it has reduced the State’s monopoly on in-ternational politics, it has also strengthened theState’s role in those issues in which is still thesole irreplaceable actor. In addition, althoughglobalization sets conditions for the appearanceof “asymmetrical threats”, it has also reinforcedthe importance of international regimes of coop-eration in those areas where cooperation is of in-terest to states. During this time, an importantportion of international politics remains in thehands of state management, but internationalregimes have expanded in proportion to the ex-pansion of globalization and a more complex anddiversified international agenda that requires co-ordination among governments. In this manner,international regimes have began to interrelateas institutions through which countries attempt,with varying degrees of success, to bring somegovernability to the process of changes takingplace in the international sphere.

5. A GREATER DEMAND ON UN PEACE-KEEPING OPERATIONS

The need for international cooperation has cre-ated growing demands on the United Nations toperform its essential mission of world peace-keeping established in its founding Chartersigned in the city of San Francisco (USA), in1945, by different countries, among them, Chile.

For half a century, the structure of the UN con-sisted basically of reacting to situations that re-quired peacekeeping efforts. Over time, particu-larly beginning in the 1990s, the United Nationshas reformed its structure to make it able to re-spond to the increasing demands for operationsaimed at establishing or imposing peace, an is-sue that requires different political and militarycapabilities clearly superior to the current ones.This reorganization requires reaffirming the le-gitimacy of the United Nations as the only insti-tution accepted by the international community

to use force in resolving international securityproblems under the regulations described in itsfounding Charter.

The new requests for UN peace operations re-quire organic solutions and more elaborate ob-jectives since they involve changing from mili-tary operations to intervene between fightingparties who have reached a peace or cease-fireagreement, or verifying cease-fires, which arerelatively simple tasks, to peace imposition oper-ations with different rules of engagement andwhich often involve the objective of organizing agovernment. The UN agency for maintainingpeace and security has become more complexand has changed into a huge, sophisticated net-work of political and strategic decision-making,as well as crisis management. These are the kindof decisions and actions that require more effi-cient political and military coordination withinthe UN and between it and participating coun-tries and taking into account the participationand coordination of other actors from interna-tional institutions, transnational civil organiza-tions and even the mass media.10

❦

✪ 10 For more information about Chile’s state policy on issues ofparticipation in UN peacekeeping operations, please see Part III,Chapter 2.


2. International Settings thatInfluence Defense

The classification of settings adopted

here must be understood in the follow-

ing way: the world context is the whole

international sphere; the continental

context is the entire American conti-

nent; the regional context refers to

South America; the subregional context

refers to areas or zones within this

region, and the neighboring context

consists of Chile’s bordering countries.

1. THE WORLD CONTEXT

During the last decade, after the end of the ColdWar, a kind of global governing system has beentaking shape. As mentioned in the previouschapter, this concept describes a phenomenonstill in its developing stages. Although its natureis still in flux, the term is used for a number ofprocedures and institutions linked to each otheron the basis of shared values: among them thepromotion of democracy, mandatory observanceof human rights, growing deregulation of the in-ternational economy and a preference for coop-eration as the political option to address a so-phisticated international agenda of a global andtransnational nature.

Countries with differing degrees of power and in-fluence participate in this system, which is alsocomprised of other international actors, includ-ing blocs of countries and non-state actors. Itshould be noted that not all actors participatingin this system share identical approaches tothese values or adopt each and every one of the

international mechanisms through which theyare expressed.

The existence of this system of cooperation doesnot mean that countries are prevented from tak-ing unilateral action when they consider it nec-essary. Moreover, the international securityframework that this system has created is not in-compatible with the creation of bilateral al-liances (United States-Japan, for example) or ofmultilateral alliances of a regional scope (collec-tive security of NATO). However, it has opened aspace for the establishment of a concept of“democratic peace”,11 as well as a propensity tolimit and inhibit the use of force as a means ofresolving conflicts in the geographical areaswhere its influence is greater.

✪ 11 “Democratic peace” is understood as possibility of an armed con-flict between democratic countries being low in comparison to oth-er types of political regimes.


The United States continues to maintain its su-premacy on the world map, particularly on mili-tary issues. However, the European Union, Rus-sia, China and Southeast Asia share the econom-ic and political power.

The propensity to establish large political orcommercial-political blocs (NAFTA, EU, APEC,MERCOSUR) has increased, placing new de-mands and projecting new responsibilities onthe exercise of state sovereignty, which is ac-quiring different dimensions in the decision-making sphere at the international level.

With regard to perceived threats, terrorism in itsvarious manifestations and associations, ethnicstruggles, drug trafficking, corruption, depletionof natural resources and trends toward religiousfundamentalism, are the issues that determinethe current international agenda. In some casesthis leads to the polarization of some states andin others to their alignment with one pole or theother. The US interest in keeping the interna-tional struggle against terrorism at the forefrontand making it the common denominator of thedifferent national priorities on matters concern-ing security and Defense should be noted.

2. THE CONTINENTAL CONTEXT12

From a general perspective, the region’s devel-opment has revolved around globalization andregional development activities. Globalizationhas had positive and negative effects on the con-tinent and governments and companies of theAmerican countries, are searching for appropri-ate policies to optimize their insertion into theglobalization process.

Even though it still has significant features of itsown, the American continent is not immune tothe impact that the global tendencies are dis-playing on the international security agenda. Ingeneral, the countries of the continent are par-ticipating in the globalization process and large-ly share values and interests with the powersthat give shape to the international systems en-gaged in making the globalization process gov-ernable. In fact, some of the most importantprinciples that have directed the Americas Sum-

mit process have been: promotion of democracyand, in particular, democratic consolidation inthe Latin American and Caribbean countries; re-spect for human rights; development of an inter-national system based on the law and capable ofdistributing the risks and benefits of globaliza-tion more fairly; in short, the search for a morestable and safe international environment.

The analysis of the most important trends thatinfluence the security of the continent mustthen consider the following elements:

2.1. America: a Region that Contributes toStrategic Stability

With the exception of the United States andCanada, the American continent is, in general, aregion that remains on the fringe of the more sig-nificant international conflicts and, taken as ageographic unit, it is also an area free from intra-regional conflicts of importance. The relativestrategic stability of the continent is reflected inthe fact that its indicators on inter- and intra-state conflicts are the lowest in the world in spiteof current potential conflicts. In accordance withinformation issued by the SIPRI (Stockholm In-ternational Peace Research Institute), with theexception of the Colombian conflict, Americahas not registered any serious conflict on its soilfor over a decade. Even the conflict between Pe-ru and Ecuador, which culminated in 1998, wasnot serious enough to be classified as a signifi-cant conflict.

2.2. Threats to the Continent

The American continent faces security problemsof varying intensity, both conventional and un-conventional. The overview provided here is arelative evaluation of the situation, based in acomparison with security conditions in other re-gions of the world.

a) Conventional ThreatsThese last few years have seen the consoli-dation of a decline in conflicts between na-tions on the American continent. However,it would be premature to state that conflictsbetween countries have disappeared. Someterritorial issues remain between somecountries, both in Central and South Ameri-ca, which eventually could give rise to a cri-sis, and therefore the policies directed to-ward preventing conflicts and cooperationwill continue to be of major importance.

✪ 12 Part III, Chapter I: National Defense Policy gives informationabout continental security policies promoted by Chile.


b) Unconventional Risks and ThreatsAs stated previously, the unconventionalrisks and threats which have emerged duringthe globalization process affect states in dif-ferent ways, and therefore each countryshould define perceived threats for itself, aswell as the policies and instruments it willuse to contend with them (See Box 4).

It is important to point out however that even iftraditional and emerging problems of securitycan turn into threats and eventually require ofthe use of force on the part of the government–especially military force—, they largely origi-nate in the difficulties the states and societies ofthe region face in implementing sustainable de-velopment processes that would reinforce the le-gitimacy of political, economic and social insti-

tutions. The solution to many of the securityproblems of the region is, therefore, stronglylinked to the success of economic policies and tothe legitimization of democracy as an efficientpolitical regime.

2.3. A Governance in Security issues

The American institutional framework related tosecurity and defense issues is changing from theframework of collective security, which was cre-ated during the Cold War towards a more variedand extensive system. The model combines in-stitutions already in existence with an ever in-creasing number of cooperative regimes of inter-national nature with different intended goals(continental, regional, subregional and neighbor-ing). The different kinds of systems, as a whole,

TerrorismAmong the risks and threats that have emerged with globalization, the irruption of new forms of terrorismhas been particularly severe, such as those on United States territory in September of 2001. With theseattacks terrorism has become the most important threat to international security. Reactions to this type ofaction have varied in accordance with the intensity with which the phenomenon threatens each particularcountry and its capacity for response, but the general trend is to resort to greater international cooperation,a method that has also appeared among American countries.15 In fact, the new forms of terrorism have hadequivalent versions in other countries of the continent. Argentina suffered a terrorist attack on her own ter-ritory which destroyed the Jewish community building, massively affecting Argentine citizens during the90s.

Drug Trafficking Until the terrorist attacks against the United States in 2001, drug trafficking was the most severe threat tothe continent in the globalization era. However, the illegal drug trafficking and drug use continues to growand its importance, as a security problem for all the countries of the continent –and a defense problem forsome of them– has not disappeared; especially in those countries where coca and poppy production, anddrug preparation is concentrated (Andean region), those who have the main distribution routes (CentralAmerica and the Caribbean), and main consumption (United States).

Mass MigrationGenerally speaking, the migratory phenomenon has acquired world relevance, and constitutes one of themost important changes associated with globalization during the 1990s. Although this process can havedifferent manifestations (migration as a result of conflicts —displaced persons— or migration as a result ofsocietal changes) it has challenged the capacity of receiving states to exercise effective jurisdiction overtheir territories and to carry out the internal and external policies they have defined for themselves as sov-ereign nations, thus generating a heavy political impact. At the same time, it has become an important fac-tor in the generation of international crises among affected countries. In addition to diplomatic actions andinternal measures, receiving states have sometimes been forced to use armed force, military and/or thepolice, to control this situation.

On the continent, beginning in the 1990s, numerous security problems have occurred which originated inillegal mass migrations, mainly to the United States, but also to other Latin American countries, and there-fore this migratory issue has been included in the continental agenda.

THE MOST SIGNIFICANT UNCONVENTIONAL THREATSBOX 4


are leading to a de-facto system that providesnew solutions to new problems and strives to at-tain greater levels of governance for the conti-nent, within the security context .

From a conceptual perspective, the main ele-ments that form this developing system are thefollowing:

a) DemocracyDemocracy has been adopted as political sys-tem by nearly all the countries of the Amer-ican continent. Within this context and inspite of the existing differences in the degreeof progress towards the consolidation ofdemocratic regimes, the countries of the re-gion have developed numerous initiativeswithin the framework of the Organization ofAmerican States (OAS) and, later, within thewider context of the America SummitsProcess, directed towards the promotion andstrengthening of democracy and humanrights observance as the political bases thatfavor stability and security in the continent.This process has had several salient pointsduring later years, of which the approval ofthe Santiago Commitment and OAS Democ-ratic Charter are worthy of mention.

The existence of democracy does not inher-ently eliminate the risk of conflict or guar-antee predictability in the international per-formance of states. However the internation-al historical records indicate that democracyoffers better conditions for achieving peaceand stability than other political regimes, aswell as greater assurance that countries willbind their mutual relations to more pre-dictable patterns of behavior. This is due tothe characteristics of the democratic system.Through the division of the powers of theState, control mechanisms and their balance,submission of authority to public scrutinyand the regulations of the ConstitutionalState, democracy reduces the possibilitiesthat decisions will be left to the discretion ofa one-person government.

In accordance with the Summit process, theOAS has achieved important agreements onthe control of drug trafficking, especiallythrough the multilateral certification mecha-nism and the set of agreements whose su-pervision was established at the Interameri-can Commission for Drug Abuse Control (IC-DAC), after the Santiago Summit. The samecan be said with respect to the agreements

achieved that encompass a wide spectrum ofissues related to transparency in the acquisi-tion of conventional weapons(1999) and con-trol of light arms trafficking (1997).

With the coming of the 21st Century, the ex-perience accumulated on the American con-tinent during the past decade tends to con-firm the above. Despite the economic and in-stitutional difficulties that began to affectseveral countries by the end of the 1990s,democratic regimes have continued to existon the continent, favoring a relatively morestable continental environment. Also con-tributing to this purpose is the idea that themaintenance of a stable international andcontinental setting is a factor that works infavor of achieving the internal stability nec-essary for the consolidation of democracyand which is a requisite for insertion into anunavoidable globalization process; particu-larly in order to be able to participate in re-gional and subregional integration processesthat can improve each country’s possibilitiesfor taking part in globalization where com-petition among the different economies ofthe world has not disappeared.

The effectiveness of democracy has thus beenacquiring a growing strategic importance andhas been institutionalized through the incor-poration of democratic clauses in Inter-Amer-ican institutions, as well as in integrationagreements including bilateral agreements.

b) Cooperative Regimes of SecurityThe decline in conflict situations amongcountries of the continent, which becameclear during the 1990s, has created an oppor-tunity for a significant increase in the will tocooperate among states and to advance to-wards an environment of security for all, i.e.,founded on the basis of shared perception in-stead of on the concept of a security associ-ated with a specific global strategy.

Within the scope of the inter-state securityagenda, there are at least two principles thatenjoy a growing consensus and are per-ceived as the driving force behind the evolu-tion of cooperative relations: the will tomake intentions and capabilities transparentand the will to reduce the perception of mu-tual threat through initiatives that facilitatedevelopment in bordering areas, mutual con-fidence measures (MCM) and armamentcontrol agreements (See Box 5).


PRINCIPLES OF CONTINENTAL COOPERATIONTransparencyWithin the scope of transparency, it has already been mentioned that countries are making important progress withthe publication or preparation of their books of defense.

Another effort to this end has been the development of common standard methodologies for measuring defensespending among the countries of the continent. Some of them, like the USA and Canada apply a methodology in usewithin NATO (i.e., an extra-continental alliance). However, no standard method accepted by two or more countries ofthe continent for comparing their respective defense spending existed until 2001. In 1997, after discussing the possi-bility of promoting such an initiative, Chile and Argentina approved a Common Standardized Methodology forMeasuring Defense Spending, designed by the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)in 2001. Subsequently, during the first half of 2002, Chile initiated similar efforts with Peru for the same purpose.

There is also a transparency system with respect to conventional arms acquired or owned. Even though its regulationsare not compulsory, Chile sends annual reports to the conventional arms registers that are kept by the UN and OAS.

Mutual Confidence Measures (MCM)In the strictly military sphere the continent has seen an increase in the application of Mutual Confidence Measures(MCM), with the objective of attenuating the perception of mutual threats, as well as of avoiding situations that couldgenerate crises due to unexpectedness or error, thus favoring the political stability of the countries that establish them.

In broad outlines, MCMs are conditions that may or may not generate an international system.Taking into accountthat MCMs are not suppletory measures of defense, they cannot be conceived in such a way as to undermine thedissuasive effect of the defensive system itself, which would weaken the Defense system’s capability to safeguardnational possessions.

In order to produce a useful effect, they must be conceived as a means and not as an end in themselves. In addition,their special nature should be reinforced: the fact that they are applicable to concrete cases aimed at addressing“new destabilizing factors”, such as unconventional threats. After analyzing and evaluating results, these measuresshould form part of the preparation of an international system of security through which countries would bindthemselves to universal and interrelated regulations to deal with conflicts.

Arms Control Arms control is a mechanism that helps to eliminate the possibility of conflicts thus facilitating the stability of theregion.

The international community has negotiated only one multilateral instrument dealing with conventional weapons,called the “Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May BeDeemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects”. The Convention was opened for signature in1981 and entered in force at the end of 1983.To date Chile is not a party to the convention but its signing of the con-vention is under legislative discussion.

It should be noted that other weapons of mass destruction are not only nuclear in nature, but also bacteriologicaland chemical. Even though it is a country which does not produce these types of weapons, Chile has signed the fol-lowing conventions which regulate their use: the “Convention on Chemical Weapons” signed in 1993 and ratified in1996, and the “Convention on Bacteriological (Biological) Weapons”, signed in 1972 and ratified in 1980.

In addition, Latin America has benefited indirectly from the “Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons”(TNP), which made it a nuclear-weapon-free zone. Chile ratified this treaty in May of 1995.

Chile consolidated its condition as a nuclear-weapon-free zone through the Tlatelolco Treaty.This treaty not only bansnuclear weapons but also freezes atomic development for military use at the level that each country had reached atthe moment the treaty took effect. In this way it reduces the effects of disparity of military atomic development.Nevertheless, scientific development and the peaceful use of atomic energy do not oppose these treaties to whichChile is a party.

BOX 5


2.4. Interamerican Security Institutions

A very important feature of the evolution of se-curity on the American continent has been theemergence, since the 1980s, of a greater varietyof institutional forms than existed earlier. Theseforms have in fact been shaping a new architec-ture of cooperative security that provides agreater relative degree of governance to the con-tinent. Today it is clear that the security institu-tions of the continent are not restricted to thoseestablished in the Río Agreement, in particularthe Interamerican Treaty of Mutual Assistance(TIAR). In this sense the collective security sys-tem is only a portion of a wider, growing and in-terrelated network of collective security regimes.

This provides a more functional system to dealwith the array of security problems faced by thecontinent: those linked to the perception of con-ventional threats as well as those related to un-conventional risks.

The shaping of this new security architecturehas been guided by two criteria: the type of se-curity problems to which it responds (conven-tional or unconventional) and their scope.

Thus, for example, during the 1990s a significantnumber of the countries of the continent havesigned and/or ratified the most relevant interna-tional instruments of the United Nations Systemon matters such as nonproliferation and limita-tion of weapons of mass destruction. Likewise,many countries of the continent have signed oth-er international instruments, such as the Con-vention on Antipersonnel Mines or the treaty onMissile Technology Control, and many have co-incided with the growing interest in increasingtheir contributions to peacekeeping operationsof the United Nations.

With respect to the traditional security agenda,on the initiative of Chile and other countries, theOAS organized two regional conferences to fosterMutual Confidence Measures, one in 1995 andthe other in 1999. Based on these, a monitoringmechanism has followed, which is added to theconflict prevention instruments establishedwithin the Interamerican system and the UnitedNations.

3. THE REGIONAL CONTEXT

The difficulties that emerged on the continent inthe late 1990s, particularly in some of its regions,are associated with serious economic uncertain-ties and the perception of the electorate thatmany public and private institutions were notadequately addressing their demands in socialissues or dealing with phenomena, such as cor-ruption, that pervert the use of goods of specialsensitiveness to society. Even though these diffi-culties do not affect all American countries,some of them could reach a situation of socialanomaly and institutional uncertainty that im-pairs the stability that all countries need to de-velop sustainable political, economic and socialmodels.

However, such difficulties have not been trans-ferred to the sphere of security and, in fact, thedecline in conflict situations between states hasbeen of particular relevance in the South Ameri-can region. A first stage was to surmount si-tua-tions of rivalry or conflict that affected relationson the Southern Cone area or subregion, partic-ularly between Argentina and Brazil, as well asbetween Argentina and Chile. This process start-ed in the mid 1980s and continued during the1990s.13 The conclusion of the Peru-Ecuador dis-pute was added to the change in strategic rela-tions between Argentina, Brazil and Chile. Fur-thermore, in 1999 some outstanding clauses ofthe 1929 Treaty and its Complementary Protocol,between Chile and Peru, were finally met.

A set of agreements of regional scope has alsohelped to strengthen the inter-state securityframework in South America. The Río Group,acting as a consensus mechanism, has held rele-vant dialogues on matters such as nonprolifera-tion, disarmament, military spending, the envi-ronment, humanitarian operations and drug traf-ficking.

On the other hand, the experience acquired dur-ing these last two decades has demonstrated thatsecurity policies must encompass the diversityand specific rationale of the different regions ofthe continent. Accepting the fact that these re-gions have their own distinctive driving forces, ithas been possible to develop, within the field ofsecurity, some particularly effective policies for

✪ 13 Chile and Argentina signed a Peace and Friendship Treaty in 1984, and Argentina and Brazil agreed, in 1991, on a control policy for nuclear sub-stances, which comes into effect through the Brazil-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Material (ABACC).


conflict resolution or to expand cooperation atregional or subregional levels. The momentumof integration processes can be seen in differentregions of the continent.

Important advances can also be seen in the sub-regional sphere, as is the case of the AndeanCommunity and of the MERCOSUR zone. In thislatter case, of special relevance to us, Chile ex-pressed its political will to contribute to the sub-regional cooperative effort when it decided tojoin MERCOSUR in 1996, in spite of the fact thatit has propitiated a policy of openness to foreigntrade with the region and in spite of having aneconomic policy with features that distinguish itfrom the economic principles of the bloc.

Although the context of the present difficultiesaffecting some member countries makesprogress towards newer forms of inter-state rela-tions more complex, the truth is that MERCO-SUR has acquired the characteristics of a subre-gional opportunity for convergence that can beuseful in addressing security issues, such as thecase of the issuance in 1998, of the “MERCOSUR,Bolivia and Chile Statement as a Zone of Peace”.The challenge is to develop opportunities for co-ordination and political cooperation for theachievement of common objectives.

It is indisputable that cooperation at the bilaterallevel has been important to the positive changesin the subregional context, in some cases eveninfluencing the entire region, as were the casesof the Argentina-Brazil agreement on nuclearmatters and the Chile-Argentina cooperation inthe field of mutual trust and transparency.

4. THE NEIGHBORING CONTEXT

From the late 1980s and during the 1990s theAmerican countries of the Southern Cone stroveto achieve political changes and to renew theirdevelopment policies, an initiative that has hadpositive effects within the field of security andDefense, with special characteristics in eachcountry. Some of the significant progressachieved in this field has been the result of sin-gular bilateral goodwill agreements. Further-more, the changes that have taken place in de-velopment models, from closed economies to-wards a constant opening of economies, haveopened new horizons for cooperation and associ-ations between neighboring countries, which al-so have an effect on the field of security and De-fense. All of this certainly represents a historical

transformation in the strategic relations of theSouthern Cone.

4.1. Chile and Argentina

In a little over a decade Chile and Argentinahave moved the focus of their relations towardscooperation, association and integration.

This change has had significant effects in thefield of security and Defense. With relationsmoving from discord towards association, thecenter of strategic relations has also moved to-wards cooperation in identifying shared interestsin this stage of globalization, integration andachievement of common objectives.

During these years, the progress experiencedthrough this bilateral process in the area of De-fense has been founded on two main pillars thathave taken shape gradually: the building of trustand the search for relations of association.

a) The Building of TrustTrust has been developed in the fields of For-eign Policy and Defense, and in this case,within the field of military policy.

In the setting of the American continent, thebilateral agenda of Chile and Argentina doesnot have pending border issues. On theAntarctic continent, the territories of bothcountries overlap by 21 geographical de-grees, between longitudes 53º and 74º,where the border has not yet been defined.The two nations have mutually recognizedtheir sovereignty between longitude 25º and90º West, in compliance with the Vergara-LaRosa Declaration of March 4, 1948. In theAntarctic region not yet defined the two na-tions agreed to act with a spirit of coopera-tion. In 1984, with the mediation of PopeJohn Paul II, the Treaty of Peace and Friend-ship was signed, by which they definitivelymoved out of one of the most difficult andrisky periods of bilateral relations, throughthe observance of international law and con-solidating the explicit commitment of bothcountries to abstain from using force. In1991, the Presidents of Chile and Argentinareached an agreement on 22 of the 24 borderpoints under litigation. In this agreementthey also agreed to submit the controversy ofLaguna del Desierto to arbitration. The arbi-tration award came in 1994, and was dulyobeyed. Lastly, the two nations signed in theAgreement to precisely define the border


line between Monte Fitz Roy and CerroDaudet at Campo de Hielo Sur December of1998 and their Congresses ratified it in 1999.

Efforts made during the bilateral process ofconsolidating trust were initially focused oninitiatives directed towards stabilizing strict-ly military relations between both countries.These tasks took much of the first half of the1990s. During the second half of the decadefurther progress was reached, several pro-posals were made in other relevant areas ofDefense and from 1995 onwards both coun-tries began to institutionalize relationships ofcooperation within this field.14

b) Political Association and Common PoliciesThe second pillar on which the bilateral de-fense relations with the Argentine have de-veloped has been one of a gradual conver-gence of policies in this field, on the basis ofan enlarged agenda on common objectiveswithin the context of globalization and inte-gration processes.

Chile and Argentina have tended towards agrowing convergence in defense matters of aworld scope. One example is the importanceassigned to the maintenance and building ofinternational peace under the mandate ofthe United Nations. This has made it possibleto carry out military exercises directed to-wards achieving greater cooperative opera-tions between the two forces.

Both countries have also been able to coordi-nate common endeavors intended to consoli-date post Cold War stability in the region. Forexample they have promoted the banning ofweapons of mass destruction and have alsoplayed important roles in the course of theConferences of Ministers of Defense of theAmericas –the second conference was heldin Argentina (Bariloche, 1995) and Chile or-ganized the fifth (Santiago, 2002, see Box 6)15–and in the promotion of mutual trust both atthe meeting of experts in Buenos Aires (1994)and the Conference of Santiago (1995).Within the subregional sphere, cooperationbetween the two governments has acquired

✪ 14 The institutional mechanisms established are described in Part III, Chapter III.15 The 5th Conference of Ministers of Defense of the Americas was held in Santiago, Chile, November 13-22, 2002. During the conferencethe “Declaration of Santiago” on the security of the American region was approved.

DECLARATION OF SANTIAGOApproved at the 5th Conference of Ministers ofDefense of the Americas, the Declaration of San-tiago sets forth a list of cooperative recommen-dations for dealing effectively with the new secu-rity problems within the region. These include:

!The regard of democracy and its institutions as essential elements for the security of the American continent.

!The importance of constitutional subordination of the Armed and Security Forces to the legitimately constituted civil authorities of each State.

!The adoption of effective policies to reduce poverty as a significant contribution towards agreater democratic stability and security in theAmerican region.

!The rejection of all forms of terrorism and the increase of international cooperation for addressing it jointly.

!The confirmation that the region is gradually progressing towards a sophisticated security system, formed by a network of traditional andnew institutions and security regimes, both collective and cooperative of a hemispheric,regional, subregional and bilateral scope and that a new architecture of flexible security hasbeen taking form.

!The suitability of progressing in updating and systematizing the common principles for the security of the region.

!Full accession to the International HumanitarianLaw, with the consequent strengthening of the introduction, integration and continuity of education programs about Human Rights and the International Humanitarian Law within the professional education process of the armed and security forces.

!The promotion of the publication of Defense Books, in accordance with the specific situation of each State.

!The promotion of transparency in the Defense budgeting process, as well as strict compliancewith requirements for submitting data to the United Nations Standardized Report on Military Spending.

!The increase in the scope and efficacy of the Measures to Promote Mutual Trust and Securityamong States, especially the implementation ofcombined exercises of the Armed Forces.

BOX 6


great importance through proposals rangingfrom fighting terrorism to protecting the airand Antarctic environments.

In the strictly military sphere, in 1999 the naviesof Chile and Argentina began combined Antarc-tic navy patrols. Both navies also signed anagreement for the joint production of navalunits. The first result of these agreements wasthe overhauling, at the Shipyard and Workshopsof the Chilean Navy (ASMAR), of the destroyerHércules, the flag-ship of the Argentine Navy.Both cases are an excellent example of the po-tential of military cooperation as a way of achiev-ing common policy objectives.

4.2. Chile and Peru

A close and fruitful relation with Peru is a high-ly important objective to Chile, considering thegeographic proximity and the potential for eco-nomic development which integration offers toboth countries.

Chile and Peru have expressed coinciding pointsof view on different issues of global and regionalinterest, especially after signing the Minutes ofthe Chile-Peru Mixed Commission responsiblefor the verification of the position of border markN°1 and to demarcate the maritime boundary, ofAugust 19, 1969.

In later years, both countries have achieved newprogress. The “Act of Execution” of the Treaty of1929 and its Regulations, signed in 1999 underthe provisions of Article 5 of that Treaty and Ar-ticle 2 of its Complementary Protocol, as well asthe unveiling of the Christ of the Concord atMorro de Arica, in 2000, were milestones in theirrelations.

In the Joint Declaration of the Presidents ofChile and Peru signed on July 30, 2001, theHeads of State of both countries agreed that thetwo countries are called to develop exceptionaland permanent links within the framework of anassociated strategy founded on the two govern-ments will for cooperation and coordination, onshared principles, values and objectives, on theirneighboring status and on a common view of thefuture of their respective peoples, with the pur-pose of promoting regional development and in-tegration. In particular they agreed to strengthenand intensify cooperation and mutual trust rela-tions within the scope of security and defenseand agreed to develop an “homologation”process in their respective defense spending

measurement systems.

On this occasion, the Heads of State arranged forthe introduction of the “Two plus Two Meetings”with the establishment of a Permanent Advisoryand Political Coordination Committee comprisedof the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Defense ofboth countries. They also agreed upon the estab-lishment of a Defense and Security Committee(COSEDE), comprised of high-level officials ofthe Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Defense ofeach country, including the Armed Forces.

To date, this Committee has met twice: in Chile(Santiago, October 25, 2001), when they ap-proved the “Memorandum of Understanding be-tween the Republic of Chile and the Republic ofPeru for the Strengthening of Cooperation inMatters of Mutual Interest concerning Securityand Defense”, and in Peru (Lima, March 26,2002), when it agreed to establish a workinggroup to start preparing a common methodologyfor measuring defense spending.

On August 23, 2002 the Presidents of Chile andPeru met in Santiago and signed a Joint Declara-tion and several bilateral agreements. One ofthem established the terms of reference to beused as a basis in the work of the experts re-sponsible for preparing a proposal on a standardcommon methodology for measuring defensespending.

4.3. Chile and Bolivia

Relations with Bolivia are characterized by thesustained efforts made by the Presidents of bothcountries to hold talks for the purpose of achiev-ing a higher level of cordiality and understand-ing on a wide variety of issues concerning devel-opment on the basis of the essential frameworkof these bilateral relations.

As a result, these conversations have reaffirmedthe principles, treaties and agreements that sus-tain these relations, in accordance with whichthere are no outstanding territorial issues be-tween the two countries. In turn, the free transitregime at the ports of Arica and Antofagasta,which benefits Bolivia, based on the Peace andFriendship Treaty of 1904, constitutes a basic is-sue to consi-der in these bilateral relations.

Since 2000, the meetings of both Presidents with-in the framework of multila-teral summit meet-ings in Brasilia, Québec, Santiago, Lima and SanJosé de Costa Rica, reveal that relations have


reached a stage that allows for progress in theanalysis of different subjects of mutual interest.Both Presidents have taken several steps towardsrestoring trust and thereby developing differentinitiatives that will help to initiate developmentpossibilities to mutual advantage. On these occa-sions, specific issues of mutual interest havebeen analyzed, such as those concerning energy,mining, water resources, infrastructures linkedto transport, cooperation in agricultural mattersand regional and local cooperation.

These presidential meetings have also led tomeetings on different technical issues, includingthe Border Committee, Political Meetings, theJoint Commission against the Drug Traffickingand negotiations on a Treaty for the Exchange ofConvicts.

Today Chile and Bolivia have relations in thefields of politics, economics, national bordersand culture, which represent ongoing work byvarious bilateral bodies and coordinated effortsin different forums of regional integration. With-in this context the effective establishment ofphysical interconnection corridors with Bolivia,as well as project to establish a framework agree-ment for energy interconnection, are worthy of

mention. These are some of the efforts that worktowards closer relations in the fields of politics,economics and strategy.

An unprecedented event worthy of note is thevisit paid by the Commander in Chief of theArmy of each country at the Conferences ofAmerican Armies (CEA), when these have beenheld in Bolivia and Chile, respectively.

Within this general framework, there is frequentinteraction with Bolivian government officials inactivities related to defense — such as academicand professional events. Bolivia also participatesin FIDAE (International Fair on Air and Space)which takes place every other year in Santiago.The Air Force Hospital has also treated severalmembers of the Bolivian Armed Forces and inthe field of industry ENAER (Chile’s NationalAeronautics Enterprise) has done some work onair force equipment for the Bolivian Air Force.

❦


3. International Conflicts

States, the basic political units of inter-

national relations, interact within an

international system that humans have

gradually made progress in regulating.

However, in this environment states

are not free from threats that may

sometimes interfere with their normal

development. This suggests that con-

flicts continue to be one of the ele-

ments that put pressure on world envi-

ronment.

1. RISKS AND THREATS

Debate about what the concept of securityshould entail in our contemporary world revealsthe importance of the concept of threats to de-fense policy matters.

Threats, understood as real or perceived actions,provoked consciously or unconsciously, by a po-tential enemy who presumed to have the inten-tion and capacity to affect our own interests neg-atively, has always been considered the centralelement in the structuring of a nation’s defense.In effect, Defense begins by establishing what isto be protected, which are the risks or threats tothe object to be defended, when this defense ac-tion should take place, and then, defining themeans through which defense will act.

However, this approach leads to a conceptualdistortion of the notion of threat. Although it hasa strong influence in Defense planning, it doesnot encompass the entire spectrum of situationsthat modern Defense should consider. There are

some fields within the scope of action of Defensethat are not necessarily determined by threats,such as those that deal with cooperation and theinternational commitments a State must assumein a world where some contemporary processes,such as globalization, require cooperative behav-ior. Hence the importance of identifying the op-portunities in which it is possible to act coopera-tively in search for peace.

An adequate understanding of threat demandsthat it be considered in conjunction with otherconcepts, which today form part of the interestsof the nation.

A series of current phenomena has led to the de-sign of an international security agenda that ismore varied and sophisticated. These issueshave been analyzed in previous chapters. Sufficeis to point out here that this type of pheno-menon includes such items as the diversificationof the actors who play a part in the internationalsystem; the emergence of new problems associ-ated with or derived from the globalization


process; the fact that crises are emerging as a re-current type of conflict and, lastly, the strategicchanges that are becoming appa-rent at the be-ginning of the 21st century. It can then be saidthat the complexity of the international securityagenda reveals a reality where traditional ele-ments of international conflicts are mixed to-gether with other elements that are not neces-sarily new but which have acquired unprece-dented features in the light of the changes in theinternational setting following the end of theCold War.

On the other hand, globalization has developedon the basis of a qualitative advancement of in-formation technologies, which has introducedchanges in the field of strategy that can be sum-marized under the heading of “Revolution in Mil-itary Affairs”. These changes have produced anenormous gap, or differences in capabilities,among the states that produce high technologyand those states that depend on it. Among thelatter, some countries or groups of countries sup-ported by them have tended to design strategiesthat allow them to achieve their objectives with-out becoming involved in open conflict within asetting that favors the countries that possessstate-of-the-art technology. This is how “asym-metric” threats have emerged.

All this has required nations to not only set asidethe view of a threat as an element isolated fromother components of national interest, but to beopen to new definitions of threats in addition tothose considered as “traditional ” or convention-al. Some of these new types of threats are thosecalled “emerging” or unconventional threats andthey also include asymmetrical threats such asthose against the United States and other coun-tries, and even some in our own region.

1.1. Conventional Threats

Conventional threats to countries in the Americ-as are linked to security situations that have af-flicted relations between them since the 19thCentury. Classified as of state origin, they gener-ally have to do with conflicts between states of aterritorial or sovereignty nature. The existenceof situations of this type, which can becomethreats, is not a thing of the past within the con-temporary world or the region. That is to say, thecurrent international situation and the emer-gence of new types of threats, does not rule outtraditional threats.

Traditional threats can have an internal or exter-

nal origin:a) Internal ThreatsInternal threats are those that emerge in-side a country and affect both the normalfunctioning of legitimately established in-stitutions and coexistence and national de-velopment. It is common practice for dem-ocratic states to have available an array ofnonmilitary instruments to meet thesethreats, the use of which is constitutionallyand legally regulated, as well as the poten-tial intervention of national militaryforces.16 Therefore this type of threat is ofinterest here only to the extent to whichthey can generate situations of internalcrises that may result in internationalcrises affecting sovereignty or the territoryand triggering the political and/or militaryintervention of third parties for their reso-lution or control.

b) External ThreatsExternal threats are those that affect the Stateand originate outside its borders. Behindthem is a political will –either state or non-state in character– to cause a specific effectand they are therefore deliberate actions.

1.2. Non-conventional Threats

Unconventional threats are characterized by situa-tions not necessarily linked to states. Many of themare situations of a social or transnational nature.

The existence of these threats introduces a factorof conceptual difficulty because they combinetypically domestic issues with external securityconsiderations, or they influence a nation’s do-mestic environment and spread from there tothe international arena. This implies the need todefine clearly the role that the Armed Forcesshould play in these matters.

In this respect, there is consensus in Chile re-garding the idea that unconventional threatsgenerally constitute security-related problemsrather than Defense ones. Consequently, Chileshould deal with them through the Order andSecurity Forces. The role reserved for the ArmedForces is to offer their support to State authori-ties and to the police forces in these matters, incompliance with the rules of law currently inforce. With regard to the international sphere,the defense policy supports the nation’s foreign

✪ 16 For the case of Chile, see Part I, Chapter I.


policy in that it should address these threatsthrough interstate cooperation under establishedagreements.

These are threats that do not originate fromsources equivalent to the state that is challenged,but although their perpetrators are militarily in-ferior, they can cause serious damage to a state.They are characterized by their high degree ofunpredictability.

Some of the significant issues in unconventionalthreats discussed in the region during the lastfew years are:

a) The Difficulty of a Single AgendaThe principle of the 1997 National DefenseBook –that unconventional threats do not af-fect states in the same way or with the sameintensity– has been confirmed in recentyears. In effect, the impact of these issues oneach country varies in accordance with theperspective of each State.

For this reason, it is difficult to establish asingle agenda on new threats for the conti-nent.

b) Ordering of PrioritiesJust as it is difficult to establish a single agen-da for unconventional threats for the entirecontinent, setting priorities in addressingthem is also a complex task. Even if regionaldiscussions established the use of a singleagenda, the fact that emerging threats have adifferent urgency or priority for each coun-try would be difficult to avoid.

This is why prevention and international co-operation presently appear to be the best andmost effective way available for addressingthis type of threat facing the continent.

c) Diversified ResponseEven though no country is exempt a priorifrom the danger of unconventional threats,even asymmetric threats, their impact onthe countries of the continent varies in func-tion of constants such as geographical loca-tion and size, or variables such as strategicimportance or the range of the State’s mate-rial and human resources. Therefore, theway in which each country deals with themand joins international commitments to pre-vent or combat them is also different.

2. PREVENTION AND REACTION

In order to cope with different threats, countriesadopt precautionary and reaction measures inthe form of public policies aimed at preventingor combating each situation that can be detectedin the described scenarios. For each kind ofthreat, the State will prepare a public policy forprevention and reaction, with the necessarycomponents to implement the processes of deci-sion-making and actions required to counteracttheir effect.

2.1. Conventional Threats: Prevention andReaction

In general, countries identify potential situationsin which conventional threats could materialize.These potential situations have been labeled“conflicts hypothesis” and are generally charac-terized by:

!Their origin varies based on their wolrdgeographical location.!The identification of a hypothetical con-flict is different from its probability of occur-rence.!Within the context of interaction and co-operation, the probability of a hypotheticalconflict materializing decreases and this de-crease, in turn, stimulates the will to identi-fy new opportunities for interaction and co-operation.

Although “conflicts hypothesis” have a low rateof probability in the region, they still constitutepotential situations and, therefore entail a poten-tial risk. These potential threats persist for His-panic nations, either as unresolved border de-marcation problems arising from the administra-tive structure of the Spanish Empire, which wastransferred to the newly independent nations, orfrom antagonisms resulting from armed conflictsbetween them or between one of them and an-other country, or as a consequence of or associ-ated with a propo-sal to review current treatiesor differences in the interpretation of instru-ments, particularly if they have been executed.

The integration and cooperation processes in dif-ferent areas of the American continent, whichbegan at the end of the 20th century and stillcontinue, have been accompanied by the chal-lenge of generating trust so as to remove thoseelements that make for potential conflict inthose areas and to promote progress towardscloser relations between states. This process,


which could eventually resolve these potentialconflicts, progresses at varying rates, since it de-pends on the political will of states to promote itsprogress.

In this process, the Armed Forces can play an ac-tive role in establishing new ties of cooperationwithin its sphere of action, but they must not de-viate from the constitutional role which the Stateassigns to them.

In this sense it does not seem appropriate to re-duce the use of Armed Forces in cases of tradi-tional potential conflicts, which have varying de-grees of effect and validity. The Armed Forcesact in compliance with the guidelines of a De-fense Policy that is closely related to the coun-try’s foreign policy and both must follow the gen-eral direction of the Head of State in order to en-sure an environment of peace that will allow thenation to make progress in ensuring the nationalwelfare.

2.2. Non-conventional Threats: Prevention andReaction

In addition to seeing unconventional threats assecurity rather than Defense issues, with theconsequent effects that this view implies for theuse of police and military forces, the State ofChile’s approach to the challenges they posetakes the following elements into account:

!Within the current international context, theState of Chile favors cooperation among states asa means of dealing with this type of threat.!This approach requires implementing a na-tional intelligence system, which is presentlyunder development.!Defining which situations are consideredthreats to the security of the country and whatpriority should be assigned to dealing with themis an exclusive right of the Chilean State.

Based on this approach and the dynamics of in-ternational events, Chile has signed a number ofagreements related to international terrorism.The most recent of these are a direct expressionof the our country’s commitment to the interna-tional effort against terrorism that has gatheredmomentum after the attacks perpetrated againstWashington D.C. and New York on September 11,2002 and round out the set of international con-ventions and protocols that Chile signed earlieron the same subject (See Box 7).

✪ 17 “Crisis management” is a means of dealing with situations thatcould escalate in varying degrees but without resorting to a gener-alized use of military force.

3. TYPES OF CONFLICTS

The origin of international conflicts can be foundin the existence of opposing interests amongstates, between a state and a social or politicalgroup, or between social or political groupsthemselves. These opposing interests can be re-lated to historical, ethnic, social, religious, eco-nomic or ideological factors. So then, it is geopo-litical reasons, economic interests or political ac-tions that most frequently produce an interna-tional conflict, even when something else is theapparent cause.

Conflicts generally fall under one of two basiccategories: crisis or war, although it is perfectlypossible for one to turn into the other with no re-lation of continuity. In any case, the analysispresented in this Part II reveals that the type ofconflict that could appear in the region in the fu-ture is that of crisis.

3.1. International Crisis

Crisis is a conflict of limited intensity involvingactors in the international system attempting toachieve certain objectives through pressures ornegotiations without resorting to confrontationsor a generalized use of force.

From a political perspective, a crisis may occurfor different reasons. The factors that can set it inmotion may be found in the sphere of relationsbetween states, but it can also have its causes inthe country’s domestic environment and mani-fest itself as an international crisis. This is thesituation addressed here, when the situationbrings about the involvement of third parties.

It is important to stress that not all of the causesof crises are necessarily controlled by the actorsinvolved. Herein lies the difficulty in dealingwith crises.17 However, it may be the case thatone of the actors thinks he will benefit or achievehis objectives if he moves his relations with oth-er actors towards a crisis situation. Along theselines, history has recorded actions taken by oth-er states with the deliberate purpose of trigger-ing a crisis situation, which they will use as a po-litical instrument to achieve their objectives.


History also teaches us that this type of behaviorcan only meet with success if such a behaviordoes not lead to war, that is to say, that the in-terests at work are not of vital importance to theactor or to the other challenged actors, so thatwhen faced with implicit or potential punish-ment, the latter would resign themselves to sur-render to the pressures or demands received.

Even though the defining conditions of a crisisexclude or limit the use of force, its use should al-ways be considered. In this same way, for manydifferent reasons there will always be the riskthat the situation will not be resolved, but willescalate into a generalized use of military force.One of the most important features of a crisis isprecisely the degree of uncertainty as to its ef-fects, outcome, conclusion or escalation.

The use of the concept of crisis in all its com-plexity, and methods of crisis management, re-quires coherent, uniform conceptual criteria atall levels of Defense. At the strategic level it is al-so essential to have clear, well-defined rules ofengagement.

3.2. War

War is a conflict in which the vital interests of acountry are under threat. It is the most extremeof conflicts and commits the entire potential ofthe country to action.

War does not spring up suddenly; it is usuallypreceded by a situation of crisis. The lack ofagreement in a crisis situation may lead to an es-calation, which can in turn lead to the general-ized use of force to achieve the desired objec-tives.

In war, once hostilities have been initiated, theuse of military force gains in importance as thecentral element of a country’s response. Defini-tively, the role of the Armed Forces is nothingmore and nothing less than to crush the will tofight of the enemy forces, which can be achievedeither through complete defeat or by placingthem in a situation in which it would be com-pletely useless to continue fighting.

AGREEMENTS RELATED TO INTERNATIONAL TERRORISMa) Agreements signed by Chile since 2001!International Convention for the Suppression

of Terrorist Bombings, New York, December 1997 (R: September 13, 2002).

!International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, New York,December 1999 (R: November 10, 2001).

!Inter-American Convention for the Prevention and Elimination of Terrorism, Barbados,signed on June 3, 2002.

b) Agreements to which Chile has been a partysince 1974!Convention on Offences and Certain Other

Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, Tokyo September 14, 1963 (S: January 24, 1974).

!Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, The Hague, December 16,1970 (R: February 2, 1972).

!Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation,Montreal, September 23, 1971 (S: February 24, 1974).

!Convention on the Prevention and Punishmentof Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, New York, December 14, 1973 (S: January 21, 1977).

!International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, New York, December 18, 1979 (R: November 12, 1981).

!Convention on Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials, Vienna, October 26, 1979 (R: April 27,1994).

!Protocol on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, Montreal, February 24, 1988 (R: August 15, 1989).

!Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, Rome, March 19, 1988 (R: April 22, 1994).

!Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, Rome, March 10,1988 (R: April 22, 1994).

!Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection,Montreal, March 1, 1991 (R: August 2, 2000).

S: Signed. R: Ratified.

BOX 7

❦


4. The Geostrategic Challenge

Chile’s geography has peculiar features

that require careful study considering

its defense. The variety of the geo-

graphical features within our territory

comprise geostrategic characteristics

that must be considered in designing

and implementing the National Defense

Policy. They affect both its infrastruc-

ture and the deployment of its Armed

Forces during peacetime.

1. THE GEOSTRATEGIC PERSPECTIVE

From a geostrategic perspective, the followingare some of the factors involved in planning forDefense:

1.1. The terrestrial factor

The nation’s continental territory in the shape ofa long narrow strip is one of the most importantfactors to consider. It requires making a choice asto where to concentrate the nation’s defense ef-forts, since it is impossible to distribute forcesalong the entire length of such an extensive bor-der. Also, the need to ration manpower andequipment increases as the distances betweenextreme regions increases the difficulty of exe-cuting strategic maneuvers. Lastly, the narrow-ness of the territory located on the South Ameri-can continental shelf implies a lack of strategictransversal depth which makes it very difficult tocarry out any east-west defensive action.

Access to the opposite ends of the country is dif-ficult: the North at one end (Regions I, II andIII) encompasses the world’s most arid desertand the South, at the other end (Regions XI andXII) has no land link to the central area of thecountry.

The differences in climate and terrain requiredifferent acclimatization and training for person-nel and different equipment for the different re-gions of the country, all of which makes mobi-lization and training of reserve personnel moredifficult. This situation also entails logistic diffi-culties, since it requires maintaining equipmentand materials that adapt to different altitudesand weather conditions. The result is a need fora significant investment in personnel and equip-ment.

The unequal distribution of the population andthe low densities at opposite ends of the countryrequire considering the transfer of manpowerand material resources from the central zone


(Regions V through VIII) to those areas, makingmaintenance and training of reserve forces moredifficult.

The country’s long, narrow shape and its roughterrain pose serious challenges to the network ofhighways, and affect operational and logistictransportation, which implies countless provi-sions of all sorts, especially those resulting fromnational mobilization.

Due to these factors, National Defense has longhad to maintain personnel and equipment per-manently deployed at the extreme ends of thecountry, a situation that cannot be changed untilthere is a substantial change in the variables thatmake this condition imperative.

1.2. The maritime factor

The portions of the ocean of interest to the coun-try –as described in previous sections on Chile’socean territory and the analysis of Chile’s terri-tory and population,18– are of vital importance toits development, since the greatest portion of itsimports and exports flow through it.

The following are some of the factors involved indefense of Chile’s ocean territory:

The narrowness of the national territory and thedifficulty and lack of flexibility of surface and airroutes, makes it necessary to perform the major-ity of operational, military forces and adminis-trative and logistical support services transporta-tion by sea, making use of the national sea linesof communications.

The strategic importance of the straits betweenoceans in the south constitute a daunting taskthat must be taken into account in the develop-ment of any situation involving National Securi-ty and which affects the strategic deployment ofthe naval force.

The vast size of Chile’s ocean territory forces itsnavy to make a substantial effort to safeguard thenation’s sovereignty and provide life-saving mis-sions, as well as to control the passage of vesselsthat may carry substances that are hazardous tohuman health as well as to the environment, incompliance with international regulations.

Guaranteeing communication by sea, both do-

mestic and international, is a strategic impera-tive if a situation of crisis or conflict occurs, sinceinterruption of these links would cause prob-lems, in a relatively short period of time, thatwould affect the very survival of the country aswell as jeopardize the vital support of its north-ern and southern tips.

The situations described above do not only re-quire the demanding and traditional tasks of pro-tecting our sovereignty against a military threatthat may reach us by sea, or protecting the searoutes for military or trading purposes in theevent of conflict. We must also be on guardagainst other challenging issues, such as effec-tive protection of our vast Exclusive EconomicZone, or changes in international maritime law.This implies that, just as in the rest of the na-tional territory, it is imperative for National De-fense to make use of its influence and activitieswithin a framework of peace in the Chile’s oceanterritory.

1.3. The Aerospace Factor

Within this sphere, the objective of Defense is toinfluence from the air, the events that take placeon the land and sea. In accordance with the geo-graphical demands of the country, the air spacehas features that determine the methods utilizedto achieve this objective.

The following are some of the factors that affectDefense from the air perspective:

The size and shape of the national territory im-pose serious logistical demands and a need forland support structures for air operations. Con-sequently, an effective instrument of deterrencerequires logistical means capable of a fast, effec-tive reaction, which in turn requires the buildingand equipping of air bases for training in peace-time and operations during wartime.

The vastness of the air space under aeronauticalcontrol makes it advisable to use satellites, whichpermit surveillance, facilitate navigation andcommunication, and help meteorology. Howev-er, Chile is still a country that has to depend onthe satellite technology produced by other coun-tries, and therefore, its access to this technologyand its marketing or transfer are subject to deci-sions taken abroad. For these reasons Chile is de-termined to achieve certain levels of self-suffi-ciency in this field of basic importance to De-fense.✪

18 See Part I, Chapter II.


The rough terrain of the national territory limitsthe use of monitoring elements located on theland surface. In addition, the narrowness of theterritory impo-ses serious demands on earlywarning alarm systems designed to anticipate airthreats and react appropriately. The technologi-cal limitations imposed by the geography of thecountry aggravate this condition if the speed ofmodern combat planes and the short distancesbetween the border and our air bases or other vital points of the country are taken intoaccount.

Extreme weather conditions restrict the use ofair weapons in some regions of the country.

The support for the other components of the mil-itary is limited by available means, but it clearlyposes exacting demands on air alarms since mostof the operations performed by the Army andNavy require protection from the air.

2. CONCLUSIONS OF THE GEOSTRATEGICANALYSIS OF THE NATIONALTERRITORY

Analysis Considering the geostrategic factor as awhole, we must bear in mind that Chile’s geog-raphy constitutes one of the most significant fac-tors in strategic operations of the Armed Forces.Geography sets favorable or unfavorable condi-tions on any consideration of the use of force.While it is true that the magnitude and length ofChile’s land, ocean and air borders offer poten-tial for integration and development, they alsoincrease the potential for conflict because, asthey enhance the relations and diverse types ofcontacts, they also present more opportunities toincrease the potential for disagreements that canlead to crisis and conflict situations when stateshave opposing interests.

The characteristics of the geographical factors, inthe form of geographical discontinuity, long dis-tances from the central nucleus, relative non-

population of the two ends of the country and, ingeneral, the island characteristics of the nationalterritory, make the permanent presence ofArmed Forces in the north and south regions ofthe country an imperative. On the other handthe scanty flexibility offered by the national landcommunication network, restricted by geograph-ical features, requires the use of sea and airtransportation for logistics maintenance, as wellas transport, making sea lines of communica-tions, both domestic and international, of vitalimportance for the survival of the country in theevent of conflicts. The construction of importantroad works which would run parallel to thenorth-south National Highway 5 through thewhole length of the country, would provide landtransport with greater flexibility.

All these conditions, in conjunction with theweather characteristics and the land forms of thedifferent areas of the national territory, as wellas the large area of air and ocean spaces thatmust be guarded and protected, require differ-ent, specific ideas and solutions for each of thedifferent theaters of operations. Each requiresappropriately trained units with personnel andequipment that is suitable for the particular char-acteristics of each area’s geography.

In most cases, forces are present to fulfill a mili-tary mission, but they also constitute a valuablecontribution to national development, especiallyin isolated areas or areas considered isolated dueto their small populations.

All these factors must be taken into accountwhen defining the structure, organization, de-ployment, equipping, instruction and training ofpersonnel that comprise the institutions of theArmed Forces, to enable them to effectively per-form their essential mission.

❦


















(AGPE) 56











of the Republic 19










Operations 32

















PART IV
















(DGMN) 92












PART IIINational Defense PolicyThe concept of Defense is related to theaction and effect of preserving the pos-session of an asset or of maintaining anadequate degree of freedom of actionthat will allow access to that asset.

National Defense can be defined as aset of human, ethical and materialmeans with which a Nation is able tooppose an enemy’s threats to its nation-al objectives, in order to ensure its sov-ereignty and territorial integrity. Itspurpose is to achieve the degree of exter-nal security the country needs to attainits national objectives free from externalinterference.

The Armed Forces constitutes the coreof the instruments of Defense. Theseinstruments are directed and organizedby a state policy that expresses the willof the Chilean State to use them eitherin deterrent or cooperative actions dur-ing times of peace, and through mili-tary operations in wartime, to contendwith external interference that threat-ens the achievement of our nationalobjectives.

In short, Defense, on the one hand, pro-tects the population, the territory, thegoods and the activities that take placewithin the nation’s boundaries and, onthe other, helps to support the implemen-tation of Chile’s foreign policy that isfounded on the search for a world orderregulated by law and consequently, onein which all States, including ours, willbe committed to the obligations thatemanate from international law.

Defense can be analyzed from differentperspectives: as a function, as a set ofregulations, as an organization and as aneconomic challenge. This part of theBook basically addresses the first of theseperspectives, while the others aredescribed in the following parts.

Finally, although Defense is essentiallydirected towards the external security ofthe country, at the same time it supportsthe national development through thehuman and material resources that eachone of the Armed Forces institutions pos-sesses.


1. Concepts and Definitions

When analyzing Defense as one of the

basic functions of the State, an

attempt is made to explain its daily

routine. The idea is to observe the wide

range of activities that Defense under-

takes to safeguard specific possessions

that are essential to the country. This

chapter addresses issues such as the

objectives of Defense, the characteris-

tics and sources of National Defense

Policy, and the context in which it is

applied.

1. OBJECTIVES OF NATIONAL DEFENSE

In broad outlines, Defense, on the one hand, pro-tects the population, the territory, the goods andactivities that take place within the nation’sboundaries and, on the other, helps to supportthe implementation of Chile’s foreign policy thatis founded on the search for a world order regu-lated by law.

In order to fulfill this general purpose, Defensepursues the following objectives:

a) To preserve the independence and sover-eignty of the country.b) To maintain the integrity of the nationalterritory.c) To help establish the external securityconditions needed to achieve the public wel-fare of the country.d) To support Chile’s international projec-tion.e) To help maintain and promote interna-tional peace and security, in accordance

with national interests.f) To contribute to national development andcooperate with the achievement of a bal-anced and harmonious realization of the na-tion’s different capabilities.g) Within the institutional sphere, to helppreserve Chile’s institutional system as a De-mocratic Republic and Constitutional State.h) Likewise, because it embodies nationaltraditions and symbols, to help safeguard ourhistorical and cultural identity, but not pre-venting the renewal and enrichment of thesetraditions and symbols.i) To contribute to the State’s activities aimedat strengthening of civil society’s commit-ment to Defense.

Furthermore, in order to achieve these objec-tives, Defense has a number of different instru-ments, among which the Armed Forces consti-tute the core element. These instruments are di-rected and organized by a state policy that ex-presses the will of the Chilean State to use suchmeans in deterrent or cooperative actions during

BOOK OF THE NATIONAL DEFENSE OF CHILEYEAR 2002 5533PART III

peacetime and in military operations in wartime,to contend with external interference that threat-ens the achievement of our national objectives.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILE’SNATIONAL DEFENSE POLICY

Our National Defense Policy is a set of principlesand criteria that guide the State’s function of De-fense with a view towards preserving the sover-eignty and territorial integrity of our nation andto contributing to the achievement of other na-tional objectives. It provides the general outlinesfor structuring, coordinating and attuning effortsmade to contend with the obstacles, risks andthreats that third parts may raise against nation-al interests.

Defense Policy is a State policy and therefore itmust be considered over and above all politicalcontingencies and at the same time it transcendsthe projects and actions that successive govern-ments of the country may undertake.

As a state policy it is also a public policy and,therefore, must be formulated, implementedand verified under the same general conditionsas other public policies, including being subjectto the approval of civilian opinion and objec-tions. However, Defense Policy must have cer-tain protections due the nature of some of its is-sues or elements, which differentiate it fromother public policies. This is why is a publicstatement that Defense activities should be pro-tected through special legal systems. For thesereasons, Defense merits specific treatment andsensitive handling.

Like every activity of the State, Defense Policyhas a dual nature of continuity and change. Thissector embodies national traditions and symbols,and many of the factors that guide it are of a per-manent nature or very stable over time. Howev-er, their permanence over time is only valid tothe extent that they will not be changed by theemergence of new elements that have to be con-sidered or due to shifts in the conditions behindtheir development. In other words, it needs suf-ficient energy to be able to adapt to internation-al changes that would affect the security of thenation. In addition, it is necessary that they beconsistent with the position the country takes to-wards the world, with risks and threats to befaced, and with the nation’s geographical envi-ronment and finally with the national traditionsin Defense matters.

All the agencies of the State that have direct re-sponsibilities in Defense must participate in theformulation of Defense Policy. Particularly im-portant is the leading role played by the Ministryof National Defense and the Armed Forces, aswell as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and theDefense Commission of both Chambers of theLegislature. Because Defense is the expression ofa national concept, it is also advisable to consid-er the opinion of other institutions, both stateand private, that have a qualified knowledge ofthe subject. One of these is what is known as the“Defense Community”, a group comprised ofmilitary and civilians, mainly from academiccenters and political parties, whose common de-nominator is their knowledge and experience inDefense matters. The purpose of this group is toestablish the lines of civilian and militarythought in the investigation and discussion ofgeneral issues that bear a relation with NationalDefense.

Along with providing general guidelines for thework of the institutions of the sector, DefensePolicy includes the criteria and basic direction tothe precautions that should be taken to neutral-ize external threats, as well as to deal with do-mestic emergencies when the constitutionalstates of emergency so determine19, to help re-duce the effects of natural disasters and to sup-port Chile’s image abroad. Such guidelines areintended for all state agencies that take part inDefense matters rather than to the Armed Forcesin particular. For these there is a Military Policy,derived from the Defense Policy that lays thefoundations for the actions of the armed forcesduring peacetime.

3. REFERENCE FRAMEWORK

Chile’s Defense Policy is formulated in line withthe following general principles:

a) The Chilean State does not hold any ag-gressive intentions towards any country inthe world; neither has it had territorialclaims in the neighboring context.

b) The Chilean State has the will to protectits population, to defend its national inter-ests, and to safeguard its political independ-

✪ 19 For further information about the domestic role played by theArmed Forces, please see Part I, Chapter II.


ence, its national sovereignty and its territo-rial integrity.

c) The Chilean State has the responsibility tomaintain an adequate military capability toassist in the achievement of its national ob-jectives, bearing in mind that the develop-ment of that military capability is propor-tional to the development of the country’sother capabilities.

d) The Chilean State has the responsibility touse all its national capabilities and, particu-larly its military power, for the Defense ofthe country and the protection of the nation-al interests in the face of foreign threats, if itis necessary.

e) The Chilean State should encourage civilsociety’s commitment to National Defense,with objectives, that include, among others,the necessary provisions for the fulfillmentof Compulsory Military Service, the meetingof the needs of national mobilization and theneed to maintain the competence and capa-bilities of reserve personnel.

f) For the Chilean State –as for all states ingeneral–, its relative geographical location isa significant factor in the formulation of itsDefense Policy.

g) The Chilean State has situated its DefensePolicy entirely within the institutional legalframework currently in force in the countryand recognizes and respects the treaties andinternational agreements incorporated tothis framework, in such a manner that itsDefense Policy has the legitimacy which isproper for all policies of State and that it rep-resents the political commitment that, onone hand, binds the State to the nation’s citi-zens and, on the other, to the internationalcommunity.

h) The Chilean State considers as particular-ly important and advisable the existence of aclose relationship and coordination betweenits Defense and its Foreign Policy, so thatthey complement and reinforce each other,although the former will act in support of thelatter.

i) The Chilean State shall uphold its commit-ment to contribute to the defense and pro-motion of international peace, in accordancewith national interests.

4. SOURCES OF THE DEFENSE POLICY

The 1997 Book of National Defense identifies asthe main sources of Defense Policy, the NationalSecurity Policy and the Global Political-StrategicAssessment (AGPE). It should be noted that thenotion of “source” should not be understood in itsbasic sense, as the basis or origin of something,but in its meaning of documentary, work or ma-terials, in the sense that they serve as informa-tion or inspiration for a research work or, as inthis case, for the elaboration of a public policy.Consequently the National Security Policy andthe AGPE fulfill a role of this type in the formu-lation of the Defense Policy.

4.1. National Security Policy

In theory this is the policy that establishes,among other aspects, the criteria to coordinateactions to be carried out in the spheres of devel-opment and of Defense, with the purpose ofeliminating or reducing the vulnerabilities of thecountry so as to achieve a condition that will per-mit the attainment of national objectives. Conse-quently, National Security Policy should identifywhich vulnerabilities will be addressed throughDefense, which through development, andwhich in coordination between the two of them.

It should be stressed, however, that the ChileanState has not created any set of criteria or guide-lines that, as a general framework, could be un-derstood as a National Security Policy. It shouldalso be emphasized that this situation has notprevented Chile from having a Defense Policy,implicit in the past and increasingly explicit fol-lowing the publication of the 1997 Book of Na-tional Defense. In order to achieve a coordinatedmanagement of a global approach to the task ofeliminating or reducing the country’s vulnerabil-ities, it would seem sufficient to have an ade-quate coordination between the Defense Policy,the Foreign Policy, development policies andthose of public order and internal security,which would probably require establishing ear-marked institutional bodies to act as liaison be-tween the different public sectors or, perfectingthose already in existence.

4.2. The Global Political-Strategic Assessment(AGPE)

The rule that formalizes the Global Political-Strategic Assessment (AGPE) as a pattern for thebasic analysis of National Defense, dates back to1950, a time when the State perceived the need


for a method by which its political authoritiescould relate the national situation to the world,continental, regional and neighboring scenariosduring a future period. In order to achieve this,Chile adopted a method of analysis that was usedto visualize potential scenarios within the politi-cal or strategic contexts and to indicate the pos-sible effects of State decisions on internationalactors that were the targets of those decisions(See Box 8).

The AGPE constitutes the central element of thePolitical-Strategic Planning System that includes,among others, the National War Plan and thePlan of National Mobilization.20

Because it is a link between Defense Policy andthe goals and priorities of the public agenda, theAGPE consists of an ongoing, systematic andprospective analysis of national objectives (cur-rent and permanent). Its aim is to propose ob-jectives that not only support Defense Policy butalso the policies of related public sectors.

Its current format is the result of successiveamendments, made since the time it was adopt-ed, for the purpose of adequately relating na-tional objectives to the different internationalscenarios, attempting on the one hand, to reduceexternal risks and threats to the country derivedfrom detected controversies as well as to take ad-vantage of cooperation possibilities with othercountries resulting from coinciding views.

The results obtained through the AGPE include awide variety of background data and recommen-dations that can be of help to the President inmaking the best decisions on issues involved insafeguarding the national interest and thereforeconstitutes an important basis for political-strate-gic conducting, as well as for the process of po-litical-strategic planning taken as a whole.

✪ 20 When DFL-181 was enacted in 1960, the Primary National De-fense Documents that comprised Executive Decree 37 of 1950 wererenamed as the Primary National Security Documents.

❦

BOX 8

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GLOBAL POLITICAL-STRATEGIC ASSESSMENT (AGPE)! It is a continuous process that delivers usefulinformation supporting the decision-making ofthe President.!It is a multisector process because requiresthe participation of representatives from otherministries, and agencies including delegatesfrom the Armed Forces.!It has a political-strategic character because itanalyzes a variety of factors rather than those ofmilitary nature only, and because it provides rec-ommendations that allow all the State agenciesto take the necessary precautions to face potentialconflict situations, especially those that may in-volve the Armed Forces, either directly or indirectly.!It is a process under a centralized directionand execution, because it is a political-strategicdocument that must be directed and executedby a high-level office within the structure of theDefense Ministry, where the pertinent ministriesand agencies and the Armed Forces can be inconstant interaction.


2. Elements of the National Defense Policy

Chile’s Defense Policy is based on ele-

ments that endow it with particular

characteristics. Many of these elements

have been described in the text pub-

lished in 1997. This Book incorporates

some new elements, such as new ways

of using Defense means and the legal,

international and national frameworks

recognized and in force in Chile.

1. ELEMENTS OF THE CHILEAN DEFENSEPOLICY: NDB 1997

The 1997 version of the National Defense Book(NDB) constituted a significant measure of trans-parency, because it revealed certain central as-pects of our Defense Policy to both the nationaland the international community. Some of itselements are reiterated in the present text, but itis important to summarize some of its generalcontents, since in the process of compiling this2002 version of the Book, they have retainedtheir general characteristics and were not modi-fied. The following are some of the more signifi-cant of these elements:

1. 1. National Objectives

It has been pointed out that Chile’s national ob-jectives excluded territorial claims on its neigh-bors’ territory and emphasized our country’s de-finite vocation for peace. Along these lines, Chi-le supports its national objectives through a De-fense Policy whose purpose is to safeguard na-

tional interests through a defensive attitude, al-though it would not be inconsistent to opt for de-terrence mode in the political-strategic context.In summary, it has been stated that Defense con-tinues to rely, primarily, on its own national ca-pabilities and on balancing factors that can befound within the international system, due tothe political-strategic stature attained by thecountry and international ties established as wellas all the diplomatic activities undertaken.

1.2. International Context

The international context has been characterizedas complex, with a globalization process cu-rrently under way that is not, however, eradica-ting national diversity nor implying a uniformityof positions and objectives among states. There-fore, the nation-State continues to be the central–although not the only– unit of international or-der. We have concluded that it is necessary topreserve national identity and that the relativegeographical location occupied by each State inconjunction with its national interests shall con-


tinue to be a significant point of reference for therespective Defense policies.

1.3. World and Regional Stability

Peace has been appraised as an element of vitalimportance and Chile’s willingness to participatein peacekeeping operations sponsored under theUnited Nations Charter has been clearly stated,considering that the maintenance and promo-tion of world peace are among the objectives ofits Defense Policy. We have also established thevalue of the integration process promoted sincethe early 1990s, emphasizing the promotion oftrust among states as the political basis of theseprocesses. Although we pointed out that MutualConfidence Measures were not an additional me-chanism of Defense, we have duly noted the im-portance that Chile attributes to the promotionof confidence within this sphere. We have highlycommended the expansion of democracy in thecontinent and defined arms control as a mecha-nism that helped to reduce the potential for con-flicts, thus facilitating regional stability.

1.4. Defense and Security

With respect to the relation between Defenseand security, in addition to defining the differentareas encompassed by these state functions, wehave affirmed that it is not ethically justifiable toensure a country’s security by trampling on theenduring values of justice and human dignity.

2. CRUX OF THE NATIONAL DEFENSE POLICY

The Chilean State has a Defense Policy directedtowards protecting the coun-try’s population, de-fending its national interests and safeguardingits political independence, national sovereigntyand territorial integrity. But it is also clear, in acomprehensive and modern sense, that stabilityand international security are influential factorsin a nation’s own security.

On this basis, we can say that the fundamentalpillars that support Defense Policy to do so, arethe renovation of the institutions of the Defensesector, including the Armed Forces, the incentiveto cooperate with the region in matters concer-ning defense and security, and working towardsworld peace and security.

Both cooperation within the region and contri-buting to world peace and security are imple-

mented within the framework established byChilean Foreign Policy and the foundations ofour Defense Policy.

3. USE OF THE DEFENSE MEANS

The Defense Policy has established three generalforms of using Defense resources. These formsare detailed below:

3.1. Deterrence

Chile maintains a defensive attitude as a funda-mental orientation of its Defense Policy, as wellas its deterrent character in the political-strategicsphere. It must be noted that the deterrent formrefers to conventional deterrence, since Chileholds to its international commitments on issuesregarding the non-proliferation of weapons ofmass destruction.

In broad outlines, deterrence is a political-strate-gic way of using Defense means, in which theArmed Forces play a primary but not exclusiverole. What deters is the nation’s overall power, di-rected by the political authorities of the State andsupported by political consensus, as well as bythe population’s determination to support the ob-jectives of Defense. In other words, it is impossi-ble to deter without the existence of military for-ce, but deterrence is basically achieved by virtueof the political-strategic stature the country hasbeen able to achieve.

Deterrence is an effect. It is a psychological andsubjective state that one seeks to produce in themind of a potential adversary. It therefore cen-ters on the available capabilities and the deter-mination to use them, to make deterrence a via-ble option. Deterrence attempts to discourage, asearly as possible, any enemy intention to inter-fere against one’s own vital interests, by de-monstrating that the cost of interference will behigher than its expected benefits. The most ef-fective deterrence is that which insinuates one’spotential capacity to win. That is, the best formof deterrence is preparing oneself to win.

Deterrence helps to stabilize international rela-tions, convincing parties not to resort to force toimpose solutions in the event of conflict.Through deterrence, the State can also preventconflict from escalating and becoming an armedconfrontation. As the international system hasdeveloped, other actors with varying degrees ofpower have appeared, some capable of disputing


and even threatening the power of a state. Con-sequently, they must also be considered as po-tential enemies to be deterred.

It is important not to confuse the orientations ofDefense Policy with the way in which the alter-native between defensive and offensive strategicattitudes operate. In this sense, within a policyoriented towards protecting the country’s popu-lation, defending its national interest, and safe-guarding its political independence, national so-vereignty and territorial integrity, deterrencecannot be limited solely to a defensive strategy.Strategic defense alone, unyielding as it may be,may not suffice to deter a potential enemy thatthreatens force or has decided to use it.

3.2. Cooperation

In particular, after the last decade of the 20thcentury, the Chilean State has incorporated bila-teral and multilateral cooperation on issues con-cerning Defense and security into its DefensePolicy within the framework established in theintegration processes it promotes and throughactive participation in maintaining and buildinginternational peace and security and enforcing itunder certain conditions.

This is not inconsistent with the fact that our De-fense Policy has a fundamental defensive orien-tation and a deterrent character in the politicalstrategic sphere. On the contrary, Chile is deter-mined to increase its present degree of interna-tional cooperation, at different levels or contexts(neighboring, regional-subregional, continentaland global).

We must keep in mind that Chile’s cooperationin the region dates back a long time, and thereare military cooperation systems in the Ameri-can Continent, such as the Conference of Ame-rican Armies, the Interamerican Navy Conferen-ce and the Conference of American Air ForceChiefs; combined exercises such as Unitas, Rim-pac, Team-Work, Red Flag, Passex, Cabañas, andother more recent efforts, that deal with coope-ration, integration and transparency, which de-monstrates that cooperation has been ongoingsince the mid-20th century, though, certainlywith different emphases during that time.

The security of Chile depends, primarily, on itsmost adjacent strategic environment, but the im-portance of its relations concerning security withother international actors and the implications ofan international agenda less linked to definitions

of an exclusive territorial nature has increased.Because of this, Chile should not restrict its De-fense Policy to a mere protection of its territory,which of course continues in effect. It should beenriched by the opening of its economy, the re-newal of the international political institutions inwhich the country participates, the dynamics ofglobalization and the growing importance of in-ternational crises that have their roots in con-flicts between states or non-state threats.

Cooperation does not mean minimizing or chan-ging the roles and missions which the ArmedForces have been performing and fulfillingthroughout their history, but it also implies thatpart of their efforts should be directed towardscollaboration with the national drive towards in-tegration.

3.3. Coercive Use of Military Power

The Chilean State recognizes as situations of le-gitimate use of military forces, in cases of inter-national conflict, those included in the frame-work established by the United Nations Charter.In effect, its Article 51 recognizes the immanentright to legitimate defense, individual or collecti-ve, in cases of armed attack against one of itsmembers. The Chilean State also allows the indi-vidual or collective use of armed forces underta-ken on the basis of a resolution of the United Na-tions Security Council, pursuant to Chapter VIIof the above-mentioned Charter.

In any case, Chile will regulate the use of forcein accordance with the conventions and interna-tional agreements that govern International Hu-manitarian Law and the general rules of nationallaw.

a) International Humanitarian LawInternational Humanitarian Law (IHL)21 isthe set of international rules, originating inconventional or common law, that, for hu-manitarian reasons, restrict the right of par-ties in an armed conflict, international ornot, to use the means and methods of warfa-re. The purpose is to protect people or assetsthat are or could be affected by the conflict.

With relation to persons, IHL protects everyindividual who is not participating, or is no

✪ 21 Also called International Law on Armed Conflicts (ILAC) osimply Law of War.


longer an active combatant in the conflict;the civilian population; military personnelsick or wounded in war on land; personswounded and/or shipwrecked during war atsea, medical personnel belonging to the Ar-med Forces, prisoners of war, personnel be-longing to religious orders, and staff of civi-lian protection organizations.

With respect to assets, IHL protects culturalassets, especially historical monuments,works of art, or places of worship. It protectsthe environment against extensive, lasting orserious damages. For this purpose, it prohi-bits means and methods that may cause thistype of harm or impair the health or survivalconditions of the population.

For purposes of applying IHL, an armed con-flict can be either a situation of declared warrecognized by the parties or de facto situa-tions in which armed hostilities have begunwithout a prior declaration of war. IHL mustalso be applied by forces intervening in in-ternational conflicts by virtue of the autho-rity established in Chapters VI, VII and VIIIof the United Nations Charter.

However, IHL is not applicable to cases of in-ternational terrorism, whether they take pla-ce within the context of an international orinternal armed conflict or as isolated or com-bined actions intended to create panic in thepopulation, regardless of the goals they pur-sue. In case of acting against terrorism, theprovisions of international human rights lawset forth in general and special conventionsestablished to combat terrorism will be ob-served. These include the international con-ventions on the “Suppression of TerroristBombings” and on the “Suppression of the Fi-nancing of Terrorism”. Both internationalinstruments oblige countries to include the-se offenses in their legislation; they facilitatethe rules for the investigation and prosecu-tion of offenders and establish more effecti-ve regulations for extradition and mutual as-sistance in penal matters.

Neither does IHL apply to situations of inter-nal violence, which do not reach the level ofan armed conflict. In these cases, internal le-gislation and the regulations concerning therespect for human rights should be applied.

b) IHL measures observed in ChileTaking into account the wide conceptual me-

aning encompassed by the term war or ar-med conflict, Chile states that IHL should befully applied in all cases where armed strug-gle between parties with opposing intereststake place. Therefore, our country participa-tes actively in all such instances that helpimprove the means and methods of effi-ciently teaching and applying IHL.

In this respect, on August 31, 1994, Executi-ve Decree 1229 on Foreign Affairs was enac-ted. The Decree created the National Com-mission on Humanitarian Law, comprised ofrepresentatives from the Ministries of Fo-reign Affairs, Defense, Justice, Educationand Public Health. The functions of thisCommission include preparing proposals forthe full compliance with international com-mitments subscribed by Chile, to which endhas made progress towards identifying, stud-ying and proposing legal reform bills in orderto incorporate the regulations contained inthe Geneva Conventions of 1949 and theiradditional Protocols of 1977 into national le-gislation.

Additionally, Chile is at present engaged in alegislation process aimed at approving andendorsing other conventions and treaties re-lated to IHL. The attached table shows thepresent status of approval and/or endorse-ment of these pieces of legislation.

Lastly, in the sphere of IHL education, Chileis presently carrying out a process of incor-porating this subject into the general andspecific education programs that are usuallysuggested or implemented as a matter of Sta-te policy. In general, respect for humanrights and IHL are objectives inherent in allChilean education. More specifically, theinstruction about IHL is integrally and syste-matically imparted to the Armed Forces. Themilitary institutions are implementing disse-mination programs about IHL by increa-singly incorporating these subjects into thestudy plans of their professional training ins-titutes and into the training of recruits. IHLis also a relevant issue of education pro-grams implemented at the Chilean JointTraining Center for Peace Operations (CE-COPAC) (See Figure 4).

c) National Law for Situations of ExternalConflictThe different situations of external securityaffecting the State call for endowing authori-


FIGURE 4

!!!


ties in charge of the management of all le-vels of National Defense with a set of provi-sions of different legal rank, which will giveflexibility and adaptability to the State orga-nization, as well as with an opportune andeffective capacity for reaction when facedwith any eventuality. These provisions esta-blish a national legal framework for addres-sing external threats and their effects inclu-de the virtue of making significant modifica-tions to the organization of State administra-tion and its procedures, thus enabling it todeal with those threats in the best way possi-ble.

Book Four, Title III, Article 418 (on “Comple-mentary Provisions”), of the Military Code ofJustice, establishes that, for the effects ofthat book and by extension for all rules go-verning National Defense, a state of war shallexist, not only when it has been officially de-clared, but also when it is de facto or whenan order for mobilization has been given.

An official declaration of war is a special po-wer of the President of the Republic, as is setforth in the provisions of Article 32, Number21, of the Constitution. To declare war, thePresident must propose to the National Con-gress a law requesting authorization to makethe declaration and he must also hear theopinion of the National Security Council onthe matter.

In turn, and in accordance with the provi-sions of Law 18.953, Art. 1, which establishesthe regulations for Mobilization, The Natio-nal Mobilization is the combined activitiesand measures taken to prepare a part or allof the human, material and industrial poten-tials to adequately address a state of war. Theapplication of these activities and measurescan only take place during the enforcementof the last stage of emergency and begins onthe date stipulated in the respective executi-ve decree for mobilization. It is important tonote that without prejudice to the above, so-

FIGURE 4!!!


me of the mobilization activities and measu-res, those corresponding to the preparationstage, are carried out in a state of normalitywithout the need to previously establish astate of war.

The state of assembly has been envisionedfor foreign war situations and is declared bythe President of the Republic in agreementwith the National Security Council under theprovisions contained in the Constitution.

The mere existence of and external war issufficient to declare a state of assembly, wi-thout the need for a previous enactment of alaw authorizing the declaration of war. Itmust not be understood, however, that alldeclarations of a state of assembly will auto-matically precede an official declaration ofwar.

A state of assembly is declared through anexecutive decree signed by the President ofthe Republic, the Minister of the Interior andthe Minister of Defense and is in force as

from its date of publication in the OfficialGazette. A state of assembly can also be de-clared for either the entire national territoryor for only a portion of it, for a maximum pe-riod of 90 days. However, the President isempowered to request an extension or a newdeclaration if the circumstances that causedit persist.

Nevertheless, Chilean law also allows using astate of emergency for cases of harm or dan-ger to national security due to causes of fo-reign origin. Establishment of a state ofemergency is not sufficient basis for decla-ring mobilization. With the agreement of theNational Security Council, the Presidentshall call for mobilization under the provi-sions of the Constitution, to be in force in allor part of the national territory for a maxi-mum period of 90 days, and can declare itagain or extend it, if the circumstances thatadvised its adoption persist.

❦


3. The Defense Sector and International Policies

This chapter sets forth and describes

the activities of the sector that are

part of the National Defense Policy but

also pertain to policies in the interna-

tional context related to foreign securi-

ty. It particularly addresses progress

made in the field of cooperation with

United Nations peacekeeping opera-

tions and the fulfillment of commit-

ments on demining.

1. UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPINGOPERATIONS (UNPKO)

The term “Peacekeeping Operations” is not men-tioned in the United Nations Charter. The prac-tice of carrying out these operations since 1945has created a series of universally accepted prin-ciples that constitute the legal framework for theimplementation of peacekeeping operations.

1.1. General Considerations

The Chilean State recognizes the United NationsCharter, signed in San Francisco, USA, in 1945, asthe basic legal framework for international secu-rity. Two chapters of the Charter specifically dealwith the regulations of peacekeeping military op-erations. Chapter VI gives the rules for peace-keeping operations (PKO) and Chapter VII dealswith peace enforcement (PE). The basic differ-ence between the two lies in the fact that the op-erations carried out under Chapter VI do not pro-vide for the use of coercive force (which is onlyauthorized in situations of legitimate defense),

while those performed under Chapter VII in-clude coercive actions. More precisely, ChapterVII refers to “action with respect to threats to thepeace, breaches of the peace and acts of aggres-sion” and includes the measures that the UN Se-curity Council may decide to take in this respect,either of a provisional order without involvingthe use of force or those which are necessary tomaintain or restore international peace and se-curity through the use of air, sea or land forces.

Peacekeeping operations require a special agree-ment reached between the UN and memberstates that have decided to participate in peace-keeping operations, and shall be subject to ratifi-cation by the signatory states in accordance withtheir respective constitutional processes. For thisreason, the legal framework in which thesepeacekeeping operations are carried out calls forregulations of an international order as well asfor internal laws for participating countries.

Some of the issues defined by these agreementsare the scope of operations, the countries or ar-


eas where they will take place, their length, thetype and quantity of resources to be committedand, in particular, complementary aspects andlimitations that may be “agreed upon”.

Peacekeeping operations are a dynamic conceptthat evolves in accordance with changes under-gone in the form of using resources to addressdifferent situations that require action. In fact,in the beginning, military forces were used inprocedures adopted to deal with conflicts be-tween states, with extensive participation of mil-itary observers supervising conditions of cease-fire, but the situation underwent substantivechanges over time. Particularly with the end ofthe Cold War, there has been an increase in thenumber of cases of internal conflicts, i.e., thosein which contending factions belong to the sameState.

Within this context, the need for the United Na-tions to maintain its legitimacy in the preserva-tion of international peace and security, has ledit to promote the participation of multinationalforces, in accordance with different regional orinternational arrangements for which participat-ing countries need to have pro-perly trained mil-itary forces available, thus enabling them to pro-vide a fast response, upon authorization of theSecurity Council. This policy of the United Na-tions entails that once the situation that gave riseto such an intervention has consolidated, a peaceoperation would be deployed in order to supportthe building of peace.

1.2. Chile’s Policy for Participation in UNPKOs

Taking into account the changes that have takenplace internationally, the Chilean State policy ofparticipation in peacekeeping operations has al-so changed, but still maintains its conceptual,doctrinal and political-strategic principles.

Chile’s participation was established through anexecutive decree approving the pertinent policyin November 1996. This document specifiedwhat the State understands as peacekeeping op-erations and clearly limits the scope of Chileanparticipation to Chapter VI of the United NationsCharter.

The following are some of the prominent gener-al, political and operating criteria establishedthrough that decree:

a) UNPKOs must meet the national interestthat is related to commitments entered into

with the United Nations and to a concernabout peace issues.

b) The Chilean State does not place contin-gents at the disposal of the United Nations sothat this organization can autonomously de-cide upon their assignment.

c) The Chilean State shall assess each UnitedNations request for participation in peace-keeping operations separately, on its ownmerits. The President shall make the finaldecision about Chile’s participation in peace-keeping operations.

Since 1997, the Chilean State has made somechanges to its UNPKO participation policy.

In 1999 a Memorandum of Understanding wassubscribed with the United Nations Secretary-General that establishes Chile’s contribution tothe UN’s Stand By Forces Agreements22 (See Fig-ure 5).

In addition, Executive Decree (G) 68 was enact-ed in October 1999, with wording that incorpo-rates the provisions of the 1996 executive decreeinto the changes made.

The executive decree of 1999 extends Chile’s par-ticipation in UNPKOs to participation under cer-tain powers included in Chapter VII of the Char-ter, but with restrictions on involvement in someof the actions it provides for.

One limitation that has been maintained is thatof not authorizing the use of Chilean Forces forthe search and/or capture of criminals, belliger-ents or war criminals.

Chile also maintained its limitation to the effectthat it will only assign professional staff, eithercivilian or military, and preferably volunteers, toUNPKOs. These leadership groups may not con-tain drafted personnel.

Another important innovation is the creation ofthe Chilean Joint Training Center for Peace Op-erations (CECOPAC), with the purpose of train-ing both national and foreign military, police andcivilian staff who will participate in peacekeep-

✪ 22 Memorandum of Understanding between Chile and the UnitedNations Organization of November 11, 1999..


ing operations. As an agency under the Ministryof National Defense, the Center receives advisefrom the National Defense General Staff, whichin turn can advise the Ministry on UNPKO issuesand thereby inform the rest of the governmentsystem.

1.3. The Armed Forces in UNPKOs

The Services of the National Defense participatein peacekeeping operations in accordance withthe policy and instructions of the Chilean State.Determining which resources will be used basi-cally depends on the type of operation the Presi-dent of the Republic has decided to accept andon an analysis of the capabilities that can bestfulfill the proposed mission.

This UNPKO participation commitment does notdeviate the Armed Forces from their essentialand primary mission, which is that they exist todefend the homeland. When the Chilean Statedecides to participate in a certain UNPKO and toassign a mission to fulfill it, it should considercontributing funds in the event they are neededto complement the funding allocated by theUnited Nations.23

Each operation involves creating a certain par-ticular set of Rules of Engagement, which mustbe approved by the national authorities of theparticipating countries. In Chile’s case, theserules must comply with both the legal regula-tions in force and the conditions imposed by In-ternational Law, with the emphasis that theymay not, under any circumstances whatsoever,limit the right to legitimate defense.

1.4. Participation of Chile in UNPKOs since1997

Chile’s participation in peacekeeping operationsdates back to 1948. At that time, Chile began itsparticipation in Treaty or Cease Fire Observationmissions, through Officers acting as observers,including those in India-Pakistan and the MiddleEast, that still continues today. However, Chilehas increased its participation since 1990, takingpart in operations in Iraq-Kuwait in 1991 (AirForce), Cambodia in 1992 (Navy), Iraq in 1996

FIGURE 5

✪ 23 Official Gazette N° 36.510 of November 10, 2000.


(Air Force), Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1997 (Po-lice Force), and Eastern Timor in 2000 (Army).

In August 1996, as the 1997 Book of National De-fense was being prepared, the Air Force sent ahelicopter group, comprised of 41 permanent of-ficers and staff, on a UN mission to Iraq to verifyits compliance with regulations prohibiting itfrom producing nuclear, chemical or biologicalweapons. In 2000, an Army officer joined thisgroup as weapons inspector.

In April 1997, in response to a UN request, a con-tingent of 50 members of the Chilean PoliceForce was ordered to participate in the Interna-tional Police Task Force (IPTF) for Bosnia andHerzegovina under the Dayton Agreementssigned between the enemy parties of that repub-lic belonging to the Former Federation of Yu-goslavia.

In 1998, in view of the significant increasednumber of peacekeeping operations taking placethroughout the world at that time and the needto establish a permanent liaison between theMinistry of National Defense and Chile’s Perma-nent Mission to the United Nations, an officerwas added to the Mission as Defense Attaché.

In January 2000, the army deployed a group ofhelicopters comprised of 3 airships and 41 offi-cers and NCO personnel to the United NationsMission in Eastern Timor (UNTAET). An armyofficer was also added to the mission, as plan-ning officer in the General Headquarters of UN-TAET.

In the same year, Chile added an army officer tothe Office of the Chief of Staff of the United Na-tions Mission in Kosovo to act as Liaison Officerbetween the forces of the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization (NATO) and of the UN that are par-ticipating in that peace mission.

Lastly, in 2001, a naval officer was added to thestaff of the Training Center for Peace Operationsin the Republic of Argentina (CAECOPAZ) andanother naval officer was added to the InfantryBattalion of the Argentine Navy deployed in thepeacekeeping mission in Cyprus.

2. MUTUAL CONFIDENCE MEASURES

Since the publication of the 1997 Book of the De-fense and within the sphere of Mutual Confi-dence Measures, a number of activities have

been taking place that have helped significantlyin achieving greater transparency and mutualunderstanding among the Armed Forces of Chile,Argentina and Peru.

As part of the Memorandum of Understandingfor Closer Cooperation in Security Matters ofMutual Interest, signed between Chile and Ar-gentina in 1995, experts from both countries be-gan in 1997 to draft a “Glossary of common termsfor combined Chile-Argentina exercises,” whichshould be approved by both parties during 2003.

A clear sign of the strengthening of the bonds offriendship between the armies of Chile and Ar-gentina, a combined support exercise called“Araucaria,” to deal with catastrophe and naturaldisaster situations in border zones took place in2002. Cooperation in Antarctic issues has alsoseen substantive progress. Examples of this arethe agreement of the Antarctic Departments ofboth armies to carry out surveillance and routedemarcation tasks that will facilitate safe andclear traffic between the O’Higgins (Chile) andEsperanza (Argentina) bases; to organize, begin-ning in 2003, a permanent combined land patrolfor search and rescue; to undertake a permanentsystem of cooperation and exchange on logisticalissues such as health support between bothbases, meteorological information and environ-mental procedures. In addition to these activitiesthere is the decision to make a combined ascentof Mount Vinson in 2003, the highest point onthe Antarctic continent.

The two countries have undertaken several com-bined naval operations in the “Integración” and“Viekaren” exercises (for Naval Control of Mar-itime Traffic and Maritime Search, Rescue andSalvage). The latter effort is limited to the south-ernmost zone and is part of the Peace andFriendship Treaty of 1984. Air-sea units and sup-port sea units normally assigned to these areasalso participated in the exercises. Another promi-nent effort is the Combined Naval Antarctic Pa-trol, which takes place every year to provide sup-port to the units normally operating in the areain the event of possible rescues and salvages, aswell as to control and combat pollution causedby possible disasters.

The Air Force has carried out the SAR “Andes”search and rescue exercises, with air resourcesfrom both countries in different locations of theterritory. Relations between the Chilean AirForce and its Argentine counterpart have includ-ed crew exchanges in several different fields and


carrying out different activities in the air-med-ical field. In the field of maintenance, theChilean Air Force has inspected the engines ofthe “Tucano” aircraft of the Argentine Air Force.An important feature of these institutional rela-tions is the participation of air combat units ofboth countries in the “Cruzex” exercise, held inBrazil in May 2002.

The bilateral conferences between the Chiefs ofthe General Staffs and the services, as well, havesignificantly increased the exchange on the pro-fessional level, between both armed forces. Someof worthy of mention are participation in staffcourses, exchange of instructors in the TrainingCenters for Peace Operations, incorporation ofChilean officers into the Argentine Battalion de-ployed in Cyprus, participation in the “Cabañas”peace operation exercises, technical courses inhigh technology and scientific and technical co-operation in the field of military industry.

Additionally, as a result of the cooperation agree-ment on matters related to catastrophes, a cabi-net exercise took place in 2001, with the objec-tive of strengthening and perfecting the bilateralcooperation relations for responding to crisescaused by natural disasters.

This exercise will be carried out for the first timeon land in 2003, in the general area of Puerto Na-tales and Río Turbio, in the southern part of bothcountries, with the participation of civilian au-thorities and military units of both nations.

This ongoing exchange and the visits betweenunits and staff of the different military and airgarrisons and navy districts, have led to a bettermutual understanding and prevented situationswhich could result in errors and misunderstand-ings or crises.

Chile has undertaken mutual confidence meas-ures with Peru and since 1999, they have be-come even more dynamic. Within the frame-work of the Round of Conversations between theGeneral Staffs and Senior Military Leadership ofthe Armed Forces of Chile and Peru, the twocountries have adopted several agreements forthe exchange of staff, academic activities andtraining and support of Antarctic activities.

Some of the more important military exerciseshave been the “Reskatamuy” exercises, in whichnaval units participate in maritime search andrescue operations in northern Chile and south-ern Peru, the combined oceanographic voyages

to study of the El Niño weather pattern and the“Passex” exercises involving units from bothnavies during the passage of Chilean ships pastthe coasts of Peru. In 2002 the multinational“Unitas Pacífico” exercise took place along theChilean coast with the participation of navalunits from Peru, the United States, Colombia,Ecuador, Mexico and Panama.

Since 1999 the respective air forces have beencarrying out search and rescue exercises alongborder zones.

3. INSTRUMENTS OF COOPERATION ANDUNDERSTANDING

As part of the general guidelines for Chile’s For-eign Policy, the Defense sector has been promot-ing a series of instruments to foster cooperationand understanding with the different countriesof the world.

3.1. Cooperation Mechanisms

a) With ArgentinaSince 1995, the Republics of Chile and Ar-gentina have been carrying out a series of ac-tivities as part of the promotion of mutualconfidence measures, a framework withinwhich political and military relations haveobtained qualitative benefits for both coun-tries. (See Box 9).

b) With PeruBoth countries have been collaborating inthe promotion of mutual confidence meas-ures since 1986; however, the establishmentof cooperation mechanisms has witnessed agrowing impetus in recent years. Within thisprocess new areas of agreement, reflectionand analysis have been found that forecastincreasing agreement in matters related tosecurity and defense. (See Box 10).

c) With BrazilBilateral relations have grown since 2000, inresponse to the challenge of strengtheninghistorically close bilateral relations. As withArgentina and Peru, the establishment of co-operation mechanisms in the sphere of secu-rity and defense attempts to reinforce com-mon views, reflections and analyses, so as tobuild a shared approach to these matters.(See Box 11).


CHILE-ARGENTINA: INSTITUTIONS FOR COOPERATION IN DEFENSE AND SECURITY ISSUESConsultation and coordination mechanism between the General Staffs of the Armed Forces.Established in 1994, within the framework of the Peace and Friendship Treaty of 1984, this institution hasperformed an important role in the establishment of measures for the promotion of mutual confidencebetween both countries.

Permanent Committee on Security (COMPERSEG)The Chile-Argentine Permanent Committee on Security was established on May 7, 1996, in Buenos Aires,and is comprised of high-level and senior officials of the Ministries of Foreign Relations and of Defense ofChile and Argentina. It was created through the Memorandum of Understanding for StrengtheningCooperation in Security Issues of Mutual Interest, signed on November 8, 1995, and it has an executive func-tion with regard to decisions adopted by the Presidents and Ministries of Foreign Relations and of Defenseof Chile and Argentina.

Between 1996 and December 2002 twelve meetings were held, which have achieved very high levels ofcooperation in different spheres of Defense.

The COMPERSEG has also been a good opportunity for carrying out joint academic activities in subjects thatinclude analysis of security in the region.

2+2 MeetingsThey are called 2+2 Meetings because they involve the Ministers of Foreign Relations and of Defense of bothcountries. They were established in 1997, in response to the will to consolidate the progress in bilateral rela-tions in the fields of security and Defense.

By 2002 this institution had met four times: twice in Chile (Zapallar, 1997 and 1999) and twice in Argentina(Campo de Mayo, in 1998, and Buenos Aires, in 2001).

These meetings have led to agreements concerning combined exercises between the Chilean and Argentinemilitary forces and the establishment of systems for cooperation in the Antarctic; a deeper joint analysis ofmeasures for implementing the Political Declaration of MERCOSUR, Bolivia and Chile as a Peace Zone; dis-cussions on the strategic situation of the region and progress on issues within the disarmament agenda.

BOX 9

CHILE-PERU: INSTITUTIONS FOR COOPERATION IN DEFENSE AND SECURITY ISSUES2+2 MeetingsThe First Meeting of the Permanent Committee on Consultations and Political Coordination, comprised bythe Ministers of Foreign Relations and Defense of both countries was held in Lima on September 9, 2001.This Committee began the process of standardizing the respective systems of calculating Defense spending.They also led to agreements to eradicate anti-personnel mines, thus complying with the Ottawa Conventioncommitments; to carry out combined naval operations and to exchange military and teaching staff betweeninstitutes and academic development centers of the Armed Forces.

Committee for Security and Defense (COSEDE)This committee is comprised of officials from the Ministries of Foreign Relations and of Defense of bothcountries, as well as members of the Armed Forces.

It has met on twice: in Chile (Santiago, October 25, 2001), when it approved the “Memorandum ofUnderstanding between the Republic of Chile and the Republic of Peru for Strengthening Cooperation inSecurity and Defense Issues of Mutual Interest,” and in Peru (Lima, March 26, 2002), when it agreed to estab-lish a working group to begin preparing a common methodology for measuring Defense spending.

The COSEDE provides a new framework for the meetings of the General Staffs‘ Senior Leadership of the ArmedForces of both countries, with a view to reinforcing cooperation and bilateral transparency within the military sphere.

BOX 10


3.2. Cooperation Agreements

In conjunction with Defense cooperation mecha-nisms, Chile has signed a series of complementa-ry agreements that strengthen relations withinthe sphere of Defense with countries in all re-gions of the world. These agreements, since 1997are detailed in the adjoining figure. (See Figure 6).

4. POLICY ON HUMANITARIAN DEMINING

One of the areas of the Chilean Foreign Policy re-lated to issues of international security, andwhich evidences the support of the Defense Poli-cy, is the promotion and implementation of Inter-national Humanitarian Law and its effective ap-plication. To achieve this goal, Chile has support-ed international efforts to eliminate conventionalweapons that could be considered as excessivelyinjurious or having indiscriminate effects.

Chile also adheres to the international principlesthat hold that parties in an armed conflict do nothave a right to an unlimited choice of means ormethods of combat; the banning of the use ofweapons, projectiles, materials and means ofcombat that inflict superfluous or unnecessarysuffering; and that a distinction should be madebetween the civilian population and militaryforces.

Chile adhered to the Ottawa Convention in 1997by virtue of these international principles, theevolution of the country’s foreign relations andits national defense needs. The fact that anti-per-sonnel mines are weapons that do not discrimi-nate between the civilian population and mili-tary forces has been of particular importance.

4.1. Humanitarian Demining under the OttawaConvention

As established in the Ottawa Convention, hu-manitarian demining broadly includes:

a) The destruction of stockpiled anti-person-nel mines (mines in storage), and the re-moval and destruction of mines disseminat-ed in mined fields. It also involves includingprovisions that regulate the prohibition ofthe use, stockpiling, production and transferof anti-personnel mines into a country’s na-tional legislation.

b) Humanitarian demining also includes com-pliance with the rules and procedures con-cerning humanitarian assistance to victims of

CHILE-BRAZIL: INSTITUTIONS FOR COOPERATIONIN DEFENSE AND SECURITY ISSUESBilateral Working Group on Defense (GTDB)The Working Group was established through theagreement of the Defense Ministers of Chile andBrazil when they met in Brasilia on July 13, 2000.To date, two meetings of this Group have beenheld: the first in Santiago, on December 14, 2000;the second in Brasilia, on November 13, 2001.

This group has turned into a mechanism forpolitical consultations intended to develop bilat-eral relations in the field of Defense, scientificand technological cooperation and institutionalcooperation between the Armed Forces of bothcountries.

These ministerial meetings have served the pur-pose of complementing bilateral relationsbetween Chile and Brazil especially on the sub-jects of organization of ministerial structures andpromotion of the exchange of officers attendingacademies of advanced studies in both countries.This instrument has also been useful in dissemi-nating the ECLAC study on “StandardizedMethodology for the Measurement of DefenseSpending” approved by Chile and Argentina.

This working group also decided to hold meet-ings between the Defense General Staffs of Braziland Chile.

BOX 11

accidents caused by anti-personnel mines,and to their families and communities.

4.2. Humanitarian Demining and HumanSecurity Policy

Humanitarian demining is one of the areas of in-terest to the Human Security network, of whichChile is a member. This implies that the ChileanState, without neglecting its essential commit-ment to safeguard the security of the State, also,as a complement, approaches security issuesfrom the perspective of the human individualand his or her rights. (See Box 12).

4.3. Implementation of the Ottawa Convention

Two prominent aspects of Chile’s process of com-plying with the commitments made through theConvention are: the establishment of the Nation-al Demining Commission (CNAD) and the sub-mission of the Report on Transparency Measures.


FIGURE 6


a) The National Demining Commission(CNAD)The National Demining Commission(CNAD) was established on August 19, 2002by the Ministry of National Defense. TheCommission is a public agency with a na-tional scope and a multipart representation.It reports directly to the President of the Re-public and is chaired by the Minister of Na-tional Defense. It is comprised of the Under-secretaries of Foreign Relations, Finance andNational Health, the Chief of Staff of Nation-al Defense, the General Chiefs of Staff of theArmed Forces and its own Executive Secre-tary. For working and support purposes it isheadquartered in the National Defense Gen-eral Staff at the Ministry of Defense.

The Commission’s objective is to help allState agencies achieve the planning, coordi-nation and operation capabilities needed tomeet the commitments Chile has made insigning and ratifying the Ottawa Convention.

In particular, the Commission has been re-sponsible for preparing and implementingthe National Plan for Humanitarian Demi-ning, with its respective budgetary program.

b) The Report on Transparency MeasuresIn compliance with the commitment setforth in Article 7 of the Convention, relating

CHILE’S PROCESS OF ADHERENCE TO THE OTTAWA CONVENTION!December 3, 1997. Chile acceded to the Convention on the Prohibition against the Use, Stockpiling, Produc-tion and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and their Destruction.!April 26, 1999. Chile officially declared a unilateral moratorium on the production, exportation, importationand installation of new anti-personnel land mines.!May 8, 2001. National Congress approves the Convention.!September 10, 2001. Chile delivered the instrument of ratification of the Ottawa Convention to the Head-quarters of the United Nations Organization in New York.!March 9, 2002. Enactment and publication in the Official Gazette of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Execu-tive Decree 4, which incorporates the Ottawa Convention to the State’s internal legal system.!May 2, 2002. In compliance with the Convention, the National Demining Commission was establishedthrough the enactment of Executive Decree 79 (Undersecretariat of War), on May 2, 2002.

Between the signing of the Convention in 1997 and the enactment of the agreement related to the OttawaConvention on March 9, 2002, when the commitments contained in this treaty took effect in Chile, the countrycarried out the following important activities related to humanitarian demining:

!Determination of the approximate cost of demining projects.!Destruction of stockpiled anti-personnel mines.!Mine removal and destruction at the mined field of Tambo Quemado.!Collaboration and participation in demining activities in Nicaragua and Ecuador.

BOX 12

to “Transparency Measures,” in 2002 Chilesubmitted a public report to the United Na-tions with basic information concerning hu-manitarian demining. (See Box 13).

❦

REPORT ON TRANSPARENCY MEASURES!End of anti-personnel mine production. Throughits 1999 unilateral moratorium, Chile has defini-tively closed its national programs of anti-person-nel mines. (FAMAE and Cardoen).!Signposting and demarcation of mined fields. Allanti-personnel mines that Chile possesses areeither in munitions depots or in properly identifiedmined fields, delimited and signposted. No ChileanState anti-personnel mines exist in zones not offi-cially controlled or identified.!Total anti-personnel mines in Pampa Chaca afterthe destruction of August 27, 2002: 333,737, bothinstalled in mined zones and in stock.!Total disseminated anti-personnel mines:122,661, which shall be removed and destroyed intheir entirety.!Total anti-personnel mines in stock: 211,076anti-personnel mines, of which 182,429 will bedestroyed within the terms established by theConvention.

BOX 13


4. The Defense Sector and National Policies

As an integral part of Defense, the

Armed Forces help in the performance

of activities carried out within the ter-

ritory –such as support for initiatives

related to border and isolated zones–

and cooperate with national industry

and with national cultural, scientific

and technological progress, a task they

have performed since the birth of our

nation as a republic.

1. TERRITORIAL POLICIES

The concept of sovereignty assumes the exis-tence of a territory circumscribed by physical orgeospatial boundaries and the ability to hold itunder the exclusive jurisdiction of the State. Thisidea of exclusivity allows the government to di-rect its administrative management in accor-dance with its policies and objectives, with thedefense sector playing an important role in poli-cies aimed at the development of those zones ofthe territory that require special State supportdue to their characteristics and location.

1.1. Development Policies in Border Zones

From a Defense perspective, border zones are ofparticular significance because of the conver-gence of historical aspects with the fact that theyare a tangible reference for estimating potentialrisks and threats. This is why integratingprocesses, which are normally initiated in con-nection with specific, operational objectives, canbecome a closer economic and even political re-lationship, to the extent that the two states in-

volved in the integration process accept their re-spective national identities and mutually recog-nize the territory over which they each exercisesovereignty.

Chile has defined its border zones taking into ac-count the special characteristics of its territoryalong international borders and areas where in-ternational treaties of permanent effect are ap-plied. Its border zones are governed by specificlegislation that calls for effective coordinationbetween the National Office of State Borders andBoundaries, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs andthe Ministry of National Defense. This spherehas special mechanisms for decision-making,which guide the State in issues of governmentowned land, water resources, natural resources,scientific and mountain climbing expeditions inthe Andes, and with respect to enforcing legalprovisions at the remote ends of the country.

This concern is reflected in the importance at-tributed to the initiatives for physical integrationwith neighboring countries, with a direct impacton the development of the border zones.


It must be stressed that the initiatives, whicheach State desires to promote in its border zones,can be of a unilateral, bilateral or multilateral na-ture. Chile has adopted initiatives of a unilateralnature, which are State decisions with the objec-tive of promoting the development of an area ofthe national territory without the participation ofanother State.

Complementarily, Chile has taken part in con-junction with Argentina in the promotion of jointinitiatives to promote the development of someparts of the long border they share. The solutionto the boundary disputes that were still out-standing between the two countries during thelast decade of the 20th century not only helpedraise these bilateral relations to what perhapscan be defined as its best historical level but alsohelped promote joint initiatives of great rele-vance for both countries.

There are also initiatives of a multilateral nature,the most striking example of which may be thatof the European Union.

The experience of the European Economic Com-

munity, which preceded the current EuropeanUnion, shows that acceptance of national identi-ties, including holding sovereignty over a de-fined and recognized territory, with respect towhich no claims are encouraged and conse-quently the overcoming of territorial and bound-ary litigations, are essential if a progressivelycloser integration is desired.

a) Unilateral Initiative: Southern MaritimeTourism RoutesAs part of government policy following aglobal analysis in which the Chilean Navyparticipated, it was decided to open threenew navigation routes in the Beagle Chan-nel-Cape Horn area. The purpose was to pro-mote tourism in the surrounding areas, withsubsequent benefits for the inhabitants ofRegion XII.

The opening of these routes created the needfor upgraded and updated cartographic mapsof the area, as well as the correspondingstate-of-the-art navigation aids needed to ef-fectively protect human life at sea and tonavigate safely through the channels andfiords of this region. (See Figure 7).

FIGURE 7


b) Bilateral Initiative: Mining Treaty be-tween Chile and ArgentinaThis Treaty opens the border to mining proj-ects originating in the neighboring countryand hopes to encourage coordinated interna-tional work in promoting mining activities,the use of copper and defense against tradeprotectionism. This instrument is consistentwith the broadening of border demarcationagreements and the expansion of physicalintegration agreements. These include theopening and closing of border passages andthe scheduling of investments to establish aconnection infrastructure across selectedpassages.

The Treaty determines the scope of applica-bility through coordinated demarcation. Thisarea does not extend to the entire nationalterritory and does not include maritimespaces, island territories or the coastal bor-der, as they are defined by each country. Theborder line shall be preserved and when thenature of the works so require, the Ministersof Foreign Affairs, through the Joint BorderCommission, have the authority to decideany question or request made by the partieswith respect to the precise determination ofthat border line, for the effects of applicationof the Treaty.

The scope of application does not imply arepeal of the Chile’s mining legislation or thecreation of an extra-territorial area, or thatthe Management Commission would havesupranational status. Neither is it part of theconcept established in Chile’s Constitutionconcerning zones declared by law of impor-tance to national security (Art. 19, N° 24,Sec. 10). This scope is an essential referencepoint for the jurisdiction of the Treaty Man-agement Commission and deals with thepossibility of using this space for an opera-tions area and facilities connected to conces-sions and plants located in the other coun-try’s territory.

Another issue of interest relates to the estab-lishment of water rights and the possibilityof guaranteeing that a mining project has ac-cess to this natural resource within the terri-tory of the other party under the Treaty. Theuse of water resources located in the territo-ries of the parties could be permitted in com-pliance with each country’s applicable inter-nal legislation, even when they are notshared water resources. This is an innovativerelationship that opens new roads to border

facilitation and to the cross-border move-ment of goods, particularly from the point ofview of constituting rights over water locatedin another State.

The Treaty includes a wide range of mecha-nisms and instruments for resolving disputesbetween the parties in accordance with thematter or object under dispute. (See Box 14).

1.2. Development Policies in Isolated Zones

The low population density that characterizessome regions of Chile constitutes a significantvulnerability factor. This should be added to thefact that different conditions existing in thesezones have imposed a relatively slower develop-ment than experienced by other areas of thecountry, even though the zones have consider-able economic potential based on their abun-dance of natural resources.

In contrast to Chile’s projected populationgrowth, which is rather moderate, forecasts of itseconomic growth are significant. As a conse-quence of the combination of both factors, Chilehas become an attractive destination for both for-eign investment and, eventually, for the popula-tion of less developed or overpopulated coun-tries lacking physical space. A significant portionof these potential flows of investment and mi-gration can be largely channeled towards those

MINING INTEGRATION AND COMPLEMENTARITY TREATY BETWEENCHILE AND ARGENTINAThis Treaty originated in the Agreement signedby the Presidents of Chile and Argentina onDecember 29, 1997, as well as in the Protocol andComplementary Agreement signed on August 20and 31, 1999, respectively. On August 29, 2000,the Chilean Senate approved the MiningIntegration and Complementary Treaty betweenthe two countries and on December 20 of thesame year both Presidents signed the ratificationdocuments.

The Mining Treaty provides for a ManagementCommission (Art. 18) which is defined as a non-supranational body, to administer it. TheCommission is comprised of representatives ofthe Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Mining ofChile and Argentina (Art. 18 MT), and can sum-mon the pertinent representatives of publicagencies when it deems it advisable.

BOX 14


remote areas, a challenge that is also shared bythe National Defense.

The Chilean State has strived to implementmeasures that will benefit those remote areas, soas to promote their development, increase theirpopulation and fully integrate them into the restof the country. The first of these goals has takenthe form of development plans for the northernand southern ends of the country and the pro-motion of initiatives to channel domestic migra-tion towards those areas.

The presence of Armed Forces units in these re-mote areas located far from the vital centers ofthe country, have attracted settlers and givenbirth to communities. The history of our countryis marked by situations in which population cen-ters emerge after a military presence has been es-tablished or a military presence has enabled themaintenance and development of a social group.

Ever since 1953 the Chilean Army has been es-tablishing a presence throughout the length ofour national territory and has cooperated in thedevelopment and flexibility of our land routesystem. To date, these works have enabled theChilean State to build more than 3,500 kilome-ters of roads, 6,000 linear meters of runways andair fields and 3,000 linear meters of bridges, thuspromoting territorial integration and generatingcenters of development which, along with theimprovement of the socioeconomic conditions oftheir inhabitants, have improved the presenceand action of the State. At present, the Armythrough its Military Work Corps (CMT), and inclose contact with the Road Construction Officeof the Ministry of Public Works, is focusing its at-tention on consolidating the axes of action de-fined by the Andean Route, the Main CoastalHighway and the Longitudinal Southern High-way and their secondary roads, with emphasis inRegions I, II, IX, X, XI and XII.

Also working towards territorial consolidation,the Navy has promoted the development of thecity of Puerto Williams, which since its founda-tion in 1953, has provided ongoing support to theisolated areas of the Tierra del Fuego archipelagoat the southernmost tip of Chile, to island territo-ries and to the territory of the Antarctic Chileanpeninsula, as well as assisting and giving securityto navigators by maintaining lighthouse keeperswho live in desolate areas and barren islets.

The Air Force, in turn, connects the continental,island and Antarctic territories by air and helpsthe population in cases of emergency, especially

in places where other means of access are diffi-cult or cut off. It has also installed air bases in ter-ritories that are not accessible through othermeans, so as to reaffirm and consolidate nationalsovereignty, as in the case of Campo de Hielo Sur.

1.3. Policies Related to Maritime Interests

Maritime interests correspond to national devel-opment activities that generate benefits of a po-litical, strategic, economic, scientific and socialorder for the country as a whole. They are relat-ed to the exploitation, enjoyment and use of theresources or benefits provided by the sea, theseabed and the subsoil, which are under the mar-itime jurisdiction of the State. They take place onthe high seas, and in the coastal zone and interi-or waters.

In order to obtain the maximum benefit fromthis oceanic potential, the Chilean State has tak-en measures to legislate and develop sea activi-ties and has fostered an awareness of maritimeissues within the country.

Within this field, the work of the Chilean Navy isdirected towards achieving conditions that willensure national sovereignty at sea and achievethe environment of peace necessary for growthand development. Additionally, it will provideour people with a maritime perspective that willgive Chile a leading role in the development ofthe Pacific Basin and help them to value the seaas a real source of growth and development forour country. Lastly, it seeks to create a nationalawareness of the sea’s importance to our eco-nomic development, which is largely dependenton foreign trade, more than 90% of which is car-ried by sea.

Chile’s maritime interests include some specificobjectives, which the Navy, with its distinctiveskills, helps meet. For example:

a) To facilitate a more efficient use of thenatural resources of the national oceanic ter-ritory.

b) To develop scientific research and tech-nologies related to all the activities that sup-port and sustain the use, exploitation, preser-vation and management of the natural re-sources of the national oceanic territory.

c) To improve the legal framework and to rein-force the administrative agencies in charge ofthis territory and maritime activities in com-pliance with national and international law.


d) To protect and preserve the sea environ-ment within the national oceanic territoryand to prevent the sea activities of otherStates from affecting Chilean interests or thequality of life of its inhabitants.

e) To provide effective security for the na-tional oceanic territory, maritime interestsand sea routes that are of vital importance tothe country in the event of possible threats,unlawful actions or aggression that mayharm the State’s jurisdiction and sovereign-ty, and to take proper precautions to neutral-ize them.

f) To promote and develop the shipbuildingindustry in Chile, utilizing the installed ca-pacity of both private and State dockyards,with the active participation of ASMAR(Navy shipyards and repair shops).

The projection of the country towards the AsianPacific through its maritime routes is one of thecountry’s maritime interests. Easter Island,Chile’s nearest territory to the nations situatedon the eastern rim of the Pacific basin plays anessential role in the achievement of that objec-tive.

Easter Island is the westernmost of the oceanicislands within Chilean territory. It is located atlatitude 27º 07’ South and longitude 109º 11’West, 3,700 km offshore from the port of Caldera.It covers an area of 165 km2 and has an approxi-mate perimeter of 61 km. It was incorporated toChilean sovereignty on September 9, 1888 byPolicarpo Toro Hurtado, a Lieutenant Comman-der of the Chilean Navy, who took possession ofit in the name of the Chilean Government onthat date. Statutory Decree 575, of 1974, estab-lished the Chilean Province of Easter Island, un-der the authority of Region V. Its capital city isHanga Roa and it has a population of 3,837 in-habitants. The presence of the Chilean sea au-thority in that area of the Pacific is exercisedthrough the Port Authorities.

Apart from its archeological and tourist attrac-tions, Easter Island is Chile’s door to the Pacific,constituting an essential support point for thesea and air routes that travel across the south-west quadrant of the Pacific.

1.4. Antarctic Policy

The Chilean Antarctic Territory is an importantelement in the definition of Antarctic policy.Chile established the delimitation of its territory

on that frozen continent in 1940, through Execu-tive Decree 1747.

This decree establishes that the Chilean Antarc-tic or Chilean Antarctic Territory comprises alllands, isles, islets, reefs, glaciers, and othersknown or unknown, in the respective territorialsea within the limits of the segment between themeridians of 53° and 90° longitude to the west ofGreenwich.

Chilean Antarctic rights are founded on historical,geographical and legal bases. Under these basesChile attended negotiations on the AntarcticTreaty of 1959, in conjunction with 11 otherstates.

With relation to territorial sovereignty rights, Ar-ticle IV of this Treaty establishes that none of itsprovisions can be interpreted as detrimental tothe bases of territorial sovereignty rights or astheir relinquishment on the basis of previouslymade claims. In this respect the Treaty protectsthe legal status of the Chilean Antarctic Territoryand guarantees the position of parties with re-spect to relevant issues regarding sovereigntyover that continent.

As the Antarctic Treaty acknowledges in its Arti-cle IV, Chile maintains its irrevocable right of ter-ritorial sovereignty in the Antarctic.

It is worth noting that two other countries havefiled territorial sovereignty claims in portions ofthe same geographical area where Chile claimssovereignty rights. However, Chile and Argenti-na (one of the two other countries) have mutual-ly recognized their Antarctic rights, without de-marcating their respective territories, before sub-scribing the Antarctic Treaty.

As a founding member of this instrument, Chileparticipates with voting rights, in decision-mak-ing processes related to the Antarctic and is will-ing to consider international control and cooper-ation programs, to the extent that they do not af-fect its sovereignty rights. Chile aims to projectits national interests in that region of the world,without ignoring environmental issues andstrictly observing the different conventions onthe Antarctic System, which have been sub-scribed.

Additionally, on October 4, 1991, it subscribedthe Additional Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty onthe Protection of the Environment (Protocol ofMadrid), with the objective of further protectingthe Antarctic environment and its dependent


and associated ecosystems. In acknowledgementof the importance of safeguarding and protectingthe integrity of the ecosystem of the seas sur-rounding the Antarctic, on September 11, 1980,in Canberra, Australia, Chile signed the Conven-tion on the Protection of Living Antarctic MarineResources.Based on the above-mentioned legal instru-ments, the Chilean State enacted its NationalAntarctic Policy in March 2000, with the objec-tives described in the adjoining box. (See Box15).

In this territory the Chilean State has establishedand operates the harbor master’s offices of BahíaFildes, Bahía Covadonga, Puerto Soberanía andPuerto Paraíso, all agencies that provide supportto human safety at sea and perform tasks relatedto safeguarding the local marine environment.

Of these, Soberanía and Covadonga are activeyear-round, since they have been operated bystaff from the Prat Naval Base since 1947, andfrom the O’Higgins army base since 1948, andtheir complete rehabilitation is included in insti-tutional plans.

These facilities are supplemented by the Presi-dente Eduardo Frei Montalva air base on KingGeorge Island, which is considered the most im-portant air base of the Chilean Antarctic territo-ry. It also operates year-round.24 This is the siteof the first Chilean Antarctic settlement, calledVilla Las Estrellas. The settlement has all neces-sary basic services (post office, hospital, tele-phones, bank, school, etc.) and is a symbol ofChilean sovereignty in the Antarctic region. The Te-niente Luis Carvajal air base and the Arturo Parodipolar station, which is the nearest construction tothe South Pole within Chile’s Antarctic territory, arealso part of the settlement.

Scientific endeavors, environment preservationand the exercise of the authority of the State inthis territory are supported through these means(See Figure 8).

1.5. Space Policy

Since 1959, the year our country signed an agree-ment with the United States of America for theinstallation of a satellite tracking station at Pelde-hue, Chile’s space technology has been a toolused by different organizations, universities, re-search centers, and enterprises. However, Chileis only a user country of this technology andtherefore depends on other states to obtain infor-mation, services and satellite images. ThereforeChile has a peremptory need to participate withits own capabilities in space activities.

ANTARCTIC POLICY!To protect Chile’s Antarctic rights and secure them within the framework of the Treaty.!To participate actively in the Antarctic System.! To consolidate the national institutional system within the Antarctic.!To strengthen the participation of the Magallanes and Chilean Antarctic Region in accordance with ad-ministrative powers granted to it by national legislation and to promote public utilities in the continentalterritory so as to constitute an effective “bridge” to the Antarctic.!To preserve the peace zone, scientific activities and the ecological reserves.!To guide national Antarctic sciences towards a closer integration with prevailing trends in this field.!To preserve living marine resources and to develop southernmost fishing.!To promote controlled tourism.!To encourage international cooperation.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE ARMED FORCES!Establishment of permanent bases in the Antarctic territory.! Meteorological and scientific activities.!Support of scientific activities undertaken by other national or international organizations.!Exploration of the territory and its projection towards the South Pole, with meteorological, glaciological,geodesic and hydrographic purposes.!Logistical support to Antarctic activities undertaken by other national and international institutions.!Air evacuation of people.!Removal of waste and pollutants produced by national and foreign bases.

BOX 15

✪ 24 On the same island of King George, the Chilean Antarctic Insti-tute (INACH) has established the Julio Escudero and Julio Ripamon-ti bases. The first of these is the most important Chilean scientificbase in the Antarctic.

FIGURE 8


a) Frame of ReferenceWithin the international sphere, the guiding cri-teria for Chile’s space policy are the following:

!To defend the principle that outer spaceis a common heritage of humanity, in ac-cordance with the provisions of currentinternational legislation, which has beenratified by our country.!To promote the peaceful use of outerspace so as to strengthen internationalpeace.

!To safeguard national sovereignty andsecurity against the potential misuse ofspace technology by other nations. !To promote international cooperationand integration with the Latin Americanregion in space activities.

Within the national sphere, the criteria thatguide our space policy considers, that withinthe scope of security and Defense, the use ofspace shall be carried out in accordance with


current international regulations, which stip-ulate the peaceful use of outer space andpromote cooperation in joint projects amongcivilian and military agencies.

b) ObjectivesThe main objectives of Chile’s space policy are:

!To define the actions related to the use,knowledge and progress of space scienceand technology, thus contributing to asafe and sustainable socioeconomic devel-opment of the country, cooperating at thesame time with the implementation, fol-low-up and coordination of national sci-ence and technology projects.!To promote the training of the neces-sary human resources for the develop-ment of space science and technology.!To increase our international participa-tion so as to achieve a more relevant rolein this sphere through the coordination oforganizations and institutions that under-take science and technology tasks.!To promote, encourage and disseminateinformation about space science and tech-nology and the benefits obtained throughthem so as to create national awareness oftheir importance and growing influencein national and world activities.

c) General GuidelinesPriority shall be given to the development ofthe following items inherent in a space system:

!Space elements. Manufacture of satel-lites, carrying capacity and equipment orremote acquisition and sensor equipment,telecommunications and scientific items.!Space infrastructure. In this field em-phasis shall be given to developing spe-cialized manufacturing laboratories, test-ing and integration of control and trackingcenters. Construction of launch centershas not been considered.!Launching. The development of rock-ets, vectors, space transportation vehiclesor others intended for the transport ofspace elements has not been considered.!Information System. The trend will pro-mote the establishment of a National Cen-ter for receiving, storage, processing anddistribution of special data, with the ob-jective of avoiding duplicate acquisitionsand achieving efficiency at the nationallevel in the handling of this resource. !Space Activities. They will be mainly di-rected towards the creation of an analysis

team comprised of scientists, profession-als, technicians, and experts who will en-able the operation of the aforementionedsystem elements.

2. DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION POLICIES

The Defense Policy includes a series of elementsto enable its institutions to devote part of theirefforts to national development, utilizing theirindividual and collective skills.

2.1. Environmental Policy

The general objective of the Chilean State Envi-ronmental Policy is to promote the sustainabilityof the environment within the developmentprocess and its final objective is to improve thequality of life of Chilean citizens and of futuregenerations.

Each State sector must develop an environmen-tal policy to be applied in its own sphere, withinthe framework established by the national poli-cy. To this effect, the Ministry of National De-fense has prepared a sector policy called the De-fense Environment Policy, which will serve as ageneral guideline to the specific policies of thedifferent organizations and institutions underthe Ministry of National Defense. The legalframework in which the National Defense Insti-tutions operate in this field are Law 19.300, “Con-stitutional Organic Law on the General Founda-tions of the Environment” and the declarationsand international agreements and treaties towhich the Chilean State is a party.

In order to organize the activities of the Ministrywithin this sphere, the National Defense Envi-ronment Committee, under the Chief of the Na-tional Defense General Staff, was established onJanuary 30, 2001. In April 2001 an Agreement onEnvironmental Cooperation was signed betweenthe National Commission for the Environment(CONAMA) and the Ministry of National De-fense. Its objectives are to establish a working,collaborative relationship between the two insti-tutions; to ensure that the Defense Policy is anenvironmentally clean policy, and to identify en-vironmental issues that the Armed Forces andthe Forces of Order and Security are to addressand to take actions that will result in the effec-tive resolution of these environment problems.

Environmental activities carried out by the Na-tional Defense institutions can be divided into


two large categories. The first category dealswith the environmental sustainability of the nor-mal activities of the Defense sector organiza-tions. These organizations have been graduallyincorporating procedures that will minimize theenvironmental effects of their normal activities.The second category is participation by the Na-tional Defense institutions in the State’s NationalSystem of Environment Management (SNGAE).

The national environmental system currently inforce assigns specific obligations and responsibil-ities to some specific institutions of National De-fense, with respect to the control, preventionand care of the environment in Chile or in areaswhere the State has made international commit-ments to use its resources for preservation of theenvironment.

Some of the most significant activities carriedout by the armed institutions are the Army’s ef-forts to achieve clean production in its industrialand chemical complex located in the Metropoli-tan Region and the education and training ofstaff at the Army’s Military Polytechnic Academyin subjects related to environmental manage-ment. Environmental concerns are now one ofthe variables that must be taken into account inthe planning or performance of all the Army’sfield activities. Project are also being undertakento optimize the handling of contaminatingwastes in environmentally sensitive areas suchas along the coast, agricultural, tourist or archeo-logical zones, and neighboring natural reserves.

For its part, the Navy has undertaken an espe-cially intensive environmental work due to na-tional and international legislation that assigns itspecific functions in environmental matters.

In order to carry them out, the Service for thePreservation of the Water Environment and Com-bating Pollution was created in 1993. Its effortsare directed towards safeguarding the quality ofthe water environment in the sea, rivers andlakes of the country, minimizing risk situationsthrough the prevention, control and combat ofpollution and spillage of any harmful substances.

In order to meet this objective, the Service has aNational Plan for the Research, Oversight andControl of Water Pollution. It also carries out itsactivities in different work areas, particularly inthose that derive from the Permanent Commis-sion of the South Pacific (PCSP), the National Ad-visory Committee on Global Change, the appli-cation of the Protocol on Environmental Protec-tion of the Antarctic Treaty (Protocol of Madrid),

the National Oceanographic Committee (CONA),and the International Maritime Organization.

The Navy plays a particularly important role instimulating the development of the system of en-vironmental institutions dealing with the waterenvironment, and through its efforts to achievethe full environmental sustainability of its facili-ties and to ensure that all Navy ships meet therequirements established in current internation-al regulations (MARPOL).

Lastly, the Air Force has incorporated environ-mental criteria and procedures aimed at protect-ing the environment, in particular from soundpollution. One particularly important task is thatperformed by the Office of Meteorology of theChilean Air Force, which provides informationabout different environmental variables, thuscontributing to the environmental managementof the country and, in particular, to prompt reac-tion to environmental emergency situations. Ad-ditionally, this agency is responsible for the ad-ministering the Global Warning monitoring sta-tions in Chile (in the southern city of Valdiviaand Easter Island).

2.2. Military Industry

The Defense Industry and the military industryin particular, contributes to the country’s devel-opment by providing innovative technology andpossibilities for the transfer of technology.

Within this sphere, the Army’s contributions arecentralized in the Military Industry and Engi-neering Command. Factories and Workshops ofthe Army (FAMAE), the Chemical and IndustrialComplex and the Research and Control Institutecarry out the most important activities. Militarymanufacturing capability, mainly represented byFAMAE, Although its technological developmentpermits the manufacture of weapons of differenttypes and calibers, armored vehicles, rockets andammunition, it is also utilized for the manufac-ture of tools and articles for national production.Similarly, military chemical production manu-factures explosives and supplies used in industryand in mining enterprises.

The Navy has its shipyards and repair shops,Shipyards and Workshops of the Navy (ASMAR)and its related enterprises SISDEF y SOCIBER.ASMAR is an autonomous State-owned enter-prise that has grown into a highly-professionalindustrial complex, with the capability of meet-ing increasing demand for careening mainte-nance, repair and construction of ships belong-


ing to the Chilean Navy and to the National Mer-chant Marine, as well as for maintenance and re-pair of navy ships from other countries. It hasthree dockyards located in Valparaíso, Talc-ahuano and Magallanes. To date, ASMAR hasbuilt 95 ships and other sea craft in its dockyards.

The Air Force basically channels its effortsthrough the National Aeronautics Enterprise(ENAER). This enterprise has achieved strategicbusiness alliances in the national and interna-tional spheres for different projects. In the man-ufacturing field, the “Pillán” basic training air-craft constitutes a distinctive item and is in fulloperation in several air forces around the world.It also manufactures pieces and parts in con-junction with various foreign companies of rec-ognized prestige in the world of aeronautics.Lastly, ENAER has incorporated state-of-the-artretrofitting technology for combat aircraft and itsinstalled capacity allows it to overhaul the AirForce’s inventory of aircraft, as well as that ofmilitary and civil aircraft from other countries.

2.3. Science and Technology

In this field, Defense institutions have made sev-eral contributions to the national community. Aspart of joint agreements with State, private anduniversity institutions, they carry out scientificresearches, which have resulted in the pooling ofknow-how to the benefit of these institutions aswell as to that of the private development sector.

Using the CEOTAC computer program, the Armyhas developed an Institution and OrganizationManagement Training Program (SEGIO). The SE-GIO includes training for different civilian andmilitary institutions, including the “CatastropheTraining System”, directed towards State public ad-ministrators and the “Disaster Training System”,with the objective of boosting the preparedness ofauthorities responsible for decision-making in cas-es of crises at the political-strategic level.

Naval architecture is one of most significant con-tributions of the Navy through her dockyards,shipyards and workshops, in addition to the de-velopment of weapons control and commandand control systems as well as propulsion sys-tems for its combat units. In the field of scientif-ic research, the Navy also contributes, throughthe Navy Hydrographic and Oceanographic Ser-vice (SHOA), to the dissemination of the nation-al oceanographic plan that meets research re-quirements coordinates efforts undertaken bydifferent organizations, universities and researchcenters related to sea activities.

The Air Force itself is continually incorporatingnew technology into its activities. The develop-ment of ENAER has allowed the incorporation oftechnologies that go beyond aeronautics, reach-ing an advanced development of technology,which has been recognized worldwide. This isthe case of Bureau Veritas prepared for ISO 9002,the MIL-9858 A military specifications and thosefor the United States Federal Aviation Agency(FAA). Furthermore, the special activities under-taken by the Air Force has permitted the incor-poration of satellite technology to operate a satel-lite station within the country.

With regard to geographical information tech-nologies, the Defense sector has the basic terri-torial information required by the country. Thisactivity is implemented through the preparationof land, sea and air cartography carried out bythe Military Geographic Institute (IGM), theNavy Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service(SHOA) and the Aerial Photogrammetry Serviceof the Air Force (SAF).

The IGM prepares the official cartography of thecountry, in the different forms and scales usedfor mining, public works, urbanization, educa-tion, health and statistics activities, and, in gen-eral, to support development decision-making ofadministrative authorities.

The SHOA has implemented the hydrographicmapping of the Chilean coast. This task was initi-ated in 1843 at mouth of the Río Bueno and itsscope was later increased with constantly improv-ing technologies, until the current electronic map-ping of the entire national coast, including itsfiords, channels, bays and ports as well as their ac-cesses. These places are thus open to the safe traf-fic of freighters both for domestic and foreign tradeand their passage is facilitated through the imple-mentation of a complete system of lighthousesand buoys that are essential for navigating throughthe channels and allowing vessels to avoid the rig-ors of the southernmost ocean waters.

Lastly, through the use of different aerial pho-tography techniques, the SAF provides an impor-tant service to the planning and development ofroad infrastructure, survey of native forests, de-termination of zones suitable for habitation andproduction of different agricultural products,mine prospecting, environmental assessmentsand other similar matters.

❦


















(AGPE) 56











of the Republic 19










Operations 32

















PART IV
















(DGMN) 92












PART IV

The fact that Defense is a regulatoryactivity determines the way in which it isimplemented. Since it is essentially amatter of national concern, the Presidentof the Republic is responsible for its man-agement and conduction, with the assis-tance of different advisory and coordinat-ing services. These include all the institu-tional agencies of the Republic involvedin the decisions to assure the country’sexternal security.

The importance of the decisions made atthe higher levels of the Defense structure,as well as in the defense sector itself, forthe country’s development during peace-time as well as in wartime or any othertype of armed conflict, requires compre-hensive advisory services to the Head ofState. These take the form of political col-laboration from State agencies, institu-tions or political authorities and the mili-

tary collaboration of the Armed Forces.According to the Political Constitution,the Minister of National Defense shouldwork right alongside the President of theRepublic in governing and administrat-ing the defense sector. It is the Minister’sjob to head the Defense Ministry, com-prised of advisory and work bodies, pub-lic services, and subordinate organiza-tions, as well as the Armed Forces andPolice and Security institutions.

The Minister of Defense is responsible forsubmitting the National Defense Policyfor the consideration of the President ofthe Republic. In the event of armed con-flict, the law provides that the State beorganized into Fields of Action andmakes the Minister of Defense responsi-ble for coordinating the different min-istries compliance with the measuresadopted by the President of the Republic.

The Conduct and Organizationof the National Defense

BOOK OF THE NATIONAL DEFENSE OF CHILEYEAR 2002 8833PART IV

1. Conducting the National Defense

Given the nature and impact of deci-

sions involved in National Defense, its

conduction requires a specific system

and order. The President of the

Republic bears the main responsibility

for these matters. This chapter summa-

rizes important aspects of the conduct

and organization of the Defense sector.

1. CONDUCTING THE NATIONAL DEFENSE

The Conduct of the Defense is a process used tomake the decisions required to guide and directthe country’s defense. Based on a specific orga-nizational structure, this process flows through aregulated and systematized channel startingfrom the highest level of the State (the office ofthe Executive), where decisions are made, to thestrategic or military level. Conduct occurs whencommand is exercised. The President of the Re-public directs the Commanders in Chief of theArmed Forces through the Minister of NationalDefense, who acts as the regular channel for thispurpose, though his duties differ in peace andwar.

The rules governing the conduct of the defensein Chile are based on different instruments thatvary in their legal rank and the different contextsof the times in which they were enacted. Theconceptual evolution of the field of Defense hasattempted to better reflect the practical exerciseof the modern State in this matter, and has given

place, for example, to a typology that distin-guishes between the political and strategic leveland the military strategic level. However, therules governing the conduct of the Defense havenot followed a similar evolution of the concept.Nonetheless, this section attempts to provide asystematic presentation of the ideological princi-ples and current legislation and of the modernapproach to conducting military operations atdifferent levels in academic and institutional de-fense spheres, both in Chile and abroad.

2. SUPERIOR INSTITUTIONS OF DEFENSE

Under Chile’s system of presidential govern-ment, the highest Defense institution is subordi-nate to the President of the Republic. Other bod-ies that perform varied duties according to thelaws of our country are the National Congress,the National Security Council, and the SuperiorCouncil of National Security. As a whole, theseState institutions and agencies that act at thehighest level of conducting the defense consti-


FIGURE 9

✪ 25 Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile, Article 32, Nos. 7,19, 20, and 21.

tute what is known as the superior structure ofthe Defense. (See Figure 9)

2.1. President of the Republic

Article 24 of the Political Constitution of Chilerefers to the President of the Republic as the oneresponsible for governing and administrating theState, and extends the President’s authority toeverything related to the maintenance of publicorder and external security of the Republic.

In terms of the defense duties (i.e., the duties re-garding the country’s external security), the Pres-ident of the Republic has the following authority:

!To dispose, organize, and distribute theland, sea, and air forces.!To assume the position of Supreme Com-mander of the Armed Forces in the event ofwar.!To declare war, with prior authorization ofthe legislature, placing on record that theopinion of the National Security Council wasconsidered. !To declare, together with the other bodiesof the State, the constitutional states of emer-gency and siege.25

These duties comprise the main exclusive deci-sion-making authority of the President of the Re-public in the area of Defense.

2.2. Minister of National Defense

The Minister of National Defense is the directand immediate collaborator of the President ofthe Republic for governing and administratingthe area of defense. The Minister governs theDefense Ministry in accordance with the policiesand directions given by the President.

The Minister’s general task is to plan and directthe activities of the Ministry, and to provide di-rect and immediate advice to the President aboutnational defense conduct, during peace and war.

As shown below, the Minister of National De-fense performs his duties with the advice of theBoard of the Commanders in Chief of the Ser-vices (JCCJ), which act as the Minister’s mainadvisory body in these issues. It also has thesupport and advice of the National Defense Gen-eral Staff (EMDN), an agency of the Ministry ofDefense, and of ad hoc organizations that dealwith specific matters: the General AdvocateCommittee, the Personnel Directors Committee,and the Health Directors Committee. Otheragencies, some under one of the UndersecretaryOffices or the National Defense General Staff,are the Office of National Mobilization (DGMN),the National Academy of Political and StrategicStudies (ANEPE), the Superior Council of Na-tional Defense (CONSUDENA), and others.

2.3. National Congress

The National Congress is comprised of the Sen-ate and the Chamber of Deputies. Each legisla-tive chamber has a Committee on Defense,which is responsible for analyzing and reporting


to its chamber’s plenary all bills related to na-tional defense in general and to the ArmedForces in particular.

In addition to analyzing and approving the de-fense sector budget, which includes the financialresources for defense, the Congress meets withthe Executive Branch to approve laws to author-ize or reject the entry of foreign troops into thenational territory, as well as the posting of na-tional troops abroad.

The Congress also has the authority to approveor reject the State of Siege, proposed by the Ex-ecutive

2.4. National Security Council (COSENA)

Created in 1980 by Chile’s Political Constitution,its mission is to advise the President of the Re-public on national security issues as requestedby the President. It is empowered to provide thePresident, the Congress or the ConstitutionalCourt with its opinion on any event, action orsubject that it believes to be a serious threat tothe foundations of the nation’s institutional sys-tem or which may compromise its national de-fense. Among its other powers, the Council mayalso gather, from the authorities and officers ofthe State administration, any information relatedto the country’s external and internal security.

The Council is chaired by the President of theRepublic, and is comprised of the following au-thorities, all of which have the right to vote:

!President of the Senate!President of the Supreme Court!Comptroller General of the Republic !Commander in Chief of the Army !Commander in Chief of the Navy !Commander in Chief of the Air Force !General Director of the Police Force

The following authorities are also part of theCOSENA, but without the right to vote:

!Minister of Internal Affairs!Minister of Foreign Affairs !Minister of National Defense!Minister of Economy !Minister of Finance

This Council may be convened by the Presidentof the Republic, or at the request of its members,and its agreements are adopted by absolute ma-jority of the members with the right to vote.26 Its

Secretary is the Chief of the National DefenseGeneral Staff.

2.5. Superior Council of National Security(CONSUSENA)

Legislative Decree 181, created this agency in1960, to advise the President on issues related tothe nation’s security and maintaining the coun-try’s territorial integrity.

In addition to its advisory function, the CON-SUSENA is responsible for analyzing and propos-ing measures to coordinate the work of the dif-ferent ministries in implementing the decisionsand guidelines of the President of the Republic.

In this task, the Superior Council will determinethe national defense needs and enforce all meas-ures established by the President to increase thecountry’s economic and defensive potential anddecide how to use the country’s resources inemergencies. It shall also determine the NationalDefense needs and request, from the appropriateagency, the funds needed to create, develop andmaintain the essential power and operational ca-pabilities of the Armed Forces. It is also responsi-ble for reviewing and approving the national orprimary documents of the national defense.

The Superior Council consists of the President ofthe Republic and the following authorities:

!Minister of State!Minister of Foreign Affairs !Minister of National Defense !Minister of Economy !Minister of Finance !Commander in Chief of the Army!Commander in Chief of the Navy !Commander in Chief of the Air Force !Director of State Borders and Limits!Chief of the National Defense General Staff

Its Secretary is the Secretary of the SuperiorCouncil of National Defense (CONSUDENA).

The Superior Council is exclusive an advisorybody; the President of the Republic has the exclu-sive right to accept or reject the resolutions of theCouncil. In this issue, it differs politically fromthe National Security Council, that adopts its res-olutions by agreement of its voting members.

✪ 26 Political Constitution, Articles 95 and 96.


3. CONDUCTING AT THE POLITICAL-STRATEGIC LEVEL

Conducting at the political-strategic level refersto the leadership of the President of the Republic,with the assistance of the Minister of Defense, indecision-making and decision taking processes inissues of international cooperation in whichChile provides a specific number of militaryforces. In addition, in the case of events in whichChile participates to prevent or manage a conflictincluding war, but which involve developing andemploying all or part of the armed forces andother means of national power in a synchronizedfashion to secure national objectives.

The process that leads to political-strategic deci-sions by the President of the Republic bring to-gether the political and technical perspectives ofdifferent sectors of the State administration, aswell as the military or strategic perspective.Based on this, the President decides how to ad-dress a situation.

The country’s legislation establishes that thebody where these political, technical and strate-gic perspectives come together is the SuperiorCouncil of National Security (CONSUSENA).Within this Council, the Minister of Defense isresponsible for proposing the National DefensePolicy for the approval of the President of theRepublic, both in peace as well as in war. TheMinister is especially responsible for:

!Considering and assessing the manpowerand material needs of the Armed Forces, re-quired to maintain its potential, preparationand proper training.!Proposing, according to the correspondingplans, the missions to be carried out by theArmed Forces and their priority. !Proposing to the CONSUSENA, for its con-sideration and approval, all issues related tonational security in which the National De-fense Field must take actions.!Establishing the necessary contacts withthe other ministries and civilian organiza-tions to make the best use of the state serv-ices related to national security.!Participating in the study of the prelimi-nary plans and implementing the part forwhich his office is responsible.

Since the CONSUSENA meets only when con-vened by the President of the Republic, many du-ties concerning political and strategic conduct areroutinely performed by the State, particularly bythe National Defense General Staff, including:

!Preparation of the Global Political-Strate-gic Assessment.!Conduct of the National Primary PlanningProcess!Order and oversee the strategic (second-ary) planning deriving from the national pri-mary planning.

4. CONDUCTING THE ARMED FORCES ATTHE STRATEGIC LEVEL

Statutory Decree 181 and its implementing regu-lations use the concept “strategic conduct of theArmed Forces” to mean the action by which theSuperior Council of National Defense advises thePresident of the Republic and studies and pro-poses measures for coordinating the work of thedifferent Ministries to carry out the policy set bythe President.

The President will have at all times –in peace,war or state of emergency– a direct chain-of-command relationship with the correspondingCommanders in Chief, through the Ministry ofDefense. When war or a state of emergencymake it necessary to establish joint forces in cer-tain areas, the line of command between thePresident and the military commanders on thefield in charge of those joint forces will bethrough the Minister of Defense and the Chair-man of the Board of the Commanders in Chief ofthe Services.

In times of war, the President of the Republic as-sumes as Supreme Commander of the ArmedForces and the law authorizes him to personallyexercise the strategic conduct of the ArmedForces or to delegate this responsibility to theChairman of the Board of the Commanders inChief of the Services.27

In addition to the tasks already mentioned, inwhich the Minister of Defense must submit pro-posals for the approval of the President of the Re-public, the Minister must also:

!Propose directives and orders for thestrategic conduct of the Armed Forces.!Approve the strategic (secondary) plans,implemented through the Board of the Com-manders in Chief of the Services.

✪ 27 See Executive Decree 272, of 1985, “Regulations for the consti-tution, mission, hierarchy and duties of the Armed Forces”.


To enable the Minister of Defense to best per-form the functions assigned to the position, thelaw provided it with its own advisory body todeal with issues involving the three branches ofthe armed forces: the Board of the Commandersin Chief of the Services (JCCJ), which has theNational Defense General Staff (EMDN) as itspermanent working staff. The Board is com-prised of the Commanders in Chief of the Army,Navy and Air Force. In peacetime, the Ministerof Defense chairs the Board. During wartime, theBoard is chaired by a military officer appointedby the President of the Republic to act in the ca-pacity of Chairman of the Board.

In addition to advising the Minister of Defense,the Board of the Commanders in Chief of theServices (JCCJ) also has some specific duties,such as:

!Reviewing and proposing military policyand measures related to national defense in-volving the Armed Forces, and reviewingand evaluating their needs.!Proposing solutions to all problems relatedto military strategy and its development inwartime. !Issuing instructions and provisions for thestrategic conduct of the Armed Forces, deriv-ing from the primary (national) and second-ary (strategic) planning. !Proposing the establishment of joint com-mands or forces where required by NationalSecurity.

In peacetimes as well as during wartime, eachmember of the Board, i.e., each Commander inChief, shall be responsible for enforcing the de-cisions adopted in relation to their respectiveservice.

5. MILITARY OR JOINT STRATEGIC CONDUCT OF THE ARMED FORCES

This level of conduct includes formulating anddirecting activities carried out by the ArmedForces preparing and executing war and its cam-paigns. The direction and coordination of the ac-tivities of each of the services is crucial in func-tion of the strategic objectives established.

The Board of the Commanders in Chief of theServices (JCCJ) is in charge of the coordinationof the activities rooted from the military or jointstrategic conduction. For this purpose, in addi-tion to its responsibilities outlined in the previ-ous point, this Board have the following duties:

!To study and approve the plans of the sub-ordinate joint commands.!To plan the Armed Forces training in allaspects of joint actions.!To order the direction and execution ofjoint exercises and maneuvers.

In wartime, the Chairman of the Board of theCommanders in Chief of the Services (JCCJ) isin charge of the strategic conduct of the ArmedForces, whenever the President of the Republicso decides, and, with the approval of the Minis-ter of Defense, will always execute all decisionsrelated to joint forces.

6. FIELDS OF ACTION

In order to deal with threats or risks to the coun-try’s security, and to the national defense in par-ticular, Chile’s legislation groups all the min-istries, institutions and agencies under them in-to four fields of action: Internal, Diplomatic, De-fense, and Economic.

The 1960 legislation that constituted the Superi-or Council of National Defense and the fields ofaction established that the planning of measuresfor national defense purposes was to take placeduring times of peace, excepting measures thatmight be adopted in wartime. In order to facili-tate the planning, coordination and execution ofvarious actions related to conflict prevention,and more importantly to conflict resolution, thefields of action have been considered as theState’s permanent mode to face conflicts, both inpeacetime and in wartime.

However, Chile’s normal routine in times ofpeace is organized into ministries and their sub-ordinate institutions and agencies, rather thaninto fields of action. There are two reasons forthis arrangement. The first is the nature of thepublic functions in times of peace, oriented tohighly specific sectors, with unique needs andtherefore unique requirements. The second isthe fact that the fields of action were formulatedon the basis of their immediate predecessors: the“fronts” structured, in the 1950 legislation, for na-tional mobilization purposes in the event ofarmed conflicts. These “fronts” were: Interior,Exterior, Military, and Economic.

❦


2. Ministry of National Defense

The Ministry of National Defense is the

public agency by which the Head of

State guides and directs the country’s

defense. For this purpose, Law 18.575,

the General Constitutional Organization

of the State Administration, has made

the Head of State also responsible for

proposing National Defense Policy and

the specific policies and plans deriving

from it.

1. ORGANIZATION OF THE MINISTRY OFNATIONAL DEFENSE (MOD)

The Ministry is formed by the Offices of the Un-dersecretaries of War, of the Navy, of the AirForce, of the Police Force (Carabineros de Chile),of the Investigations Police, and the National De-fense General Staff (EMDN), in addition to theorganizations mentioned in the preceding chap-ter.

The institutions of the Armed Forces (Army,Navy and Air Force) and those of Public Orderand Security (Carabineros and Investigations Po-lice) are under the Ministry of National De-fense.28 (Figure 10)

2. OFFICES OF THE UNDERSECRETARIESOF THE MINISTRY OF NATIONALDEFENSE

These are the Minister’s immediate advisory andassistant agencies, headed by an undersecretarywho has the trust of the President. In addition tospecific tasks assigned by the Minister, they ana-lyze and deal with administrative matters relatedto the institution they serve, and promote all theinitiatives and projects beneficial for the devel-opment of the Defense and of Public Order andSecurity.

2.1. Office of the Undersecretary of War

This office executes and processes legal, regula-tory, administrative, budgetary, and social secu-rity issues in the active, retired and veterans sec-tors of the Army and subordinate agencies. It al-so coordinates the study and processing of jointissues for the five Offices of the Undersecretariesof the Ministry of National Defense.

✪ 28 Although the police institutions are administratively under theMinistry of Defense, in operational matters they are under the Min-istry of State.


Under the Office of the Undersecretary of Warare the agencies that report directly or have rela-tions with the Ministry, such as the Head Officeof National Mobilization (DGMN), the NationalDefense Pensions Fund (CAPREDENA), the Mil-itary Archbishop of Chile, the Factories andWorkshops of the Army (FAMAE), and the CivilDefense of Chile (See Box 16).

2.2. Office of the Undersecretary of the Navy

This office executes and processes legal, regula-tory, administrative, budgetary and social securi-ty issues in the active, retired and veterans sec-tors of the Navy and subordinate agencies. It co-ordinates the actions of the public agencies andservices related to its sector. Shipyards and Work-shops of the Navy (ASMAR) reports to the Min-istry of National Defense through this undersec-retary’s office.

This office performs all the tasks involved in theadministration and supervision of its national as-sets located along the seacoasts and rivers andlakes. Granting sea and aquiculture concessionsand coastal planning are particularly relevant as-pects of this function (See Box 17).

2.3. Office of the Undersecretary of the AirForce

This office executes and processes legal, regula-tory, administrative, budgetary and social securi-ty issues in the active, retired and veterans sec-tors of the Air Force and subordinate agencies.

The National Aeronautics Enterprise (ENAER)reports to the Ministry of National Defense

CIVIL DEFENSE OF CHILEThe Civil Defense of Chile is a public-law corpora-tion assigned to undertake continuing and one-time actions to protect the population against anydisaster that could affect the citizens or urbanareas. It was created by Law 8059, published inOfficial Gazette N° 20,084, of February 16, 1945.

It is headed by the Minister of National Defense,who delegates his authority to the institution’sDirector General, who is responsible for directingand administrating the service.

Volunteer individuals or organizations form theCivil Defense of Chile. The Civil Defense agencyalso has “on-duty” personnel, (remaining personnelfrom the military service draft) which, according tothe provisions of Law Decree 2306, Article 30, of1978, must be provided by the Head Office ofNational Mobilization. This personnel is assignedto serve in the Civil Defense of Chile for a periodsimilar to that of Military Service, i.e. one year. Theyare trained to execute the missions of the institu-tion. Today the Civil Defense has 9,000 members,5,500 of whom are volunteers, and 3,500 are on-duty personnel.

The Civil Defense of Chile is organized nation-wide. Currently, it has 104 local headquarters and41 radio stations. Local headquarters are the oper-ating and action units of the institution in eventof an emergency or catastrophe, and they aremembers of the individual EmergencyCommittees and the Emergency OperationsCenters (C.O.E.), agencies that define the CivilDefense units’ missions at the district, provincialand regional levels.

BOX 16

FIGURE 10


through this Undersecretary’s Office, and is re-sponsible for supporting the activities of theChilean Space Agency. (See Box 18)

2.4. Office of the Undersecretary of the PoliceForce (Carabineros de Chile)

This office has the mission of directly advisingthe Minister of National Defense in all mattersrelated to the Chilean Police Force (Carabineros)

and the Police Force Pension Fund Directorate(DIPRECA), whether they are administrative, le-gal, social security or budgetary issues that are tobe processed through this Undersecretary’s Of-fice.

2.5. Office of the Undersecretary of theInvestigations Police

This office has the mission of directly advising

NATIONAL POLICY ON COASTAL EXPLOITATION This policy establishes an organizational framework for the best use of the sea and land along the coast,determining the essential elements for its development. The coastline of continental Chile, plus the islandsclose to the continent and other intermittent islands totals 84,040 km. To date, 4% of it has been granted in Sea Concessions andDestinations, and Aquiculture Concessions.

These spaces are a limited resource that allows multiple uses some of which are exclusive and others thatare mutually compatible. The basic purpose of the National Policy on Coastal Exploitation (PNUBC) is todetermine the best use of coastal areas.

This policy provides for the operation of a National Commission for Coastal Use, and a Regional Commissionfor Coastal Use, which is comprised of the authorities, related to the sector and has the mission of propos-ing the appropriate zoning.

The National Commission –the entity in charge of providing advice to the President of the Republic– ischaired by the Minister of National Defense and comprises the Office of the Undersecretary of the Navy, theMinistries and other agencies related to the field.

BOX 17

CHILEAN SPACE AGENCYThis is a decentralized public service, with legal capacity and its own capital, under the direct oversight ofthe President of the Republic. Its purpose is to advise him concerning space issues and serve as coordinatorbetween public agencies with related responsibilities.

The Agency has the following tasks:

!Advise the President of the Republic so that Chile’s foreign policy, in matters that affect space issuescan be adapted to the national space policy by promoting coordination between the Ministry ofForeign Affairs and the other ministries represented in the Chilean Space Agency and making the prop-er proposals.!Promote and propose international agreements in order to access and channel scientific, technologi-cal and economic cooperation in the field of space activities.!Promote and propose agreements or other instruments designed to channel public and private con-tributions to develop space activities.!Study the national legislation applicable to space issues and propose the improvements or reformsrequired, at the institutional and functional levels. In particular, the Commission is to prepare and pro-pose a bill to create an institutional system that will permanently undertake space activities.!Coordinate, with all state and private agencies, both national and international, all space-relatedactivities carried out in Chile or by Chile abroad.!As a coordinating and driving entity for the country’s space activities, the Agency is to structure aNational Space Plan coherent with the outline established in this National Space Policy.

BOX 18


the Minister of National Defense in all mattersrelated to the Investigations Bureau of Chile,whether they are administrative, legal, social se-curity or budgetary issues, whether they have ageneral or specific nature, that should beprocessed through this Undersecretary.

3. NATIONAL DEFENSE GENERAL STAFF(EMDN)

The National Defense General Staff is the per-manent advisory, working and coordinationagency of the Minister of National Defense in allissues related to the preparation and use of theArmed Forces. This is a joint agency, comprisedof representatives of the three services under thecommand of the Chief the National DefenseGeneral Staff. The EMDN also acts as the work-ing and coordination agency of the SuperiorCouncil of National Security (CONSUSENA) andthe Board of the Commanders in Chief of the Ser-vices (JCCJ).

The position of Chief of the National DefenseGeneral Staff is a Division General, a Vice-admi-ral or a General of the Air Force, filled for two-year terms on a rotating basis by each of theservices. The National Defense General Staff al-so has a Vice Chief, a position filled on a rotatingbasis by a General (Army or Air Force) or a RearAdmiral, and the Special Directorates and De-partments listed in its internal regulations. In ad-dition, there are permanent or temporary Advi-sory Councils and Committees under the Chiefof the National Defense General Staff establishedby executive decree or by ministry orders.

The general duties of the National Defense Gen-eral Staff are:

!To undertake all work or studies deter-mined by the Minister of National Defense,and those agreed to by the Superior Councilof National Security, by the Board of theCommanders in Chief of the Services, andwhich are related to National Security, andthe preparation and use of the Armed Forces,whether in peacetime, crisis or in wartime.!To prepare and maintain an up-to-date na-tional (primary) and strategic (secondary)National Defense planning.!To execute, in coordination with the HeadOffice of National Mobilization, all work orstudies related to national mobilization, asordered by the Superior Council of NationalSecurity. !To coordinate the execution of joint duties

and tasks to be performed by the ArmedForces.!To coordinate with the Ministry of InternalAffairs those activities that should be execut-ed by the Armed Forces related to the coun-try’s interior security, and in cases of catas-trophe, according to the Constitution and thelaws. (See Figure 11)

4. SUPERIOR COUNCIL OF NATIONALDEFENSE (CONSUDENA)29

Its main duty is to control the investments andpurchasing of weapons systems, and other sys-tems, as well as major combat and combat sup-port, crafts and vehicles, that are done by theservices according to the Copper’s Reserved Law,and authorized by Executive Decree. It is chairedby the Minister of Defense and comprised of:

!Minister of Foreign Affairs !Minister of Finance!Commanders in Chief of the Army, Navy,and Air Force !Undersecretaries of War, the Navy and theAir Force !Chiefs of the General Staffs of the Services!Chief of the National Defense GeneralStaff

Its Secretary is a general staff qualifed retiredcoronel.

5. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF POLITICALAND STRATEGIC STUDIES (ANEPE)

The National Academy of Political and StrategicStudies is the academic entity of the Ministry,specializing in security and defense issues.30 Itsmission is to carry out academic, research, ex-tension and dissemination activities to increaseknowledge on topics related to National Securityand National Defense. The work of ANEPE is di-rected towards the staff of the Armed Forces, thePublic Order and Security Forces, the State ad-ministration (especially of the Defense sector),the private sector, and the Defense communityin general.

✪ 29 Created by Law 7144, of January 5, 1941.30 Recognized as a Higher Education Institution by Law Constitu-tional Organic Law on Education 18.962, of March 10, 1990.


In particular, its orientation towards the civilianworld is part of the Ministry’s effort to expandcivilian participation in defense, in order to traincivilians in various related matters and encour-age their participation in working groups on de-fense.

Its Director is a General Officer of the ArmedForces in active duty, appointed by the Presidentof the Republic. Its academic body is comprisedof civilian professionals and National Defenseprofessionals in active duty or retired.

One of its principal activities are the undergrad-uate and postgraduate courses, such as the HighCommand Course, the Higher Education Coursefor Senior Officers (Ltc or Major) of the Logisticaland Administrative branches of the Services, theDiploma in Political and Strategic Studies(DEPE), and the Master’s program in Securityand Defense.

6. HEAD OFFICE OF NATIONAL MOBILIZATION (DGMN)

Representatives of the three services of theArmed Forces participate in this ministryagency. Its director is a General Officer of theArmy or an equivalent rank of the Navy or AirForce, in active duty appointed by executive de-cree.

The main duties of the DGMN are to coordinateand control the following activities:

!National Mobilization, which is the seriesof activities and measures designed to pre-pare part or all the manpower, material andindustrial potential of the country, in orderto deal with an armed conflict. !Recruitment, which focuses mainly on thedrafting, selection and distribution of citi-zens performing Compulsory Military Ser-vice.!Control of weapons and explosives. TheDGMN has by law the responsibility of con-trolling firearms, ammunitions, explosivesand chemical products used in manufactur-ing explosives, which are in the possession ofindividuals or legal entities.!Control of chemical and toxic weapons.This is a responsibility derived from Chile’sratification of the “International Conventionon the Prohibition of the Development, Pro-duction, Stockpiling and Use of ChemicalWeapons.”!Martial arts. The law establishes that theMinister of National Defense, through theDGMN, will control these activities in thecountry.

FIGURE 11

❦


3. National Mobilization andMilitary Service

This chapter describes National

Mobilization as the provision and

preparation of the manpower and

material resources to serve the State in

order to deal with an armed conflict.

Compulsory Military Service gives Chile

enough forces to perform Defense

tasks in peacetime and to generate

trained reserves for any mobilization

process.

1. NATIONAL MOBILIZATION

It consists of three stages: preparation, execution,and demobilization. The preparation takes placeduring the normal, non-emergency state, throughthe planning and enlisting of manpower, material,and industrial potentials. Preparation is decentral-ized and involves, among other matters, the organ-ization of the entire State administration in Fieldsof Action.

1.1. Mobilization of Manpower

In the event of a foreign armed conflict, consideredin the Political Constitution of the Republic as anemergency state called a “State of Assembly,” thecriteria for allocating resources to increase theforces are changed in response to emergency situa-tions associated with the state of alert. National Mo-bilization is an attempt to prepare the country with-out producing obvious changes in the normalcourse of the country’s activities.

The ongoing preparation and updating of the mobi-

lization documents and plans is the duty of the Na-tional Defense General Staff (EMDN), while the en-listment that includes the coordination and execu-tion of the preparatory mobilization measures is theduty of the Head Office of National Mobilization(DGMN).

It recent years there has been a constant concern tomodernize concepts and procedures in order totake the mobilization process to more realistic sce-narios in keeping with its needs.

For this reason, the DGMN implemented its “Ad-vance” project, which essentially involves updating atall levels (EMDN, DGMN, Services’ General Staffs, op-erational units, naval zones, air bases, and Mobiliza-tion Base Units), the validation and control proce-dures of the reserve management, and requirementsof the field of the national defense. The project alsoaims at improving the consultation, analysis andevaluation processes involved in the assignment ofresources, ensuring effective, timely management ofthe data during the stage of preparation, and conse-quently, in the mobilization of the human potential.


2. COMPULSORY MILITARY SERVICE

Compulsory Military Service was established inChile by means of Law 1362 on “Army and Navy Re-cruits and Replacements,” passed on September 5,1900. Though its application is nationwide, in otherwords, based on the compulsory, binding nature ofthe public obligation, the cost of this model of re-cruiting is very high and not in keeping with thecurrent needs of the National Defense. During mostof the 19th Century, it was applied selectively,through a recruiting system designed to selecttroops from the conscript base. This system hasbeen maintained over time with some variations,giving rise to a model known as a compulsory-se-lective recruiting model.

2.1. Modernization of Compulsory MilitaryService

Throughout the century in which compulsory mili-tary service has been in force, Chilean society hasundergone a significant and important process ofchanges, to which this service to the country hashad to adapt from time to time. The new social, eco-nomic and cultural realities, mainly since the1960’s, as well as Chile’s defense needs derivingfrom the changes in the international and strategicarena, especially after the end of the Cold War,made a substantial modernization of compulsorymilitary service advisable.

In 1994 the country began to modify the militaryservice, to introduce some elements to compensatefor the compulsory-selective nature of its recruit-ing, without affecting its military foundations. In asecond stage in 2000, a National Forum on Com-pulsory Military Service was held, with the partici-pation of several organizations representing civilsociety and State agencies and institutions, particu-larly the Armed Forces.

On September 5 of that year, Executive Decree 81 ofthe Ministry of National Defense approved a pro-posal to modernize the Compulsory Military Ser-vice, based mainly on a series of ideas outlined inthis forum.

The proposal mainly considers designing a recruit-ing system that promotes voluntary enlistment toperform this service to the country, to be comple-mented by a selection of the percentage of troopsnot covered by voluntary recruits, through a public,universal lottery mechanism. Some of the innova-tions to be introduced are related to the objectivityand transparency of the recruiting system, the es-tablishment of automatic enrollment in the Military

Registries of all Chilean citizens, the improvementof types of service and the creation of a control andsupervisory system for the entire selection and re-cruitment process. The intention is also to strength-en and improve the legislative and institutionaltreatment of the rights and responsibilities of therecruits, and to regulate the causes of exclusionmore precisely. It also promotes voluntary militaryservice for women.

This proposal, that involves considerable modifica-tion of Law Decree 2306, of August 2, 1978, wasprepared based on certain initial conditions thatcomprise the foundation of the State’s general poli-cy on military service. These initial conditions are:

!The State has the responsibility of guarantee-ing the country’s defense and, for this purpose,must keep the Armed Forces in a condition tomeet the operational requirements of its mis-sions.!The State has limited funds to execute theplans and projects designed to meet the variousneeds and demands of society, and thus lacksthe financial resources required to have a fullprofessional force. !Through the Constitution, the State has setforth every citizen’s ethical imperatives of soli-darity and service to the society where theywere born and of which they are a part, whichrequires a personal contribution to the defenseof the country by means of military service.!The State is responsible for providing for so-ciety’s aspirations concerning the principles ofequality in public duties and human dignity,and for establishing the institutional mecha-nisms that ensure respect for these principles.

The amendments included in the bill that modern-izes compulsory military service, submitted to theLegislature in December 2001, meet the needs ofthe Armed Forces on the one hand, and, on theother, respond to the universal aspirations of civilsociety.

However, this does not mean that the obligatory na-ture of the military service as established in Article22 of the Constitution is changed. Instead, the ob-jective of the government’s policy is to make vol-untary enlistment the preferred means of troop se-lection.

This initiative is included in a schedule of severalstages until full implementation of the new com-pulsory military service model in 2005. This mod-ernization of the compulsory military service in-volves modifying laws and regulations, adapting the


structures of the National Defense institutions, andassigning more resources and incentives to facili-tate the goal of significantly increasing the recruit-ment of volunteers.

3. RESERVE FORCES

The reserve forces are a group of people, with orwithout military training, who are part of the coun-try’s manpower, but not included in the conscriptbase or in active duty in the services. Personnel inthe military reserves or in the Armed Forces arecalled reservists and will be classified as trainedand untrained reserves.

The law defines the concepts involved as follows:

a) Manpower: people who reside nationwideor who may enter the country and, becausethey are Chilean citizens, constitute the totalhuman resources available to the country.

b) National Reserve: people, without distinc-tion of gender, who meet the psychological,physical and morale conditions to be mobilizedor to perform other duties in benefit of thecountry.

c) Military or Armed Forces Reserve: people,without distinction of gender, of the requiredmilitary age, with or without military training,that meet the conditions to be mobilized by theArmed Forces. The military or Armed Forcesreserve is formed with the following personnel:

!Personnel retired from the permanentstaff of the services of the Armed Forces!Personnel from the Officers and NCOschools of the Armed Forces, ho-norably dis-charged.!Personnel with military training fromcompulsory military service, a professionalmilitary course or other special course. !Personnel without military training.

❦


4. The Armed Forces

To protect the population, the territory

and property and activities carried out

within the national borders, and to sup-

port the administration of the country’s

Foreign Policy, the State has the

resources of the National Defense.

Among them, the Armed Forces is the

only military component and consti-

tutes the foundation of Chile’s defen-

sive power.

1. MILITARY POLICY

Military Policy is the set of guidelines that theMinistry of Defense gives to the Armed Forces toimplement the military norms deriving from theNational Defense Policy. This policy provides aguideline for the work of the Armed Forces as aharmonic, coordinated body, thus, providing thefoundations for jointness. Military Policy at-tempts to strategically respond to the require-ments of the Defense Policy and to establish thebasis for the specific policies of the services. It es-tablishes the criteria or standards for the materi-als, weapons systems and equipment commonlyused in the three services, logistical and resourcemanagement procedures, standard operating pro-cedures, joint training and doctrine, and issuesthat help optimize the performance of commonand joint tasks of the services, among others.

2. MISSION OF THE ARMED FORCES

The Chilean Army, Navy and Air Force are the

only services that constitute the Armed Forces,which are subordinate to the Ministry in chargeof the National Defense. These services exist todefend the nation, are essential for national se-curity, and guarantee the institutional order ofthe Republic. In their capacity as armed services,they are essentially obedient, non-deliberating,professionals, hierarchical, and disciplined.

In relation to defense or external security, thegeneral mission of the Armed Forces is to deteror combat all foreign threats in order to safe-guard sovereignty and maintain the integrity ofthe national territory. They also cooperate withmilitary forces of other countries in bilateral ormultilateral initiatives, always in the best inter-est of the country.

Based on these purposes, the work of the ArmedForces is constant and hinges on the oath takenby each member entering its ranks, to serve thecountry and defend its essential values, and onthe proper enlistment of the personnel and re-sources of each of the armed services. For these


reasons, and due to the nature of the missions as-signed, this profession is considered primarilyvocational. This is reflected in the correspondinglegal texts that establish, among other aspects,that “incorporation into the ranks and staffs ofOfficers and personnel of the Permanent Staff isonly allowed through their own Military Acade-mies.”31

Considering the specific demands imposed bymilitary duty and the professional career, the or-ganizations and personnel exercising them, aswell as its institutes of professional training,comply with jurisdictional, disciplinary and ad-ministrative principles set forth in the specificlegislation.

The Armed Forces personnel is comprised of thepermanent staff (Officers, NCOs or Sailors, andCivil Employees), contract personnel, and re-serve staff called to active service. Complemen-tarily, though they are not part of the permanentstaff, ensigns, cadets, cabin boys, apprentices,and students of the institutional schools, as wellas recruits, are also subject to the hierarchy anddiscipline of the Armed Forces and correspon-ding laws.

The Armed Forces need to be prepared andtrained to fulfill their missions with enough flex-ibility and dynamism. In general terms, theyhave to be prepared for combat and for main-taining the state of peace of Chile, and also toparticipate in the State’s effort to maintain peacein the world. For this reason the Armed Forcesmust be conceived to face the full spectrum ofmilitary operations, i.e. from peacekeeping andpeace building to crisis prevention and war.

Their peacetime deployment and organizationmust grant them sufficient capacity to becomethe military might the State needs to address po-tential conflicts or to assume the tasks of inter-national cooperation assigned by the State.

3. FUNCTIONS OF THE ARMED FORCES

In order to perform the tasks assigned, theArmed Forces carry out a series of joint, com-mon and specific activities.32

The joint and common activities performed giveevidence of the usefulness of acting in coordina-tion under the concept of a “unity of war” Nor-mally, joint and common activities are coordi-nated and ordered by the National Defense Gen-eral Staff.

3.1. Joint Functions

These are activities that, in order to meet a spe-cific goal, require the active, integrated partici-pation, under a single command, of the meansand combat capabilities of the Army, the Navy,and the Air Force, or at least of two of these serv-ices.

3.2. Common Functions

These are activities that, though they pursue asimilar purpose, are performed individually bythe Army, the Navy and the Air Force, withoutdetriment to the corresponding coordination.

3.3. Specific Functions

These are the activities that are exclusively per-formed by each service of the Armed Forces.

The singularity of each society and the capabili-ties and limitations with which each State devel-ops in the international arena determine that theroles, missions and characteristics of the ArmedForces are special and unique for each particularcountry. They are encompassed within eachState’s freedom of action to establish its own con-cept of national security and its own DefensePolicy.

4. CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING JOINTNESS

In the search for strategic solutions according toour reality and the availability of resources, andconsidering the experience of countries thathave been in conflict recently, there is a clearneed for jointness in order to integrate capacitiesand thus achieve results that make timely, effi-cient and effective use of the military means.

Though this approach has gathered special mo-

✪ 31 Officers of the Religious Service and Officers of the professionalservices (M.D, Vet., lawyers) are excepted from this law. See, Consti-tutional Organic Law of the Armed Forces 18.948, February 1990.

✪ 32 See Executive Decree 272 of March 16, 1985.


mentum since the end of the Cold War, Chile hasbeen undertaking a sustained increase of itstraining capacity and joint forces operation since1951, implemented through a series of joint ac-tivities by the Armed Forces. One of the most rel-evant manifestations is the Southern Military Re-gion (RMA), a joint combatant command. Otherjoint efforts are represented by the joint aca-demic activities in the War Colleges. In term ofthe services, there are joint courses, joint wargames, and joint exercises that teach and trainthe personnel of all ranks and services’ units injoint issues. The National Defense General Staff(EMDN), a military organization of the Ministryof Defense, created in 1942 can be consideredthe highest representation of jointness— actingas integrator, planner, coordinator and advisor injoint issues, projects, doctrine, planning and or-ganizing the forces in a joint fashion.

The fulfillment of the missions assigned to theArmed Forces, presumes that they need to carryout complex military operations requiring signifi-cant land, sea, air, logistical and intelligence ef-forts that must be duly coordinated at the higheststrategic level. This assumption is valid, for notonly reaching objectives in a war, but also whenthey are limited as in cases of crisis. This neces-sary coordination is reflected in the strategic solu-tion adopted by the Armed Forces. When this so-lution requires attaining a specific strategic objec-tive through an integrated, coordinated and well-balanced effort of the land, sea and/or air means,the consequence is the imperative to create a jointforce, or joint command with these characteris-tics; that, necessarily leads to jointness.

4.1. Introductory Concepts

Military or joint strategy is defined as “the artand science of developing, conceiving and di-recting the use of military forces in the prepara-tion and execution of war and its campaigns, co-ordinating the activities of each of the services ofthe Armed Forces and joint commands to attainand secure the objectives stated by Policy.”

In other words, the Armed Forces as a wholeconstitute a joint force per se, that may form oth-er subordinated joint forces of permanent nature(joint combatant commands) or circumstantial(joint tasks forces) such as, airborne joint taskforces or amphibious joint task forces, if the situ-ation so recommends.

The way in which the means and their charac-teristics (joint, combined or ser-vices) are organ-

ized will depend on the nature of the objective,of the strategic imperatives, of the analysis of thestrategic conducting elements, and of the as-signed mission. This is why the use of jointmeans is a command responsibility of the com-mander who is entrusted with the mission andobjective.

4.2. The Conduct of Joint Operations

Consists of the activities performed to exercisethe command and coordination between forcesof two or more services whenever they are re-quired to participate in joint operations, to obtainan strategic objective that cannot be secured on-ly by one service’s effort.

The conduct of joint operations is a strategic deci-sion that has to be made at the level of the ArmedForces and its natural projection goes down to aJoint Combatant Command. But it can be imple-mented at levels lower than a joint command, i.e.at the level of joint task forces and joint operations(Airborne or Amphibious Ops), whether theyoriginate in the Armed Forces or through a jointcombatant command. (See Box 19.)

4.3. Joint Operations

A joint operation is an offensive military actionconducted by a specific joint task force generat-ed by the Armed Forces or by joint combatantcommands, for a specific period. It comprisesforces of two or more services under a singlejoint command, in order to reach a strategic ob-jective that would not be possible otherwise.

4.4. Conclusions about Jointness

This general overview of the subject of joint con-duct of campaigns and operations leads to someconclusions:

a) Modern warfare is inherently a joint ac-tion and it is unfeasible to think that one ofthe military components of the ArmedForces could, attain by itself, the strategic ob-jective assigned.

b) Nevertheless, in order to attain the strate-gic objective at the lowest cost possible andwithin the period established, instead ofstructuring permanent joint forces, it is im-portant to use resources appropriate for thepurpose.

c) The relative importance of each service


could vary in each theater depending on itssuperiority, on its permanent comparison offorces, the threats to be addressed, the strate-gic situation and the scenario. However, in ajoint theater, the components must havesimilar strategic capacity and responsibilityin the achievement of the strategic objective.

d) Defining the strategic objectives that canonly be achieved through the coordinateduse of land, sea or air resources is the originof joint command.

Lastly, it must be stressed that Chilean legisla-tion establishes that the Board of the Comman-ders in Chief of the Services must propose the so-lution to all problems related to military strategyand its development in wartime, and thereforepropose the establishment of joint combatantcommands when required by national security.Thus, the creation of joint combatant commandsor joint task forces starts off at the Board of theCommanders in Chief of the Services, accordingto the strategic solution adopted in the light ofthe elements described above.

5. INTEROPERABILITY

Interoperability is the ability of systems, units orforces to provide to or accept services from oth-er systems, units or forces, and to use these ex-changed services effectively. Interoperabilitymay be considered today as a basic requirementfor executing joint military operations or opera-

tions of combined forces forming an internation-al coalition.

Nationally, interoperability has an impact on theoperation and organization of the Armed Forcesand its resources. The challenge of Chile’s de-fense institutions is to improve the capacity tooperate among themselves, in other words, to in-corporate interoperability into their moderniza-tion processes as an important factor in makingdecisions, stressing the progress of commandand control structures and processes, as well asdata management. Chile has progressed in stan-dardizing joint procedures, though from an oper-ational point of view the doctrine, trainingprocesses, and equipment and system standardi-zation still need to be adapted. In the technicaluse of the resources, it is necessary to standard-ize the procedures, the language and the classifi-cation of all the services.

Internationally, defining the requirements of in-teroperability, to eventually carry out activitieswithin a joint force under the mandate of theUnited Nations, is the responsibility of the gov-ernment, and especially of the ministries of De-fense and of Foreign Affairs. The decisions madein these fields will determine the standards of in-teroperability to be attained and will constitutethe framework in which the different participat-ing states will strive for that goal.

CONDITIONS FOR JOINT COMMANDIn terms of the objective: to have strategic characteristics or repercussions in order to justify the use of meansfrom the different services under a common command.

In terms of the forces: to be those of two or more services, in quantity or size proportional to the nature of theobjective to be attained. A special characteristic of the forces is that they do not have to be always under theJoint command.

In terms of command: to be exercised by an officer of any of the participating services, with the advisory of aJoint Staff comprised proportionally of members of the participating services and whose task is to advise theCommander on joint issues and the particular doctrine, characteristics and capabilities of each participatingservice.

In terms of the scenario: The characteristics of the scenario, together with the nature of the objective, areprobably the most relevant elements to consider for the organization of a joint force or a joint operation (air-borne or amphibious). In this case, it is evident that the scenario and the objective are such that they are pos-sible only through a joint force. If an objective is possible to be attained by forces of one service by itself or byone service with the support of another (combined forces), a joint command or the organization of a jointforce is unjustified.

BOX 19

❦


















(AGPE) 56











of the Republic 19










Operations 32

















PART IV
















(DGMN) 92












PART V

The means for the National Defense con-sist of the human and material resourcesthat a country has in order to reach thelevel of external security that will allowit to achieve its national goals, and guar-antee its sovereignty and territorialintegrity, free from external interference.Among these means, the Army, the Navyand the Air Force are the basic elements,and they are fundamentally in charge ofenforcing the State’s missions to defendthe country.

They must organize, equip and train forthis purpose. This means that they mustbe always ready in peacetime to put intopractice the dissuasive character of ourDefense, and at the same time, performinternational cooperation tasks in theareas of defense and security.Complementarily, they participate in thecountry's historical tradition and in the

transmission of our national identitytraits, as well as contributing significant-ly to the nation’s economic and techno-logical development, and in support ofthe community.

This part also mentions the main char-acteristics of each of the services andtheir modernization processes. Theseprocesses involve the evolution experi-enced in the last few years to maintaintheir readiness and preparation inaccordance with the advances of mili-tary technology and science, and thechanges undergone in our society. Anexample of the Armed Forces’ adapta-tion to the modern world is the increas-ing incorporation of women into the dif-ferent services of the Armed Forces,which has even given them access to thecombat and combat support branches ofsome services.

The Means for Defense

BOOK OF THE NATIONAL DEFENSE OF CHILEYEAR 2002 110011PART V

1. The Chilean Army

The Chilean Army was born with and

for the country. Its history summarizes

not only its vocation of service in the

defense of the Homeland, but also

recalls its triumphant history in the

battles fought for her in the past. It is

also important to highlight its contribu-

tion to international peace, to the con-

solidation of the territory, and in gener-

al to the challenges of security and

development that the country faces.

1. MISSION OF THE ARMY

The mission of the Army is to help maintain thenation’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.Therefore, it has the responsibility of participat-ing in the land defense of the country in theevent of any action coming from abroad, whichmay threaten or attack them.

It fulfills its mission by means of effective prepa-ration and proper use of its human and materialresources in the execution of the following activ-ities:

1.1. National

It develops and maintains the combat readinessof its forces by means of combat training andmilitary education.

1.2. International

It participates in State initiatives for safeguardinginternational peace and security under the au-thority of the United Nations. Under the man-

date of the Organization of American States(OAS), it participates in the Inter-AmericanBoard of Defense (JID), and is represented in theInter-American Defense College (CID).

As one of its founding members, the Army alsoplays an active role in the American ArmiesConference (AAC), a multilateral militaryagency with the objective of promoting close in-tegration and cooperation between the Americanarmies to study issues of mutual interest interms of the continent’s security and defense.

2. ORGANIZATION

The following chart summarizes the general struc-ture of the Army: (See Figure 12)

2.1. High Command

The Command of the Army is exercised by theCommander in Chief of the Army (CJE), as headof the service. The different Operational Unitsthat cover the national territory and the different


training, support and other technical Commandsreport directly to the Commander in Chief of theArmy.

Many advisory agencies, the Operational Unitsand Commands are, thus, under the authority ofthe Commander in Chief. The Army GeneralStaff is among the first group and is the main ad-visory body for the decision making and decisiontaking processes. To perform its main functionsthe Army General Staff has the following Direc-torates:

!Directorate of Army Personnel.!Directorate of Army Intelligence.!Directorate of Army Operations.!Directorate of Army Logistics.!Directorate of Army Education.!Directorate of Rationalization and Devel-opment of the Army.!Directorate of Army Finances.

The Office of the Secretary General, the Office ofthe Judge Advocate General of the Army, the Of-fice of the Inspector General, and the Center forMilitary Studies and Research are all at the samelevel.

2.2. Operational Units

The Army’s presence in the national territory isvisible by means of the different military gar-risons, from those located in the Chilean highplateau in the extreme north, to those in ChileanAntarctica. Essentially, these means consist ofoperational units called Divisions, under whichthere are tactical units such as regiments andbattalions from the different branches and serv-ices of the Army. The peacetime deployment ofthese Operational units, from north to south, isas follows:

!Sixth Army Division: covers the jurisdic-tion of Region I, with headquarters in thecity of Iquique. !First Army Division: covers the jurisdic-tion of Regions II and III, with headquartersin the city of Antofagasta. !Second Army Division: covers the jurisdic-tion of Regions IV, V, and VI, in addition tothe Metropolitan Region, with general quar-ters in the city of Santiago.!Third Army Division: covers the jurisdic-tion of Regions VII and VIII, with headquar-ters in the city of Concepción. !Fourth Army Division: covers the jurisdic-tion of Regions IX and X, with headquartersin the city of Valdivia. !Seventh Army Division: covers the juris-diction of Region XI, with headquarters inthe city of Coyhaique. !Fifth Army Division: covers the jurisdic-tion of Region XII, with headquarters in thecity of Punta Arenas. (See Figure 13)

2.3. Means and Capabilities

Overall, the Army is structured around the prop-er organization of command and combat andcombat support forces, within the operationalframework, constituting its peace and war po-tential. The Army’s major asset is its men andwomen, whose training and professionalismmake them the main axis of the service’s capaci-ties. Its operational systems are organized intothe following subsystems:

a) Information SubsystemMeets the intelligence needs of the threemilitary operational levels (strategic, opera-tional, and tactical) and makes use of differ-ent types of collection capabilities to providethe necessary and timely information to the

FIGURE 12


FIGURE 13


authorities to facilitate the decision-makingprocess.

b) Command and Control Subsystem (C4I)Coordinates and directs operations, fittinginto the command and control systems C4I(Command, Control, Communications, Com-puters and Intelligence) at higher levels, fa-cilitating the execution of data processing ac-tivities and the decision-making process, andmaintaining an up-to-date view of the situa-tion, as well as providing with EW activities.It also orders and controls all of these activi-ties.

c) Maneuvering SubsystemPerforms various duties based on the Army’sterritorial deployment, the types of units,the population density, and the capacity toobtain resources for material and industrialreadiness, among others. The purpose of thiswork is to help the Army achieve its strategicobjective by the use of force, through units ofdifferent characteristics and capacities,which interact in a coordinated fashion.

d) Logistical Support SubsystemOptimizes the resources and the use of thetechnological applications, centralizes the fa-cilities to satisfy material, life, and combatneeds, and organizes logistical units accord-ing to operational needs. This subsystem issustainable provided it is developed inpeacetime, and the maintenance functionacquires vital importance as it increases theuseful life of the existing material.

2.4. Military Institutes Command (CIM)

As an executive agency of the service’s educa-tional system, the CIM manages the educationand training of Officers, Non-Commissioned Of-ficers, and Enlisted men. Its colleges, militaryacademies, branches and specialties schools arecenters for imparting the teaching-learningprocess to all personnel, for the purpose ofachieving the professional and specialization lev-els required by the modern demands of authori-ty, control and execution of the military profes-sion.

2.5. Administrative, Logistical and TechnicalSupport Organizations

The commands are at the same level as the op-erational units and are in charge of providingtraining, administrative, logistical and technicalsupport to the different Army units. Some of the

commands perform both military-related dutiesas well as those that collaborate with the differ-ent aspects of the country’s development. TheseCommands are as follows:

a) Logistical Support Command (CALE)Executes all logistical actions for the Servicemeeting the living and combat needs of thetroops in all areas and services, such asQuartermasters, Health, Transportation,Ordnance and Veterinary. These duties areperformed through Maintenance, Service,Supply and Repair.

b) Army Administrative Support Command(CAAE)Manages the staff support and welfare sys-tem of the Institution, through several facili-ties throughout the country. The administra-tive support services, such as Social Welfare,State housing programs, Recreation centers,Religious and Funeral services, and the Fam-ily information bureau for enlisted men, areall under this command.

c) Military Industry and Engineering Com-mand (CIMI)Centralizes all military industrial activitiesin the service, grouping the different indus-trial facilities of the Army under one com-mand. Through the different CIMI agencies,the Army’s Factories and Workshop(FAMAE), the Military Geographic Institute(IGM) and the Research and Control Insti-tute (IDIC), the Army provides the most sig-nificant support to development and to thenational industry.

d) Army Engineers Command (CINGE)Its mission is to advise the Commander inChief of the Army (CJE) in relation to mili-tary infrastructure, management of the insti-tution’s real property, and execution of roadinfrastructure projects and works by meansof the Military Works Corps (CMT).

e) Army Signals Command (CTE)Its mission is to advise the Commander inChief of the Army (CJE) in matters related totelecommunications, electronic warfare aswell as Information management and dataprocessing systems, and to manage theArmy’s telecommunications system, (C4ISystem: Command, Control, Communica-tions, Computers and Intelligence) imple-menting the authority and administrationsystem of the Commander in Chief of theArmy.


FIGURE 14


f) Army Health Command (COSALE)Manages the Army’s health system and pro-vides medical and health services through anetwork of facilities. This capacity allows it toprovide special support in some services topublic and private health organizations. Itsmain facility is the Santiago Military Hospital.

Lastly, at the same level as the Operational Unitsand Commands, are the General Commander ofthe Army Garrison, Metropolitan Region, in San-tiago, and the Army Aviation Brigade with head-quarters in the city of Rancagua, Region VI. (SeeFigure 14)

2.6. Branches and Services

The Army is comprised of Branches and Servicesof diverse characteristics and with different func-tions, both individually and jointly. The Branch-es are: Infantry, Artillery, Armored Cavalry, En-gineers and Signals. Services include logisticsand administration. Logistical services are thoseof Ordnance, Quartermaster, Transportation,Health and Veterinary. Administrative Services,in peacetime, correspond to General Adjutancy,Military Justice, Military Police, Religious Ser-vice and Welfare; and in wartime, they includeBurial and Replacement services.

3. STRATEGIC VISION

The Chilean Army is undergoing an “integralstrategic change.” This change consists of a mod-ernization process based on the incorporation ofthe concept of force projection and interoper-ability, and strengthening the vocational-profes-sional model, the institutional integration of thesociety and its commitment to the republicanspirit. (See Figure 15)

3.1. Scopes of Action

The Chilean Army plays a permanent part in na-tional life. Generically, its actions take place infour basic areas of activity, which comprise themain tasks of its military function. On this basis,given its territorial deployment, its strategic ca-pacities, and its contribution to the political-strategic field, the Army works to enforce the ob-jectives of the Defense Policy and contributes toForeign Policy. Similarly, as an integral part ofsociety, the Army collaborates with the nation’sdevelopment through its technology and indus-try-related activities and through the effectiveand rational use of its capabilities and potential.

Exercising effective deterrence is fundamental toreducing threats, especially in a setting of uncer-

FIGURE 15


tainty. The purpose is to preserve the peace andreduce the possibility of any crisis or armed con-flict in the international arena. With this pur-pose, the new design of the forces being imple-mented enhances their own strategic capabilitiesand allows them to achieve greater interoper-ability with other institutions of the national de-fense.

In addition to the particular scope of the armedforces, the Army focuses its efforts on a secondarea of strategic action: cooperation, as an ex-pression of the State's interest outside Chile. Inorder to meet this objective, priority is given toparticipation in peace missions under the UN su-pervision or mandate, an activity the Army hasbeen involved in since 1948. It also participatesin instances that contribute to strengthening thebilateral and regional integration processes.

There are two other areas that are especially rel-evant, not because of the impact they have hadthroughout history, but because they are withinthe institutional scope and territorial deploy-ment of the Army. These are related to the tasksof development and contribution to the country’sunity and cohesion, basic assumptions for an ef-fective defense.

Thus, the Army’s collaboration in the country’sdevelopment goes beyond its presence through-out territory, because it is also manifested in thetraining young people receive through MilitaryService; the provision –by the Military Geo-graphic Institute– of conventional and digitalland cartography, as well as complementary ed-ucational texts. In turn, the Research and Con-trol Institute is the official State agency in chargeof quality control in different areas, and the Di-rectorate of Equine and Remount Developmentcollaborates to improving the country’s agricul-tural equine stock. Another aspect is the task ofphysical integration of the national territory, bymeans of the duties performed by the MilitaryWork Corps and its capacity to act in the event ofemergencies or natural disasters.

On the other hand, the Military Studies and Re-search Center (CESIM) encourages academic re-search in the areas of defense, and participatesin the area of science and technology throughdifferent agreements with universities, and pub-lic and private institutions, to integrate thisfield’s knowledge into issues of national interest.Lastly, the Army contributes to unity and socialcohesion both as a result of its territorial deploy-ment and by including in its ranks a diversegroup of people, representative of Chilean socie-

ty. This reality gives it a character that few pub-lic institutions have, and its actions help transmitthe characteristics of Chilean society from onegeneration to the next.

4. THE MODERNIZATION PROCESS

The process of modernization involves trans-forming and improving the capacities, structuresand management that will allow the Army toadapt to the demands imposed both by nationaland international events, as well as by rapidtechnological change.

The process is basically oriented to developing amodern, highly specialized organization, withunits of high performance and efficiency. It alsoseeks to increase the capacities of its personnel,helping them to acquire the skills required forusing complex weapon systems. In this manner,the Army helps the country exercise an appro-priate level of deterrence and, in turn, acquiresthe necessary skills to cooperate with UN mis-sions.

This process sometimes involves tasks requiringdeep institutional changes at different levels, forthe purpose of incorporating that specializationand attaining fluency and certainty in the deci-sion-making process.

Therefore, the modernizing effort aims at gradu-ally achieving a design of the forces that is real-istic and based on the availability of economic re-sources. This means implementing periodic de-cisions that will allow the process to continue forthe immediate term, and later lead to thechanges foreseen for the year 2013. Thus, all ac-tivities that imply an organizational change, achange of facilities or mobilization of personnelwill be founded on an integral feasibility study ofthe proper dimension and coherent with the ser-vice’s capabilities.

4.1. Bases for Strategic Changes

The elements that strengthen the modernizationprocess –begun in 1992– are the following:

a) Projection of Force: this concept refers tothe purpose of achieving a usage capacity indifferent scenarios, quickly and for deter-rence and cooperation effects, both in thenational and international areas. Throughthis effort, the Institution evolves towards amore functional, flexible and modular struc-ture.


b) Interoperability: aims at optimizing oper-ational integration, both in the national fieldand with the armies of other countries thatare part of peacekeeping forces, to operateeffectively in a multifunctional context.c) Vocational-Professional Model: its mem-bers share spirit of service and professionalperformance as core elements for effectivelyexecuting their military function.d) Army integrated into society: contributesto the country in peacetime, in emergencies,and in wartime, within the framework of aninstitutional doctrine that confirms its voca-tion of service.e) Army committed to constitutional princi-ples: in other words, it is founded on theprinciples of an institutional system that areestablished by the Political Constitution andexpress the republican tradition of independ-ent Chile.

4.2. Objectives of the Modernization Process

The objectives that guide the modernizationprocess of the Army are:

a) Strengthen the units’ rationalization, com-pletion, and training, and incorporate a mod-ern concept of structure and managementinto the organization.b) Continue with the process of rationalizingthe management of the financial resourcesallocated by the State.c) Optimize the Institution’s human re-sources management systems by introduc-ing new technologies and administrative pro-cedures.d) Complete the weapons and technical re-sources systems needed by the operationalunits, through the incorporation, replace-ment or reinforcement of the existing ele-ments.e) Restructure the educational and trainingsystem.f) Improve the institutional infrastructure.g) Contribute to United Nations peacekeep-ing operations in which the State decides toparticipate.h) Strengthen the science and technologyarea.i) Optimize the ways in which Military Ser-vice can be performed, according to theframework for the modernization of theSMO.

4.3. Stages of the Modernization Process

The Chilean Army is enforcing the provisions of

the “Alcázar Plan,” the master document of themodernization process. In general, the main ob-jective of this Plan is to rationalize and optimizethe Institution’s human and material resources,in harmony with the country’s political, culturaland economic reality. Therefore, it includes themodernization efforts undertaken by the Army,and calls for the following development stages:

!Stage I: Begun in 1992 and completed in1998.!Stage II: Begun in 1998, and scheduled tolast until 2013.

To accomplish the modernization process de-scribed above, the Army is carrying out twotypes of projects: global projects that benefit theinstitution as a whole and specific projects thatdirectly support each of the High Agencies, Com-mands and Operational units.

In this context, the following activities are at thefollowing levels of progress:

a) Restructuring of the institutional educa-tional and training system to increase thetraining level of the personnel and improvetheir professional efficiency in using newweapons systems.b) The Military Academy, the War Collegeand the Military Polytechnic College, undera new educational concept, are executingstudy programs and post-graduate and post-degree programs in the area of military sci-ences, some of which have the significantparticipation of civil professionals.c) Reorganization of units, including the in-corporation, replacement and completion ofmodern weapon systems and technical re-sources, under the concept of accomplishingtasks in a comprehensive sense during timesof peace, crisis, war and natural disasters. d) Optimization of technological research byinstitutional agencies, with the capacity forcontributing to the nation’s development.e) Development of logistical units and troopsupport systems, in accordance with theunit’s current and future capabilities. f) Renewal and extension of the military, so-cial and welfare infrastructure.

5. PLANNING

The Development of the Force involves a seriesof actions projected for the period from 2003 to2006, designed to complete the units and achievethe Army’s new organization and force structure,ensuring their rationalization, and in turn, incor-


porate education, management and full integra-tion of the administrative and logistical supportsubsystems into its overall duties

Because it is impossible to have an accurate pre-diction of the different variables that may havean effect when conceptually scheduling for along-term time horizon (2013), the decision wasmade to establish a consolidation phase from2006 to 2010, which coincides with the bicente-nary of Chile’s independence. After that year,that the strategies laid out in the “Alcázar Plan”for 2013 will most likely continue in effect. (SeeFigure 16)

6. WOMEN IN THE ARMY

The presence of women in the Army dates backto the wars against the Peru-Bolivia Confedera-tion in the first half of the 19th Century. Follow-ing that, women took part in the War of the Pa-cific. In that war, although they were only ac-companying the troops in support and health-re-lated roles, they did not hesitate to bear arms andtake heroic action in military campaigns.

Executive Decree 317 of August 19, 1974 createdthe School of the Women’s Army Auxiliary Ser-vice and the Service itself. In 1975, the law wasamended to bring the female commissioned andnon-commissioned officers who had graduatedfrom School of the Women’s Army Auxiliary Ser-vice onto the institution’s staff.

During the 1990’s, under the Modernization Planof the Chilean Army, the uniformed femalemembers experienced significant changes. TheWomen’s Army Auxiliary Service School wasclosed in 1995 so that commissioned and non-commissioned officers could graduate from theMilitary Academies.

The amendments to Law Decree 1 “Statutes of

Armed Forces Personnel,” of 1997, establishedthe time required in the officers’ ranks for retire-ment expanding it up to 30 years of service andcreated the rank of Colonel of the Women’s Mili-tary Service. The service branches of Quarter-master and Ordnance were also opened to thesewomen officers, as well as those of Combat Sup-port branches —Artillery, Engineers and Sig-nals— held until that time by male personnel on-ly. Hence, women can now rise to the rank ofGeneral.

The Women’s Military Service has been assigneda new role related to Personnel Administration,by which the members of this Service performpersonnel advisory tasks in the High Agencies,Commands, Combat and Tactical Units, in re-placement of the Officers from combat and com-bat support branches who held these positions.The new improvement areas were defined forthe Enlisted Personnel as of 1997, so that theNon-Commissioned Officers School graduates fe-male personnel to work in the ranks of Health,Quartermaster and General Assistant.

Women’s participation in the Army has under-gone true progress, making a net contribution tothe institution’s professionalism. The opportuni-ties for personal and professional developmentthat Chilean women find today in this service ofthe Armed Forces are reflected in the increasingnumber of vacancies offered by the MilitaryAcademies to satisfy women’s increasing interestin a military career. The incorporation of womenin the Military Academies does not intend to re-place the male staff, but to integrate women intothe Institution, in order to strengthen the struc-ture of the service. Efforts to include women inthe Army’s activities have also reached recruit-ment, with the drive to promote voluntary Mili-tary Service by young Chilean women.

FIGURE 16

❦


2. Chilean Navy

The Navy’s contribution to Chile in

almost two centuries of life is charac-

terized by its actions in the conflicts

faced by the country, by its role in the

national consolidation, and its partici-

pation in the nation’s cultural, scientific

and technological development. Its

resources are instruments that must be

always available to help promote and

support the nation’s interest wherever

they are implemented.

1. THE NAVY’S MISSION

The Chilean Navy has the basic mission of par-ticipating in the country’s foreign security andmilitary defense on an ongoing basis, safeguard-ing its sovereignty and territorial integrity. Forthis purpose, it carries out actions both in peaceand in wartime

1.1. In Peacetime

Contribute to the development of Chilean mar-itime power, providing security for navigation,encouraging sea activities and port development,continuing the marine cartography and signal-ing, and performing inspections and supervi-sions that safeguard human life at sea.

Supervise the national maritime territory, com-prised of the Inland Waters, Territorial Sea, Ex-clusive Economic Zone, and Presence Sea, pro-tecting the national security and interests, aswell as the integrity of the water environment.Support the nation’s development, connecting

the isolated areas by sea, and assisting their in-habitants.

Perform the tasks of maritime supervision,search, rescue and security, in the maritimezone for which the country is responsible, ac-cording to the international agreements regulat-ing this matter.

1.2. In Wartime

Carry out operations that will allow Chile the freeuse of the sea at all times, and the sea lines ofcommunications to sustain the war effort and pro-tect international trade. Simultaneously, denythis privilege to the enemy in order to strengthenthe nation’s war effort, on the one hand, whileweakening the corresponding effort of the enemy,in the interest of a victorious outcome for the na-tion.

Help project the nation’s military power into en-emy territory and in turn prevent the projectionfrom the sea of the adversary’s military power.


Support the war effort of other services of theArmed Forces.

2. ORGANIZATION

In line with the mission and context of a contin-uous search for more effective management, theNavy has recently readapted its general organi-zation, allocating more functional characteristicsto its senior staff.

In this way, the Navy’s current organizationalstructure is made up of high level directing andmanagement entities, technical agencies, forcesand operational resources, and support establish-ments. This structure is detailed below.

2.1. High Command

The Office of the Commander in Chief of theNavy is the leading entity of the Institution. TheAdmiral who holds the position of Commanderin Chief operates with a group of direct consult-ing agencies, formed by the officers exercisingthe institution’s higher command. These includethe Strategic Planning Council (for institutionaldirection issues), the Economic Council (forbudgetary and financial control issues), and theNavy’s Council (for handling institutional man-agement issues).

The Commander in Chief constitutes its com-mand authority with a General Staff, and thesupport and advice of the Office of the Secretary

General, Comptroller’s Office, Office of the In-spector General, and a set of management con-trol systems. (See Figure 17)

2.2. High Level Organizations

a) General Staff of the NavyThis agency provides advisory services andwork for the Commander in Chief of theNavy with respect to all issues related to in-stitutional planning, administration and up-per-level direction, performing the duties ofupper-level planning and coordination withthe other navy directing agencies and au-thorities, in general.

b) General Directorate of Naval PersonnelThis is the higher agency responsible for theNavy’s human resources management. Assuch it constitutes the highest echelon of theinstitution in relation to personnel adminis-tration, assuming the corresponding func-tions of selection, incorporation, training,promotion and retirement of the personnel.For this effect, it has a group of specializedtechnical agencies that take care of the edu-cational, medical-health, welfare and reli-gious assistance aspects.

c) General Directorate of Naval ServicesThis agency is in charge of the upper-levelmanagement of the Navy’s material andtechnological resources. As such, it consti-tutes the highest echelon of the institution interms of material logistics, in charge of cre-

FIGURE 17


ating and supporting the resources withwhich the Navy operates, and the rules to beapplied for effective and safe use of peopleand environment. In order to perform itsfunctions, it has several technical and spe-cialized logistical agencies under it, coveringregulations, research and development, pro-curement, project management and materialmanagement.

d) General Directorate of Naval FinanceThis agency is in charge of managing the fi-nancial resources of the institution. As such,it is in charge of proposing and executing thefinancial policy of the Navy, performing in-tegral control of the financial-accountingmanagement and establishing the generalrules and procedures in budgetary, account-ing, calculation, cost control and financial or-der matters. In the performance of their du-ties, both technical agencies specialized inbudgets and accounting are under this Of-fice.

e) General Directorate of Maritime Territo-ry and Merchant MarineThis is an agency of the Navy by whichChile ensures the enforcement of laws andinternational agreements to protect humanlife on the sea, the marine environment,and the natural sea resources, and to regu-late the activities carried out in this field,thereby contributing to the nation’s sea de-velopment.

In this context, this office coordinates itsleadership functions through the Offices of“Maritime Security and Operations” and“Maritime and Sea Environment Interests.”Its operations are carried out in a decentral-ized manner, implemented through the fourNaval Zones that supervise a total of 16 Mar-itime Governorships that execute their tasksthrough 61 Harbor Master’s Offices and 266Sea Mayor’s Offices.

f) Naval Operations CommandThis command is in charge of directing thenavy operations in order to achieve thestrategic objectives assigned to the Navy. It isalso in charge of training the Navy’s forces tocarry out the operations set forth in the cor-responding plans and to direct the opera-tions determined by the Commander inChief. The Naval Operations Command is incharge of battleships, submarines, aircraft,and amphibian and special forces.

2.3. Combat Forces

The naval forces are the elements that executethe Navy’s strategy and consist of operationalforces and type forces, organized, equipped andtrained to achieve the objectives of naval war-fare. Combat forces consist of units or groups or-ganized to perform a specific mission.

The Type Forces are the Fleet, the SubmarineForce, Naval Aviation, the Marine Corps, theAmphibian and Naval Transportation Command,and the Tactical Divers Command. The mainfunction of the commanding officers of the TypeForces is to keep the units available and trainedto be integrated into task forces and groups to becreated, according to operational tasks.

While performing their assigned missions, theNavy forces also cooperate in activities that ben-efit the country in peacetime, under the regula-tions established by law.

The Naval Zones are operational and logisticalforces designed to contribute to maritime de-fense and to control and protection of maritimetraffic within their jurisdictions. They consist ofcombat, sea and coastal patrolling and logisticalsupport resources. They perform their opera-tional tasks through their subordinate or as-signed combat means and they provide logisticalsupport to other forces through the naval andnavy air bases and stations in response to opera-tional requirements and directives from the ser-vice’s technical agencies. (See Figure 18)

The naval and navy air facilities include all land-based facilities within a specific area, and theyhave been established to provide, coordinate andexecute the services they are to provide to thenavy forces.

2.4. Special Support Organizations

In addition to the agencies already mentioned,there are other specialized technical agenciesthat report to the Navy due to their nature, tech-nical relationship or purpose. Because of theircontribution to the nation’s interests, the moreimportant of these are:

a) Hydrographic and Oceanographic Ser-vice of the Navy (SHOA)Involves the specialized technical activitythat the Navy has carried out for almost twohundred years, studying the geography ofthe Chilean shores, coast profiles, bathyme-


FIGURE 18


try, tides and currents, geographical featuresand obstructions. The purpose is to developmaps and install the maritime signals re-quired to ensure safe navigation and expe-dite use of national marine routes. For acountry with a lengthy coastline and islandterritory such as Chile’s this activity is es-sential to the country’s integration.

The Hydrographic and Oceanographic Ser-vice of the Navy is also an official technicaland permanent State service in the areas ofhydrography, nautical cartography, oceanog-raphy, tides and seaquakes, nautical geogra-phy, nautical astronomy, time signal, andnavigation-oriented aerophotogrammetry.Through scientific sea research, it also con-tributes to the development and promotionof other related activities of interest for thecountry, such as “red tide” control and fol-low-up and forecast of the El Niño weatherpattern.

b) Shipyards and Workshops of the Navy(ASMAR)This autonomous state-owned company wascreated in 1960 to meet the needs of careen-ing, maintenance, repair and construction ofvessels for the Chilean Navy. As a subsidiaryactivity, it also serves the vessels of the Mer-chant Marine. It has three properly equippedshipyards, located in Valparaiso, Talcahuanoand Magallanes, with up-to-date technical andprofessional capacities to service the hightechnology now used in battleships and withISO-9001 quality certification since 1997.

3. STRATEGIC VISION

The Navy’s doctrine may be summarized in thefollowing basic premises:

!Chile is a country for which the sea hasspecial relevance, so the Navy plays an es-sential role in the country’s security.

!The concept of Sea Control, which is thereason behind Chile’s naval and marinetasks, is the cornerstone of the Three Vectorsprinciple of Naval strategy. The objective ofthis strategy is to achieve a certain degree ofcontrol over activities that take place in a spe-cific marine area during a specific period oftime, with the purpose of enjoying its use orto deny or obstruct its use to any adversary.!Control of the sea takes place under two

conditions: either a conflict or a peacetimeenvironment. In the event of a conflict, con-trol is oriented mainly to allowing Chile’sforces to operate without any threats fromthe sea. In peacetime, it focuses on carryingout the marine activities without any inter-ference or restriction that could affect the na-tion’s waterways. Under both circumstances,the presence of the Naval Force is indispen-sable; only its mode of use may vary.

3.1. Scopes of Action of the Navy

The Chilean Navy’s contribution to national de-velopment is based on an articulating idea calledthe “Three Vectors Naval Strategy”, which recog-nizes three particular scenarios:

!The sea space, which is related directly tothe security of inland areas of strategic inter-est.

!The sea space of specific interest for Chiledue to its intrinsic economic value or due tothe industrial or research activities per-formed in that space.

!The international sea space, which is of in-terest in terms of Chile’s political, economicand security interaction with other coun-tries.

When these scenarios are identified, the navalstrategy described above is applied, and eachvector is in charge of carrying out the Navy’s ac-tivities in each of the spaces described and listedbelow:

The Defense Vector consists of the defense ofour national territory, its citizens, its assets andits rights. In this field, related to national sover-eignty, the Navy is part of a military system thatacts together with the Army and the Air Force todeter or repel potential aggressors.

Regarding the actions of the Armed Forces, theNavy promotes the development of skills andjoint activities to achieve the most effective andefficient military strategy, in which, in wartime,the Navy will be in charge of controlling the seain a specific area for as long as the operations sorequire.

The Maritime Vector consists of the supervi-sion and control of our extensive national seaterritory, in which the Navy must be continuallyand integrally present. Its task is to protect the


renewable living resources of the area and themarine environment and enforce the laws of theRepublic. In addition, it must carry out tasks inthe Maritime Responsibility Zone, an area ofabout 30,000,000 km2 granted to Chile by inter-national agreements. Protection of human life inthe sea, search and rescue missions, and navalcontrol of maritime traffic are the main commit-ments assumed.

In short, the Navy must exercise a certain degreeof control to have clean and safe oceans, and tofacilitate the economic development of the coun-try, promoting the rational use and exploitationof our national territory.

The International Vector, in support of theState's foreign policy, consists of the Navy’s par-ticipation in promoting and protecting a funda-mental priority national interest that allows us topreserve the international peace, security andstability of the sea, which is just as significant asour development and progress.

It should be noted that in the field of interna-tional security involves promoting, as well as de-fending, interests. This makes way for a conceptof security focused not only on threats, but alsoon identification of opportunities that can inturn generate new interests and instances of co-operation.

Within the region, the Navy will continue itsjoint Antarctic patrols and bilateral exerciseswith Peru and Argentina.In the wider international field, to prepare for

potential participation in multinational peace-keeping operations and strengthening opera-tional, technical and human ties, the Navy willmaintain and increase its presence in joint exer-cises. This will emphasize and consolidate theinstitution’s reputation as an oceanic Navy, plac-ing it in a better position with respect to thenavies of countries in the Pacific Basin and con-tributing more effectively to the State’s foreignpolicy. (See Figure 19)

3.2. Objectives of the Navy for the Bicentennial

a) Mission for this DecadeAs part of its permanent mission, in the re-gional and international political-strategiccontext of the moment and the mediumterm, the Navy has assumed the specific mis-sion for 1999-2010 of contributing to the con-solidation of Chile as a maritime nation witha relevant role in the globalized world, witha Naval Power capable of:

!Defending, together with the Army andthe Air Force, Chile’s sovereignty and ter-ritorial integrity.

!Supervising and controlling the mar-itime zone for which the nation is respon-sible.

!Contributing, together with othernavies, to maintain international peaceand stability, in accordance with Chile’sForeign Policy and Defense. !Participating in the protection of na-

FIGURE 19


tional interests abroad, according to Statepolicies and International Law.

b) Specific ObjectivesTo help achieve this mission, the Navy hasset itself the following goals:

Objective 1:Increase the effectiveness and productivi-ty of the Navy, in order to generate thesavings required to develop its strategiccapabilities, which involves: concentrat-ed, connected and communicated groundinfrastructure, modern and standardizedmaterial, and if possible, developing itsown technology in critical areas; and opti-mization and preservation of the institu-tional human resources.

Objective 2:Publicize naval activities, so citizens knowthe work and contribution of the Navy tonational development, implementing aneffective communications plan to informcitizens of the service’s actions, and toprovide an efficient, quick service to thecommunity through state-of-the-art tech-nology.

4. PLANNING

Given the mission and forces available, theChilean Navy has structured and prepared theplanning of operational, development and sup-

port activities in three different time periods:(See Figure 20)

!The “Ocean” Directive, which defines theinstitution’s objectives to be met within a pe-riod of twelve years, and provides a guide-line of how it intends to meet them. This di-rective contains the Navy’s permanent mis-sion, its vision, and the mission, strategy andobjectives to be reached within the timeframe, all considering the realistic possibilityand financial feasibility of implement itwithin the established time period.

!The “Admiral” Directive guides the pursuitof the objectives established in the Ocean Di-rective through partial objectives and poli-cies for each area. This is a four-year sched-ule that runs from the Commander in Chiefof the Navy’s second year in office to his suc-cessor’s first year, thereby giving true conti-nuity to the pursuit of the long-term objec-tives.

!The Annual Plan of Activities (PACA),plans the specific tasks for each calendaryear and allocates resources to a group of“administrative commands” in charge of per-forming those tasks and working towards theobjectives established in the Ocean and Ad-miral Directives.

5. MANAGEMENT CONTROL

Each unit is required to maintain current infor-

FIGURE 20


mation on the ability to perform the assignedroles, so its Command can have up-to-date infor-mation on this aspect and all changes that occur.

There is a cost accounting system that keepstrack of the resources allocated for tasks and howthey should be used, for each executing unit andeach type of activity performed.

A network system provides monthly reports onthe physical progress of the assigned tasks. It al-so provides six-month reports on problems en-countered, experiences, levels of activity, devel-opment projects, etc.

The Navy is preparing the consolidated financialstatements to report on how its assets are man-aged and this information will contribute signifi-cantly to the decision-taking process.

6. WOMEN IN THE NAVY

The role of women in the Navy is nothing new orcontrary to the work of the institution, as womenhave been present in some specific areas for sev-eral decades.

Like all the services that have opened their doorsto women, the Navy needs to make some mate-rial and cultural changes to facilitate their per-formance, at both the officer and enlisted manlevels.

Beginning in 2003, the Navy will gradually in-

corporate women into the Naval officer positionsof medical doctor, dentist, and attorney. It will dothe same for sea-going positions in the Navalhealth specialties. Then, according to theprogress of the institution’s projects andchanges, women will be trained to enter the offi-cer and seaman ranks in the areas of Provision-ing and Coast Guard, providing services mainlyin land-based divisions.

Nevertheless, placing women in positions thatinvolve their presence onboard the combat unitsand shipboard service in general is something tobe evaluated in the future, after the early stagesprovide some experience, reduce cultural barri-ers and address other aspects inherent in Navaloperations, evaluate the greater experience ofother navies, and complete the physical adapta-tion of ship facilities.

The incorporation of women is advantageous forthe Institution as it provides an improved selec-tion base and introduces abilities and skills thatare more frequent in women. Despite these ben-efits, this incorporation process requires work inseveral areas, namely defining women’s profes-sional careers, making the role of mother com-patible with the long absences from home thaton-board sailors must face, and taking into ac-count living in very confined spaces.

❦


3. The Chilean Air Force

Since its beginning in the early 20th

Century, Chilean aeronautics has been

constantly evolving. This process has

given the Chilean Air Force (FACH) its

present significant strategic dimension.

Thanks to decades of effort, the FACH

has served as a basis for developing

the different components of an authen-

tic Aerospace system.

1. THE MISSION OF THE AIR FORCE

The Chilean Air Force’s mission is to defend thecountry by controlling and exploiting air space,participating in the surface battle and supportingits own and friendly forces with a view to con-tributing to the strategic objectives set for theArmed Forces by national policy.

In order to fulfill its mission, the Air Force car-ries out specific functions both in peacetime andin wartime.

1.1. In Peacetime

In conjunction with the General Office of CivilAeronautics (DGAC), the Chilean Air Force con-trols air traffic so that the country’s air activity isundertaken safely within international parame-ters and so that it can react in the event of an il-legal incursion into Chilean air space.

It contributes to developing aerospace power.This is a real, potential or limited ability to use

air space for one’s own benefit. Even if it doesnot have any spacecraft, a country may be con-sidered to have aerospace power when it haspolicies or plans to use this capability in the fu-ture.

Since it works with the DGAC in controlling airtraffic for the safety of air activity, the Air Forcehas the means to respond in the event catastro-phes and disasters caused by aviation accidents.This rescue capability is used frequently inemergencies affecting the country as a result ofnatural disasters.

Through the Aerophotogrammetric Service(SAF), it performs its assigned duties within thecountry in terms of aerophotogrammetry, car-tography and other related fields. It has the abil-ity to observe the earth from space, which offersplanners in all fields of the country’s endeavorsan overview that allows them to make optimumuse of their resources.

It promotes the development of aerospace inter-


ests, the aeronautical and aerospace industry,aeronautical infrastructure, scientific and tech-nological development, civil, sporting and com-mercial aviation, aerospace policy, national andinstitutional infrastructure and awareness of thecountry’s air space.

1.2. In wartime

It undertakes operations aimed at destroying orneutralizing enemy air, ground and sea forces.Air Power offers the possibility of facing enemyforces almost anywhere, reducing the impact ofsuch factors as distance or terrain features.

It directs and controls air defense based on con-trolling and watching over national air space. Inthe event of unidentified, illegal or hostile incur-sions, it intercepts the aircraft, thereby beingable to provide a graduated response, includingthe use of force if circumstances warrant.

It achieves a degree of control over air space thatallows Chile’s own and friendly forces to operate.Air Control is the degree of freedom of action ac-quired in a given space and time as a result ofsubjecting the enemy to air power, so as to beable to use air space for one’s own benefit anddeny its use to the enemy.

It offers support to operations carried out byground and sea forces, so as to contribute to theirwar efforts. This support takes different formsand helps ground forces neutralize or destroyenemy resources.

It undertakes strategic air reconnaissance andsurveillance, and military air transport. The re-

sources at the Air Force’s disposal make it a use-ful instrument for efficiently observing enemyactions, contributing valuable information to thevarious levels of command conducting the war.In the other hand, military air transport allowsforces to be quickly deployed over long dis-tances, expediting any possible change of themain effort of war operations.

2. ORGANIZATION

In order to fulfill its mission, the various compo-nents of the Air Force are organized as shown inthe following table: (See Figure 21)

2.1. High Command

An Air Force General who holds the position ofCommander in Chief of the Air Force exercisesthe Command of the Air Force, and is responsi-ble for strategic leadership and administrativemanagement of the Institution.

The working group that helps him do this job isthe Air Force General Staff, which advises him inplanning, managing and controlling the Institu-tion, so as to meet air activity requirements inpeacetime and their use in wartime.

The Air Force General Staff consists of the fol-lowing Offices:

!Directorate of Air Force Personnel!Directorate of Air Force Intelligence !Directorate of Air Force Operations !Directorate of Air Force Logistics!Directorate of Air Force Anti-aircraft De-

FIGURE 21


fense and Special Forces !Directorate of Air Force Telecommunica-tions, Information Management and dataprocessing. !Directorate of Air Force Finance.

2.2. Combat Command

Combat Command is the Higher OperationalUnit that manages the Air Force’s operationalunits with a view to keep them in the state of op-erational readiness that the service planning re-quires.

2.3. Support Units

a) Logistics CommandThis executive unit’s mission is to obtain,provide, maintain and develop the material,technological and logistical information re-sources required to meet the needs arisingfrom war and development planning andthose generated by institutional activities.

b) Personnel CommandThis executive unit’s mission is to managepersonnel system duties with a view to fulldevelopment of human resources in supportof the Air Force’s mission.

2.4. Operational Units

Represented by five Air Brigades, whose jurisdic-tions cover the country’s territory. (See Figure 22)

Air Brigades are operational units that exercisecommand within a geographic area and whosemission is to conduct air operations with the re-sources at their disposal in their areas of author-ity. A General Officer commands each of theseBrigades and reports directly to the Commanderin Chief of the Air Force. Each Air Brigade hasAir Groups equipped with different types of air-craft, which conduct combat and air support op-erations according to institutional planning andinstructions.

Air Brigade I, with its headquarters in Iquique,covers Region I. The Air Brigade V, with head-quarters in Antofagasta, covers Regions II and III.Air Brigade II in Santiago covers Regions IVthrough VIII, including the Metropolitan Region.Air Brigade III, with headquarters in PuertoMontt, covers the south, including Regions IX andX and part of Region XI. Air Brigade IV, with head-quarters in Punta Arenas, covers the far south, in-cluding part of Region XI and all of Region XII.

The Air Force implements its air power throughthese units, developing their capabilities andmeans.

2.5. Means and Capabilities

a) CapabilitiesAir Power is the force component of Aero-space Power that is employed in the airspace in order to use it for one’s own benefitand deny its use to the enemy. It is repre-sented by the total of all the weapons sys-tems used by the Air Force to combat the en-emy and includes all necessary support ac-tivities to be able to use them, and trainedpersonnel to operate them.

Air Power is effective when it meets the fol-lowing requirements:

!Highly trained, motivated and technical-ly capable personnel !Reliable, with timely intelligence thatsupports decision-making processes!Sustained logistical support in terms ofquantity, quality and timing !Appropriate technology for the setting

The natural projection of air space is outerspace. Acquiring the capability to operate inthat sphere has a multiplying effect on AirPower and national development, mainlydue to our country’s geographical configura-tion.

b) MeansAir Power requires striking a careful balancebetween capabilities and resources, whichdetermine the effectiveness and efficiencyof the use of the air.

The total of offensive and defensive combataircraft, which is the main force at the ser-vice’s disposal, must be accompanied bymeans of transport, command and controlthat allow operations to be planned, coordi-nated and directed. These resources must re-sist attacks by the enemy and, in addition tothose indicated above, include anti-aircraftdetection and defense, and an infrastructurethat is capable of sustaining operations.

Air Force resources are capable of exploitingthe third, aboveground dimension. This ca-pability contributes, on the one hand, to op-erational supremacy in a given theater ofoperations, and, on the other, to an integrat-


FIGURE 22


ed, joint and possibly combined use of theresources available.

Thanks to their ability to gain height, and forspeed and range, the resources at the AirForce’s disposal can counteract threats orcomprise a threat over a very extensive areain a short period of time. These resourcesmay be deployed rapidly to far distant the-aters to provide timely help for an ally, or toact as a deterrent element in the event of ag-gression.

Within its organizational structure, the AirForce balances all of these resources, distrib-uting them to the Air Brigades throughoutthe whole territory. This ensures efficientperformance of the mission with which ithas been entrusted.

The Air Force’s weapons systems are rein-forced with in-flight refueling and airboneearly warning capabilities, which are consid-ered force multipliers.

Heavy and light air transport are added tothese resources, consisting of aircraft capa-ble of transporting cargo and passengers un-der peace, war and emergency conditions.Transport and rescue capabilities are supple-mented by helicopters suitable for operatingin different types of terrain.

For efficient use of its material resources, theAir Force also has air bases, anti-aircraft de-fense units and detection units in its variousBrigades, all coordinated by means of an au-tomated command and control systemwhich enables efficient handling of the flowof information in order to carry out opera-tions.

In addition to these operational resourcesare the resources provided by commercialaviation and by civil and sporting aviation,which furnish new contingents of pilots eachyear.

All of these human and material capabilitiesmake up a system called the Aerospace Sys-tem. The Air Force is the main component ofthis system.

c) The Attributes of the Air PowerBeyond its own specific mission, it cooper-ates in the success of the other services’ mis-sions, contributing to land and sea battles by

means of combat operations against groundand sea targets, and combat support (such asaerospace surveillance, air reconnaissanceand air transport).

The Air Force’s speed of reaction is strength-ened by an appropriate early warning sys-tem; in turn, the in-flight refueling capabili-ty makes it possible for aircrafts to increasetheir operating range and results in a greatercapability to influence a geographical area.

The Air Force is also an efficient instrumentin times of crisis, because of its firepower, re-sponse capability, speed, mobility, flexibili-ty, range and precision in attacking enemytargets.

d) Deterrence EffectThe dissuasive capability of the air combatarm is based on the following characteristics,among others:

!Quick preventive or reaction deploy-ment!Ability to attack targets specified by theExecutive wherever they are located, withprecision, firepower, speed and timing.!It may be used independently for strate-gic operations, but is tremendously adapt-able for use in joint theaters of operations.

2.6. Support Organizations

a) General Office of Civil Aeronautics(DGAC)This is a State agency that reports directly tothe Commander in Chief of the Air Force.According to national legislation and inter-national law, its mission is to aid and protectair navigation in an air space whose longitu-dinal axis runs down to the South Pole andwhose transverse axis runs more than 5000kilometers into the Pacific Ocean fromChile’s coastline, to Meridian 131 West.

If there are any illegal flights into sovereignair space, the DGAC and Air Force act in co-ordination to identify and control the event.For that, they adhere to the rules and regula-tions of the Air Regulations and the princi-ples of Article 51 of the United Nations Char-ter.33 The same coordination applies to

✪ 34 For further details, see Part III, Chapter IV.


search and rescue activities, an example ofwhich is the mutual use of the worldwideCOSPAS-SARSAT satellite network. With re-gard to these satellite technologies, theDGAC has developed programs aimed at in-corporating new concepts of navigation andair-traffic control by means of satellites,which will enable airplanes over-flying ourair space to do so quickly, efficiently andsafely.

b) Chilean Meteorological ServiceThis organization is responsible for direct-ing, controlling and maintaining the coun-try’s weather service so as to meet weatherforecasting and information needs. It is alsoresponsible for coordinating these aspectswith other national and international agen-cies.

c) Aerophotogrammetric Service (SAF)This is an executive technical unit, whosemission is to meet institutional needs interms of aerophotogrammetry and relatedtechniques, instruct and train personnel inthese techniques and undertake air explo-ration in search of natural resources withinthe country’s territory, to the benefit of de-velopment projects implemented by otherpublic agencies or private parties who re-quest the service.

d) National Aeronautical Enterprise(ENAER)The National Aeronautical Enterprise(ENAER) is an autonomous State-ownedcompany whose board of directors is chairedby the Commander in Chief of the Air Force.It engages in building, repairing and modify-ing airplanes and aeronautical parts andcomponents.34

3. STRATEGIC VISION

The Chilean Air Force exists to defend the coun-try and is essential for the country’s national se-curity.

In general terms, the Air Force aims to optimizeits capabilities during this ten-year period, tosuccessfully defend Chile’s sovereign air space,operate in any scenario and operate in conjunc-

tion with other air forces with a view to support.Chile’s State policy of collaborating in buildingworld peace.

As part of the Air Force’s vision, the concept ofunity of war is central to the institution’s growth.In this regard, the decision to equip the Air Forcewith modern resources of combat presupposesconceiving a strategic solution in a manner thatprojects beyond the air sphere.

An evaluation of the institution’s capabilities andlimitations has led to an effort to rationalize thecommon activities of the Armed Forces. In lightof this, the Air Force and other services havesteered execution of various activities towardsthe particular service, which has developedgreater and better capabilities for carrying out aparticular task. For example, training of Rangersand Special Forces has been assigned to theArmy and Navy, while missile maintenance hasbeen channeled to the Navy. Service’s aims arealso geared towards searching for different in-stances for joint action in operational and logisti-cal areas and in others of mutual interest.

3.1. Scopes of Action of the Air Force

In fulfilling its mission, the Air Force acts inthree major scenarios – National, for preparingand making ready its capabilities; Regional, forcoping with possible conflicts arising in the area;and Worldwide, as part of multinational forces orforming part of aeronautical technical plans andcooperation between Air Forces. Likewise, it con-tributes significantly to the country’s develop-ment and cooperates with the activity of theState in promoting national interests in interna-tional spheres.

a) Defense SphereThe Air Force has planned building a mod-ern, technologically advanced force capableof credible deterrence that can be used ei-ther on its own in air battles or in conjunc-tion with the Army and Navy in accomplish-ing a war’s strategic objective.

b) Development SphereThe Air Force seeks to get close to the com-munity of which it is a part. This effort is notonly related to defense of the population, butalso to putting its capabilities at the disposalof the country’s development, since thecharacteristics of the Air Force’s resourcesmeans that they can play a dual role. Thework of agencies such as the Aeropho-

✪ 33 See Part III, Chapter II.


togrammetric Service, the MeteorologicalService and the Air Rescue Service areprominent in this effort.

The resources at the Air Force’s disposal linkthe furthest points of the country’s territory(such as Easter Island and Chilean Antarcti-ca) and its most isolated zones (such as Cam-po de Hielos Sur) with its central areasquickly and efficiently.

c) International SphereThe Air Force’s range, speed and flexibilitymake it an ideal instrument for supportingthe country’s interests in internationalspheres. The Institution is developing its re-sources to reinforce its ability to cooperatewith its neighbors, and at regional and worldlevels, as part of multinational forces inpeacekeeping operations, undertaking ac-tions of a humanitarian nature and formingpart of aeronautical technical plans and co-operation between Air Forces.

Currently, air combat resources on interna-tional missions resulting from resolutionspassed by the UN Security Council tend to beused in conjunction or in combination withfriendly Air Forces. Hence the need to haveinteroperable weapons systems.

Furthermore, in addition to their possibilityof rapid deployment in various scenarios,the above capabilities make the Air Force avaluable element available to the Presidentof the Republic for handling any crisis, al-lowing him to control its permanence andoperation and graduate its use.

4. THE MODERNIZATION PROCESS

The institution’s modernization process seeks tobuild a modern, powerful Air Force to meet thedemands that this concept and its specific strate-gy make upon the country. Two essential factorsneed to be combined in order to keep the AirForce’s strength current. These are technologicalevolution and financial resources.

Technological innovation requires periodic mod-ification and ultimately replacement of air mate-rials. The financial resources required to do somust be shared with the other needs of society,so replacing combat aircraft is based on comple-tion of its life cycle, staggering these replace-ments over the years. This procedure seeks to

prevent two or more weapons systems from be-coming obsolete at the same time in a given pe-riod, a circumstance that, in addition to adverse-ly affecting the Air Force’s combat capabilities,would also place a heavy financial burden on thecountry’s resources by having to cope with re-placing two or more systems simultaneouslyduring the same period.

A modern platform has a high degree of avail-ability because technology makes for lower op-erating costs, increases the length of time be-tween breakdowns and has more efficient piecesof equipment that range from large capacity en-gines to structures made of compound materialsthat suffer less fatigue and deformations.

Together with the above, the Air Force’s modern-ization process must enable it to be prepared tocope with conventional and non-conventionalthreats in accordance with its assigned mission.

In order to fulfill its declared aims, the institu-tion’s modernization process is geared towardsachieving the following objectives:

a) Structure a force that meets the require-ments of modern warfare and efficientlysupports National Defense Policy. b) Develop and consolidate capabilities toachieve better integration with multinationalforces designed to make and keep the peace. c) Modernize and adapt systems of adminis-tration, logistics, personnel and finances, sothat they expedite management with a viewto achieving better training of the force.d) Strengthen the institution’s organizationalculture, so as to give each of its members asense of belonging and of adhering to the AirForce’s basic values.e) Structure a system of full education,which duly provides the institution with thepersonnel that it needs, in terms of bothquality and quantity, and that is compatiblewith the level of modernization of its opera-tional systems.

5. PLANNING

The Institution’s modernization plans are drawnfrom the Chilean Air Force’s Objectives Plan forthis ten-year period, called “Bicentenary.” Thisplan sets the objectives and capabilities thatmust be achieved in each area in order to imple-ment the institution’s strategic vision and be con-stantly prepared and ready to perform its perma-


nent mission and missions of international coop-eration as determined by the State.

The Objectives Plan is based on the vision of theAir Force as an expression of the State in the na-tional air space. It stipulates that the Air Force,as a permanent institution of the Republic, isgeared towards cooperating for the commongood. The level of operational capability that theAir Force seeks to acquire through the “Bicente-nary” plan helps strengthen the security that so-ciety needs for its development. This is becausethat level of operational capability is a dissuasivecapability, which has a decisive influence onmaintaining the peace, which is the country’s ul-timate aim.

6. WOMEN IN THE AIR FORCE

In 2000, the Air Force provided for women to en-ter the “Capitán Manuel Ávalos Prado” Air ForceAcademy as cadets and, therefore, with the pos-sibility of graduating as officers in the ChileanAir Force.

Women go through the same application and ad-mission process for the Academy as the men,

and, once admitted, they may apply to the ranksof War Pilot, Aeronautical Engineer, Air Defenseand Administration without any restrictions.

From the moment they begin their career in theAir Force Academy, they are required to meetthe same level of demands as the men in air, mil-itary and academic spheres. The level of re-quirement in physical-sports spheres has beenmade the same for both genders. In short,women have been fully integrated into militaryactivities.

The Air Force considers that incorporatingwomen into the Institution strengthens its hu-man resources in such a way that the whole ofthe institution’s personnel contribute to thecountry’s defense and development.

To the extent that women fulfill the same dutiesas their male companions in general missions,institutional plans consider their full incorpora-tion into combat branches.

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4. The Professional Education Process in the Armed Forces

Given the nature of the Armed Forces

and their missions, which even put the

lives of their members at risk if

required, the military profession is

essentially vocational in nature. This

makes the education and training of

the members of the Armed Forces

unique and means that they can only

enter the military profession via the

Armed Forces’ Academies.

1. TRAINING MILITARY PERSONNEL

The National Defense Institutions choose theirpersonnel from among the voluntary applica-tions of thousands of young men and womenwho apply each year to the various academiesfor officers and non-commissioned officers tostart their professional careers at an early age.This makes for a homogenous body of officersand non-commissioned officers who have thenecessary virtues and character for the profes-sion of arms that they have chosen.

The academies’ varied curriculum includes allmilitary subjects and special areas of expertise, aswell as subjects from other spheres, that areneeded to provide the necessary basis to form thescientific, technical and humanities foundationrequired by all military professionals. Thus, ac-cording to the Constitutional Organic Law on Ed-ucation, the Armed Forces’ educational institu-tions are empowered by law to award diplomasfor special fields of study, diplomas in profes-sional and technical fields and academic degrees.Recently, in order to optimize the use of re-

sources and the particular capabilities of each in-stitution, specialization courses common to theArmed Forces have been taught jointly, accord-ing to each one’s particular area of expertise. Forexample, Ranger and Parachutist courses for per-sonnel from the three services are taught at theArmy’s Airborne and Special Forces School; in-strument navigation courses and other aviation-related courses are taught by the Air Force, whilethose related to diving, rescue operations andother specific activities on or under sea aretaught by the Navy.

2. CHILEAN ARMY

2.1. Officers

Officer training is a constant, progressive processthat starts at the Military Academy and contin-ues throughout the officer’s professional careerwith academic and training requirements thatenable an officer to perform in different areas.Officers must acquire their knowledge and prac-tical expertise in their chosen fields both in in-


stitutional centers and in other national and in-ternational centers, which may or may not bemilitary in nature.

The complete process involves a basic trainingcycle, a specialist training cycle and an advancedtraining cycle.

a) Basic TrainingThe Military Academy provides future officerswith military abilities associated with leader-ship, platoon level command abilities, use andcommand of weapons systems and manage-ment. It also trains them in complementaryabilities based on arts, science and technology,so that they can link it in relation to a branch,service or special area of expertise.

Training future officers is basically geared to-wards strengthening their preparation in mil-itary spheres. This involves four years of pro-fessional training that, in addition to makingthem army officers, means that they graduatewith a bachelor degree in Military Science.

b) Technical and Professional TrainingIn this field, officers are trained to exercisecommand of Tactical Units from the differ-ent branches or support services, accordingto the different degrees of specialization re-quired for proper tactical and technical useof the resources provided. This area includesthe basic and advance courses for junior offi-cers. Similarly, officers are trained to per-form in special areas of combat that cover in-stitutional needs, such as special forces,rangers, paratroopers, military pilots, moun-tain warfare instructors, divers, specialists inelectronic warfare, as well as other supple-mentary special areas of expertise such ashorseback riding instructors, college profes-sors, language interpreters, physical educa-tion instructors, among others.

In order to complete this training, the Armyhas academic and training infrastructure inits own facilities and also takes advantage ofinternational agreements with Armiesaround the world.

c) Advanced TrainingThis takes place in the War and Military Poly-technic Colleges. The former trains generalstaff officers and the latter military polytech-nic engineering officers. According to the Ba-sic Law on Education, both are the primarymilitary education institutions that meetstate’s requirement for professional military

education. Consequently, they undertaketeaching, research and extension tasks. Ac-cording to annual planning, they programunder and post graduates courses and awarddegrees in military science and build gradu-ate programs in various military science dis-ciplines designed to accomplish the institu-tion’s educational goals. Civilian students,and others from abroad, also participate. Inturn, the Academies are entrusted with train-ing the professors required to cover theteaching demands of each of the institutes.

Supplementary to the training describedabove, officers take courses and specialize inareas with a view to obtaining graduate de-grees, such as an MA or a PhD in specific ar-eas, from universities and higher educationcenters in Chile and abroad.

2.2. Enlisted Personnel

As with the officers, training the NCOs is a con-tinuous, progressive process that starts in theNon-Commissioned Officers Academy and contin-ues throughout the NCO’s professional career,with academic requirements and specific training,so that they can perform in the branches or sup-port services to which they belong. As part oftheir professional possibilities, the Institution alsogives them the chance to join the ranks of officer.

a) Basic TrainingThe Non-Commissioned Officers Academyprovides the basic training for future NCOs ina two-year period of study. During that time,future NCOs acquire the technical and pro-fessional knowledge required to perform inthe Army’s various units and organizations.

b) Technical and Professional TrainingThis process provides Enlisted men with thetechnical and tactical training required to bepromoted to higher ranks as NCO’s accord-ing to institutional needs, until they reachthe rank of Sergeant Major.

They may also specialize in higher technicalfields, in either combat or teaching. Theseinclude physical education instructors, intel-ligence specialists, mountaineering instruc-tors, aircraft observers, electronic warfare,rangers, paratroopers, Special Forces anddivers. They can also apply at the same timefor diplomas as gunsmiths, weapons systemsmaintenance mechanics, engine mechanics,electronic technicians, musicians, black-smiths, stewards and cooks.


3. CHILEAN NAVY

3.1. Officers

Through the Navy’s Board of Education, the Gen-eral Personnel Board is responsible for trainingseamen. This process includes everything fromselecting applicants for a career in the Navy toproviding the fleet with men who are morallyand professionally suited for fighting at sea, andable to operate high technology materials andweapons.

a) Basic TrainingThe basic training process starts in the NavalAcademy, where, in addition to doctrinal,naval and military teaching, officers are alsotrained in engineering, which is then com-pleted in the Naval Polytechnic College,.

The Naval Academy in Valparaíso trains fu-ture officers in a four-year program, fromwhich students graduate as midshipmen.

b) Advanced TrainingAfter graduating from he Naval Academy, of-ficers attend the Naval Polytechnic College,from which they graduate with a degree inEngineering after 6 years of higher educa-tion. The Naval Polytechnic College, teachesthe technological knowledge required for op-erating, maintaining and administrating theNavy’s resources.

The Naval Polytechnic College, is made up ofthe Schools of Engineering, Operations, Ar-maments, Supplies, Naval Aviation, Sub-marines, Marine Corps, Health and Coastand Lighthouses.

c) Graduate TrainingPrior to entering the Naval War College(AGN), officers take correspondence coursesfor two years and then attend the College inperson for one year. After studies at theAGN, plus complementary graduate coursesfor at least a semester, and submission of athesis, officers are awarded a Master’s degreein Naval and Maritime Science, with differ-ent special fields of study.

This College’s activities focus on trainingmid level officers to perform at higher com-mand levels as well as prepare them as Gen-eral Staff specialists.


Seamen enter basic training establishments,which train them to perform the institution’s typ-ical operational and administrative duties.

a) Basic TrainingThe Navy has two schools for training its sea-men, depending on their future specializa-tion. The Sailor School on Quiriquina Islandoff the port of Talca-huano trains sailors andmarines; they graduate as seamen after twoyears.

The School of Naval Craftsmen in Talcahuanoalso trains naval technicians in a three-yearprogram that trains them to work in ship-yards and land-based support facilities.

b) Technical and Professional TrainingAs with the officers, after a few years of prac-tical application aboard or in one of theNavy’s facilities, seamen enter the variousSpecialization Schools under the Naval Poly-technic College, where they receive addition-al teaching regarding their special fields of ex-pertise and various technological fields. Thisbroadens their range of knowledge and givesthem greater mastery in using and maintain-ing the resources under their care, whetheron board ship or in land-based naval facilities.

Similarly, they are given the necessary train-ing to assume new responsibilities and con-tinue to advance in their professional careers,which culminate as Master Chief Petty Offi-cers.

4. CHILEAN AIR FORCE

4.1. Officers

Training officers is a constant, progressiveprocess that begins in the Air Force Academyand continues throughout their professional ca-reers, with academic and training requirementsthat enable them to perform in various positions,both as pilots and in ground support activities.Officers must acquire knowledge and practicalexperience in specific fields in both institutionaland other national or international educationalcenters, which may or may not be military.

As with their fellow military, the process in-cludes a basic training cycle, a specialist trainingcycle and an advanced training cycle.


a) Basic TrainingCadets enter the Air Force Academy aftercompleting higfh school. There, they begin afull training program in the various fields, ei-ther in air or ground based branches of theAir Force. The cadets graduate with a BA inSocial Sciences.

b) Technical and Professional TrainingUpon graduating as second lieutenants, offi-cers in the air branch continue their pilottraining in the Instrument Flying School inPuerto Montt and the Tactical School head-quartered in Iquique, where they fly combatjets. Officers in ground-based branches con-tinue their studies in the Aeronautical Poly-technic College and the Anti-aircraft Ar-tillery Tactical School. Upon completion oftheir studies, they receive a degree in Aero-nautical Engineering, management, commu-nications, electronics or anti-aircraft ar-tillery, as applicable.

Once they complete this cycle, officers are as-signed to Air Force units throughout the country.Upon completing their course in the TacticalSchool, air-branch officers are selected as fighterpilots, transport pilots or helicopter pilots, and areawarded the title of War Pilot. Officers in land-based branches are awarded a professional degreedepending on the specific course attended.

At various stages of their careers, officers musttake specialization courses within the Institutionor in establishments outside the Air Force.

c) Advanced TrainingIn addition to these courses, officers arecalled to the Air Force War College, wherethey take courses that are both a require-ment and preparation for being initially com-mand advisors and then tactical unit com-manders. As part of this process, they partic-ipate in a joint course with students from theArmy’s and Navy’s War Colleges.

They then continue their advanced trainingattending courses that train them to exercisehigher levels of leadership in the Institution,as air force colonels. These courses are takenboth in the Institution and in national and for-eign universities, and officers can apply forgraduate degrees, such as an MA or a PhD.


The Institution's Enlisted staff is divided into twospecific areas – line personnel and service per-

sonnel. Line personnel enter the Chilean AirForce by applying and being selected by the Spe-cialization School. Service personnel are thosewho have completed the Basic Aero- militaryCourse in the Specialization School and have apreviously acquired special area of expertise.

a) Basic TrainingPeople enter the Specialization School,where Line personnel are trained, once theyhave completed their high school education.Studies comprise a two-year long full train-ing program, from which they graduate as airforce corporals, and ready to begin practicaltraining in the Institution’s units in variousareas of specialization, depending on the AirForce’s requirements.

In order to enter the Air Force Services’branches, applicants have to pass the basicAero-military Course in the SpecializationSchool, from which they graduate as corpo-rals. During their careers, these corporals areput through the same on-the-job trainingprocess as line personnel, in order to acquirethe various levels of efficiency required bythe Air Force.

b) Technical and Professional TrainingDuring their careers, personnel must under-go various training processes in their specialarea of expertise. After passing these, theybecome senior grade technicians, which isalso required for future promotion.

Once they have been promoted to sergeantsecond class, they must take a supervisorcourse and/or an additional specializationcourse in their particular area of expertise atthe Non-Commissioned Officer AdvancedTraining School (E.P.S.), polytechnic collegesor universities in the Metropolitan Region orother regions of the country. Passing thecourse means that they have achieved themaximum level of technical and practical ef-ficiency and that they are professionallyqualified to be promoted to Staff Sergeant.

Finally, they take the course for promotionto Chief Master Sergeant, to allow them toreach to the top rank in their career. Besidesto passing this course, the Special Board ofSelection must approve them for promotion.They are now trained to manage military af-fairs at an intermediate level.

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(AGPE) 56











of the Republic 19










Operations 32

















PART IV
















(DGMN) 92












PART VI

Defense is a public asset that must befinanced by the State, first, because itperforms a basic social function for theexistence of society and, second, becauseit is an asset that cannot be supplied bythe market. Market supply mechanismsdo not have a practical application in thecase of Defense, because, as opposed towhat occurs with other goods, there is nocompetition in the demand for Defenseservices– everybody receives defenseequally– and no one can acquire Defenseservices for themselves exclusively to thedetriment of others.

Defense resources come from the State,either through direct allocation from thepublic treasury or from funds generatedby CODELCO through mechanismsestablished in what is known as theCopper’s Reserved Law.

The State obtains these resources fromsociety’s economic capacity, in order tofinance, not only the Defense function,but also all the activities entrusted to it.To ensure judicious management, theState has at its disposal a series of budgetand evaluation systems to select theactivities to be financed according totechnical criteria that serve as the basisfor political decisions and allow the max-imum social benefit.

These characteristics make Defense apurely social asset, and it is the Statethat decides how and how much of thissocially required public good to produceand, on that basis, allocates the resourcesusing the mechanisms available.

Defense Resources

BOOK OF THE NATIONAL DEFENSE OF CHILEYEAR 2002 113311PART VI

1. Analysis of Defense Spending

Knowing how much it costs the State

to finance Defense and how the allo-

cated resources are used requires, first,

a determination of what constitutes

Defense, because the Armed Forces

also contribute to development.

Secondly, it means taking into account

that military spending includes some

expenditures that are social in nature,

and, thirdly, it means considering that

the Armed Forces perform some activi-

ties that provide a service for third

parties and are financed by the fees

charged.

1. DEFENSE SPENDING AND ITS RELATIONTO OTHER MACROECONOMIC VARIABLES

It is no easy task to determine how much De-fense is necessary (the demand for Defense) ineither theoretical or practical terms, as the socialdemand for Defense is determined by specificfactors such as the Gross Domestic Product andappraisal of threats perceived by the country, in-dependent from other considerations, such asmedium and long term Treasury policy.35

1.1. The Incidence of the Gross DomesticProduct (GDP)

The best way of measuring a country’s financial

effort to provide suitable Defense is through theratio of Defense spending to GDP. This ratio maybe high in countries fighting a foreign war or suf-fering from internal conflict, and practically nilin countries that have handed over protection oftheir sovereignty to foreign powers or interna-tional alliances. For a country such as Chile, thisratio expresses the percentage of economic ca-pacity allocated to give credibility to its defensepolicy.

Figure 23 shows the evolution of Defense spend-ing as a percentage of GDP since 1963, in whichseveral stages are evident.

The first stage consisted of a relative decline inspending until 1969. The second was a rise be-tween 1973 and 1976 as a result of externalcrises. In the next few years it remained high, al-though declining slightly, as a result of the eco-nomic growth from 1977 to 1981 and becausespending was kept at the same or slightly declin-ing levels. During the period from 1981 to 1983,this ratio underwent an upturn due to the sharp

✪ 35 There are econometric formulae that could be used to calculatethe demand for defense, but such an analysis goes beyond the aimsof this study.


drop in GDP during those years. Subsequently,when Defense spending remained relativelyconstant in an economy that was once again inan upturn, there was a slow decline with ups anddowns caused by variations in the price of cop-per. The ratio has become increasingly lower un-til it has reached its current values, which are theresult of an economy that is growing faster thanDefense spending.

Figure 24 shows the evolution of fiscal resourcesallocated to defense in the period from 1989 to

2001. The lower curve shows the evolution of therespective annual budget allocations. Prices indollars are converted into pesos at the averageexchange rate for the year in question, andprices in pesos are cumulative and then adjustedby the rate of inflation in each year. This curveshows a tendency to lower growth, almost stag-nation, until 1995; then a significant increase be-tween 1995 and 1997, due to a special salary ad-justment for personnel –the health law in 1996and the new Personnel Statute or DFL-1 (G) in1997– followed by another increase as the result

FIGURE 23

FIGURE 24


of a special allocation in 1999.

Treasury allocations were augmented by rev-enue from the Copper’s Reserved Law. The lawstates that these funds must be allocated exclu-sively to purchasing military equipment andweapons systems. The upper curve in Figure 24shows the total of both allocations to Defense be-tween 1989 and 2001. This curve shows a rela-tively downward trend in revenue from the Cop-per’s Reserved Law, due to the ups and downscaused by the variable price of copper. It is alsoevident that the level of total contributions to De-fense dropped from 1989 to 1993, in real terms,at which time it reached its lowest point. Thelevel of spending did not recover in real termsuntil 2000, as a result of an increase in spendingon personnel.

1.2. Level of Perceived Threats

In financial terms, this variable is measured bypublished information on Defense spending byother States. This figure must be corrected to ac-count for exchange rate differentials and differ-ences in the internal prices of some critical fac-tors such as personnel wages.36

When our Defense spending is analyzed in rela-tion to the GDP, the resulting percentage shouldshow the impact of perceived threats. This isshown in Figure 23, which shows this ratio overthe past 38 years. The graph shows that the ratiohas tended to remain at around 1.8% per yearover the last few years, which is closely relatedto a diminished threat perception and to the factthat an equivalent level of Defense must accom-pany growth in GDP.

Moreover, the absolute level of spending, whichis illustrated in Figure 24, has tended to increasein spite of fluctuations in the price of copper re-flected in variations in the revenue from theCopper’s Reserved Law. This increase in the ab-solute level of spending is related both to the in-crease in GDP and to the effects of internalprices of some production factors (wages) as a re-sult of that same GDP growth.

2. DEFENSE AND FISCAL EXPENDITURES

An analysis of how much fiscal spending is allo-cated to Defense (Figure 25) yields a pattern sim-ilar to that for the Defense spending/GDP ratio(Figure 23) between 1963 and 2001, except thatthis ratio increases during that period, because ofa drop in fiscal spending between 1985 and 1990.It turns down again in 1991 when GDP grows andthe share of fiscal spending in GDP rises.

Two high points can be observed in this distribu-tion: the highest in 1975 (when it was almost onequarter of fiscal spending) and 1989, when, inaddition to the effect mentioned above, whenthere were very high revenues from the Copper’sReserved Law. The ration of Defense to Fiscalspending has tended to stabilize at 8% or 9%over the past decade, which is close to, but slight-ly lower than the ratio that existed until 1973,when it fluctuated between 8.5% and 12%.

Figure 25 shows that the portion of Fiscal Spend-ing allocated to Defense, including the yieldfrom the Copper’s Reserved Law, depends onchanges in Treasury policy. These changes mod-ify total fiscal spending and therefore alter theportion allocated to defense spending. Defensespending also changes according to other vari-ables, which add to or subtract from the effect offiscal policy. One of these variables is the strate-gic situation of the international arena, whichmeans that fiscal policy only has a relative im-portance in determining defense expendituresover the long term.

The above can be clearly seen in the period from1970 to 1976, in which the ratio of Defensespending to GDP rose from 2.4% to 3.6% be-tween 1970 and 1973, while, in the same period,it dropped from 10.5% to 8.5% in relation to fis-cal spending as a result of increased fiscal spend-ing. Then, from 1973 to 1976, the two ratios in-creased, with the rise in the fiscal spending ratiobeing much higher (since in the period in ques-tion fiscal spending remained the same, ordropped, as a result of restrictive economic poli-cies, while Defense spending rose in light of per-ceived foreign threats during that period).

3. DEFENSE DEMAND, GDP AND PERCEIVED THREATS: THEIR EFFECTS

The ratio described above has two effects thatshow the correspondence between its elements.First of all, Defense spending resulting from a

✪ 36 It must be noted that this factor must not be measured linearly,since it has significant gaps. In the short term, however, one can as-sume that its behavior is linear.


FIGURE 25

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demand arising from a perceived threat may notexceed a certain limit, which may be expressedas a percentage of GDP. This limit may not be ex-ceeded without adversely affecting the country’sdevelopment capacity.

Secondly, an erroneous evaluation of a threatcould produce an increase in the demand for De-fense and its associated increase in spending tomeet it beyond a given limit. In turn, if this in-crease is perceived as a threat by another coun-try, it could lead to what is called an “arms race”,where each country involved responds to threatsperceived as a result of increased spending onDefense by its possible rivals with more increas-es.

The independence of the demand for Defense inrelation to fiscal spending does not mean that–from the perspective of Defense production–government policies geared towards moderniz-ing public management, including budget prac-tices, do not have an effect on Defense spending.Government policies can have an effect by en-suring that public resources are used more effi-ciently and by meeting the demand for Defensein the most economical way possible in absoluteterms and in relation to GDP.

4. THE ARMED FORCES AS A PURCHASING POWER

The Armed Forces acquire most of what theyneed to operate in the country, except for what isnot available on the domestic market or the pro-curement of which is not economically viable.This policy is being reinforced by instructionsfrom the Commanders in Chief and changes in

the tax regulations governing the Armed Forces,especially with regards to importing militaryequipment. This will mean that procurementswill be geared even more to the domestic mar-ket.

From the point of view of the country’s economyas a whole, the importance of Armed Forces pro-curement lies primarily in its contribution to cer-tain local economies and some specific sectors ofproduction. Within the latter, the positive effectis a result of introducing standards of quality thatguarantee suitable goods and services. This re-quires the incorporation of production and qual-ity control technologies that will remain avail-able for domestic production of goods and serv-ices not strictly designed for National Defense.Weapons and systems maintenance contractsmay be even more important, as they will get do-mestic suppliers involved in learning about com-plex processes and techniques.


2. The Defense Budget

The budgetary system must consider

the difficulties in the efficient use of

the resources, such as the limited flexi-

bility of the human resources in the

short term and the long period of evo-

lution necessary for the procurement

and full operation capability of the

means. In Defense, an adequate assess-

ment system and the budget have fea-

tures that require sophisticated and

controlled methods that respond to the

Defense Policy definitions.

1. THE BUDGET STRUCTURE OF THE MINISTRY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE

The budget structure corresponding to the Min-istry of National Defense is organized into chap-ters by undersecretaries, which include theArmed Forces budget.37 The Nation’s GeneralBudget provides in each of the above mentionedchapters, for supplementary programs, such asthe healthcare budget and other supportingagencies that administer separate budgets withspecific purposes and income from differentsources. There are also areas for the General Ser-vices and Directorates that, with regards to thebudget, are closely related to the Ministry.

Figure 26 describes the ministerial organizationfor budgetary purposes and shows the reporting

relationship of the aforementioned agencies.The first type of agency consists of the Offices ofthe Undersecretaries and the Armed Forces’services, which are solely financed by fiscal rev-enue and which transfer funds to finance otherprograms of the defense function. The secondtype of agency consists of entities reporting di-rectly to the Offices of the Undersecretaries andcorrespond to programs developed by ArmedForces organizations that render services to thirdparties and are financed by funds they collect(their own income) and include the ArmedForces' health services, or other services provid-ed to civil society, such as DIRECTEMAR orDGAC. Institutions in the defense sector thatrepresent separate budgetary areas and, for thesepurposes, are coordinated with the Ministrythrough the Offices of the Undersecretaries com-prise the third type. These agencies are fundedwith resources generated by the services theyprovide, in some cases, supplemented by fiscalcontributions (IGM, SHOA and SAF).

From the budgetary viewpoint, it should be not-

✪ 37 For defense budget purposes, the Offices of the Undersecretaryof Police and Investigations are not considered.


ed that the National Defense’s Social SecurityFunds (CAPREDENA) are not part of the Min-istry of National Defense, but of the Ministry ofLabor and Social Security. Additionally, since theArmed Forces get part of their financing directlythrough the Copper’s Reserved Law,38 it shouldbe mentioned that those resources are not in-cluded in the Ministry’s budget nor are theyrecorded in the public accounting, and theirscheduling and control system is subject to a dif-ferent regulation.

2. BUDGET PROCEDURES AND THE ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES

The Nation’s General Budget is the State’s centraltool for allocating public resources. Its definitiontakes into account all the policies that are tech-nically and economically feasible, so that the setof economic and financial capabilities estab-lished by the treasury policy can also fund thosegiven priority by the political authority. ThePresident of the Republic is the authority re-sponsible for preparing the Budget, which mustbe approved through legislation, enacted by theNational Congress and shall be in effect for anannual budgetary period.

The Ministry of National Defense coordinatesand manages the fiscal and budgetary policy im-plementation within the defense sector, and isresponsible for submitting the budgets for therequired administrative and legislative process-ing. As regards each of the Armed Forces andother entities reporting to them, the ministerialagency responsible for submission of the budgetsis the Office of the respective Undersecretary,where the Undersecretary must participate inthe budget preparation and report on the budg-etary execution progress to the General Comp-trollership of the Republic and the Budget Direc-torate of the Ministry of Finance.

Regarding the Armed Forces’ budgetary manage-ment, the Commanders in Chief are responsiblefor the budgetary formulation and execution forthe different programs in accordance with theirConstitutional Organic Law. The organizationalstructure of every service includes the agenciesin charge of preparing the corresponding budgetand ensuring its execution and control.

The Armed Forces are equipped with differentmanagement planning, budget development, fi-nancial execution, and evaluation systems.These systems fall under the general regulationsgoverning the financial management of the Stateand subordinate agencies and, like all other pub-lic administration agencies, subject to adminis-trative and accounting control by the GeneralComptrollership of the Republic and budgetary

FIGURE 26

✪ 38 For further information on this issue, refer to Part VI, Chapter 4.


control by the Office of the Budget.

The purpose of this resource allocation system isto coordinate the different defense sector priori-ties and incorporate them into the nation’s Gen-eral Budget. In this process, the defense priori-ties will be assessed based on their technical,economic and political features, and reconciledwith the priorities of the other State sectors.Within this general scheme, the Ministry of Fi-nance has established a system of competitiveprojects that provides resources apart from therequirements established by the law. Since itscreation, this system has allocated a significantpercentage of its available resources to annualprojects that do not involve ongoing spendingover time.

3. MODERNIZATION OF THE BUDGET SYSTEMS

Appropriate budget restructuring for each serv-ice of the Armed Forces or agency of the defensesector is a fundamental part of a planning sys-tem providing for the allocation of resources tothe defined activities to achieve the institutionalgoals, which, in turn, reflect the general goals ofNational Defense.

Chile’s State administration is undergoing a mod-ernization of its public administration that alsocovers the budgetary and resources allocationprocesses for the different activities involvingpublic policies. This modernization emphasizesmanagement control, transparency in the use of

public resources and improvement in the man-agement of allocated resources. It has also meantincreased involvement of the National Congressin both the allocation of resources in the budgetand in the control of the execution of specificprograms.

Within this general process, the Defense sectorand the Armed Forces have achieved importantprogress in the context of their own restructur-ing processes int his area. The Armed Forceshave designed and implemented managementplanning, budget and control systems in linewith the specific features of each service, whichare currently in different stages of development.

4. THE BUDGETS OF THE ARMED FORCES:DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION

The Constitutional Organic Law for the ArmedForces establishes minimum values for the dif-ferent allocations provided in each budgetary fis-cal year. These minimum values were estab-lished based on the 1989 budget, which statesthat the allocation for payroll in Chilean curren-cy must be adjusted, as a minimum, in accor-dance with the general adjustments for the pub-lic sector and the allocation for the remaining na-tional currency expenditures must be adjusted inaccordance with the change in the CPI between1989 and the current year.

Figure 27 illustrates the evolution of these allo-cations between 1990 and 2002 separately andshows that both experienced an increase of 28%

FIGURE 27


for “other” and 40% for “personnel”.

By law, foreign currency allocations may not belower than the established in 1989 without estab-lishing any adjustability mechanism.

The annual allocation in nominal dollars be-tween 1990 and 2002, illustrated in Figure 28,shows a 25% increase in that period.

Figure 29 displays the distribution of fiscalspending on Defense, including the Copper Law,for each service of the Armed Forces over thefour (4) years that mark the trend.

Until 1975, the Navy was the institution receiv-ing the highest allocation, because its operatingand equipment costs were higher, followed bythe Army. During 1974 and 1975, this ratiochanged due to the expenses derived from the in-crease in the Army staffing, a process that madeit the institution with the highest use of re-sources by the end of 1976. Likewise, the amend-ment to the Copper’s Reserved Law, the revenuefrom which had been distributed equally amongthe three services since 1975, now gave theArmy a larger share in these funds. This distri-bution stabilized in the 80’s and continued with-out significant variation over the last decade, in

FIGURE 28

FIGURE 29


the proportion of 42/34/24 for the Army, Navy,and Air Force, respectively.

Defense spending is distributed over five (5) gen-eral areas: Personnel, Operations, Equipment,Infrastructure, and Research and Development.Although the budgetary expenditures may be di-vided into these categories, the expenditures fi-nanced with funds from the Copper’s ReservedLaw may not be separated in that way. They in-clude operating, military infrastructure construc-tion, and equipment and associated financial ex-penditures. Even so, given the fact that the mostimportant component of this spending has beenthe procurement of military equipment, the totalfunds from this source are classified as Ord-nance. Research and Development is a specialcase; it is not separated in the public accounts,but is incorporated in the other expenses. Figure30 shows the spending distribution based onthese criteria for the years 1994 and 2001.

Figure 30 illustrates the relative increase in thePersonnel heading and the relative decrease inthe Operation and Infrastructure headings,which is explained by the real increases in pay-roll, which was proportionally greater than theincreases in the remaining operating expenses.This increased spending on payroll must be un-derstood in the context of the increase –up to1999– in general income levels experiencedthroughout the country.

In general, the Chilean Armed Forces are oper-ating equipment that is in the final stages of theiruseful life, so they have a comparatively highmaintenance cost. With the operating spendingshowing a moderate increase, the emphasis hasbeen put on maintaining the operating capabili-ties of the forces. It should be considered that theprocess of modernization and replacement of theequipment acquired between 1970 and 1980,most with a long operating life at the time of pro-curement, started in 1997 with the purchase ofnew submarines and overhauled, second-handcombat ships. This factor has been critical in theplanning of the modernization of the forces andthe renewal of the weapons systems of the threeservices of the Armed Forces.Spending on military infrastructure is low andreflects that there have been no substantialchanges in the distribution and number of unitsand that the military has been using and repair-ing its existing infrastructure. The Armed Forcesmodernization projects, both through the re-placement of the equipment at the end of its use-ful life and the restructuring of the forces will

lead to an increase in this item during the nextyear. This effort will be largely funded by theconsolidation of the existing infrastructure.

4.1. Allocations by Use

The treasury allocation to the Defense is givenwith specific purposes derived from the budgetmethodology, which makes it possible to classifyit according to the kind of expenditures to be fi-nanced: “Personnel” and “Other” in Chilean cur-rency. The first one corresponds to the contribu-tions to fund the payroll and other personnel ex-penses; the second is designed to fund the oper-ating and real investment expenditures (basical-ly in infrastructure). The most important pur-pose of the foreign currency allocation is the fi-nancing of other operating expenses, in additionto financing the military missions abroad, whichmanage the procurement of equipment and theexpenditures of the military attaches’ offices.

In addition to the treasury allocations there arethe expenditures funded by the Copper’s Re-served Law, which are designed for the procure-ment of war material.

Figure 31 shows the evolution of these alloca-tions, showing their distribution in 1990, 1994,1997 and 2002. The figure also illustrates the

FIGURE 30


strong variation on the breakdown of the alloca-tion, in which the personnel heading has in-creased from 41% in 1990 to 55% in 1997. After1997 it began to stabilize and then decreasedslightly beginning in 2001 as a result of the re-tirements aimed at readjusting the personnel or-ganization. This downward trend should in-crease in the coming years.

The relative effect of the Copper’s Reserved Lawdecreased in the same period from 35.5% in 1990to around 21% in the rest of the period. This vari-ation is consistent with the significant fluctua-tions in copper revenue, basically due to copperprices. The other allocations have not changedsignificantly and have maintained a relativelystable share.

FIGURE 31 The coming years should see some movementfrom “Personnel” to “Other” in Chilean currencyallocations, while the other components shouldremain relatively stable.

4.2. The Trend in Personnel Expenditures

Between 1974 and 1981, due to relations withneighboring countries, the Armed Forces experi-enced a marked increase in personnel, a processthat had been taking place in the Army since1972. During the 1980’s, personnel numberstended to remain the same, except in the case ofthe Air Force, and the Navy in particular, whichshows a downward trend. Figure 32 illustratesthe evolution of the Armed Forces hired person-nel.

In general, Armed Forces staffing have experi-enced two situations associated with and deriv-ing from the number of personnel entering theservices during the 1970’s. The first situation wasthe distortion in the personnel hierarchy, causedby a lower number graduates from the militaryacademies in the 1980’s and 1990’s. The secondwas the “aging of the staff,” a phenomenon thatoccurs when the staff has a high average numberof years in service and associated expenses rise.This situation became evident in 1994, whenpersonnel benefits for professional training in-creased.

Added to these two phenomena is the fact that inthe recent years have seen a general remunera-tion increase above the CPI in the public sector.Likewise, the hired personnel have received spe-cial remuneration increases: during 1996, an ad-justment was granted and the Armed Forces’Health Law was enacted, which considered a re-warding bond for the increased health social se-curity contributions; during 1997, an increase as-sociated to the enactment of the new ArmedForces’ Personnel Bylaws (War D.L.-1 of 1997)and during 1999, a non-taxable bond was created,which meant another remuneration increase.

The described situation shows the challengesfaced by the personnel policies of the sector. Toaddress them, both the Armed Forces’ modern-ization processes and the improvement of the re-sources allocation systems driven by the Min-istry consider instruments and goals aimed atstreamlining and improving the human re-sources management.


FIGURE 32

❦


3. The Defense Procurement System

The main component of the procure-

ment system is the Copper’s Reserved

Law. This law

was established in 1940 and is

designed to carry out the process of

financing, resource distribution, and

approval, and procurement of the war

material proposed by the Armed

Forces. These resources may only be

used for the procurement of weapons

systems and their associated military

equipment .

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM

The allocation of public resources to Defensetakes place through various mechanisms aimedat funding the different expenditures originatedby Defense. The National Budget is, by defini-tion, the resource allocation mechanism for allpublic activities funded with treasury resources,which provides for the incorporation of all of so-ciety’s priorities and for distributing the re-sources to the activities legitimately establishedby the society. Nevertheless, it is natural that thenational budget structuring is the response to po-litical decisions expressed in the budgetary allo-cations.

Investment needs in the Defense sector havetheir own features that differentiate them fromthe investments required in other sectors of thepublic business. This is the reason why, in gen-eral the different states design special systems tocarry out investments in Defense, that is, theprocurement of weapons systems, their associat-ed equipment and the required infrastructure for

their implementation. In our country, this sys-tem has been built around the National DefenseSuperior Council (CONSUDENA) and the mech-anisms established in the “Copper’s ReservedLaw” (Law 13196) of 1958, and its subsequentmodifications.

The Copper’s Reserved Law establishes a 10% taxon the export value of the copper and its by-prod-ucts made by the Corporación del Cobre (Codel-co). This law also establishes a minimumamount equivalent to US$ 180,000,000 (one hun-dred and eighty million US Dollars), adjusted ac-cording to the U.S. Wholesale Price Index (WPI)variation between 1987 and the year in question.When the 10% tax on Codelco exports don’t cov-er this value for a specific year, the law statesthat the General Treasury of the Republic shallprovide the difference in the corresponding ac-counts.

This tax is deposited by the Treasury, in equalparts, into reserved accounts assigned to each ofthe Armed Forces institutions. These, in turn,


deposit about 5% into an account managed bythe National Defense Superior Council (CON-SUDENA) for joint projects.39

2. ECONOMIC ISSUES AND FINANCIALEFFECTS

This system dates from the 1940’s and has beenmodified over time to make it more automaticand provide an increased flow of resources to De-fense due to the progressive increase in the costof war material with the constant incorporationof technology. These modifications have led tovarious consequences for the allocation system.

For example, the mechanism helps prevent com-petition between the services of the ArmedForces for the resource allocation. Nevertheless,it does not provide an opportunity for the viewsof each service on how to provide Defense –de-rived from their specific missions– to be com-bined into an integrated approach to war materi-al and equipment requirements.

Initially, anticipating the need to harmonizethese different service visions, the Legislaturegave CONSUDENA a regulating and coordinatingfunction. However, subsequent legal modifica-tions delegating powers to the different servicesof the Armed Forces and established an auto-matic allocation and distribution in three equalparts have weakened these functions.

In terms of economic analysis and management,the system has also a positive aspect, as it grantssecurity to the provision of financial resourcesfor the services. As a result, when the pertinentexecutive decrees are issued, the Armed Forcescan commit future resources to fund high-costequipment needs requiring multi-annual finan-cial flows.

This provides an important advantage for the ap-propriate allocation of internal resources, be-cause it enables the establishment of plans thatare funded over time according to minimumknown flows. As long as the financial flows aresecure, it is possible to undertake long-term,

high-cost, evolving projects and define the prior-ities according to internal technical criteria. Thisfacilitates the proper equipping of the ArmedForces without the need to allocate funds fromother sources.

Nevertheless, the system has other effects on theallocation of resources in the public sector ingeneral and in the defense sector in particular. Ingeneral, a certain flow of resources is deducted,making it impossible to assess their allocationbased on the set of priorities that the State mustaddress. In other words, allocation of these re-sources according to a specific piece of legisla-tion does not necessarily satisfy the search forthe optimum social or economic benefit. Withinthe Defense sector, the fact that these resourcesare allocated based on the particular service pri-orities diminishes the effect on the production ofa more comprehensive Defense.

Furthermore, allocation of the resources in equalthirds limits the possibility of a financial man-agement that channels the fund flows towardhigher cost projects, which leads to higher debtlevels and financial costs.

The annual fluctuations of the Copper’s Re-served Law revenues are seen in Figure 33,which shows the transfers to the Armed Forcesfrom CODELCO. The transfers don’t reflectspending exactly because there are balances be-tween the different payment dates that can bepassed on from year to year, but these differ-ences disappear over the medium term. (See Fig-ure 33)

3. THE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEM

A review of the military equipment procurementprocess as a whole reveals that there are threecontrolling agencies in the development of anyrelated project: the General Comptrollership ofthe Republic and the CONSUDENA, on the onehand, and the internal Comptrollership and In-spection Offices of the Armed Forces, on theother.

Since the formulation of a procurement projectis part of an internal process, in this initial stage,control is exercised by the agencies and offices ofeach service. On the other hand, the externalagencies control the operation once the projecthas been formulated and submitted for approval.

The CONSUDENA must record and control that

✪ 39 Given the confidential nature of the law, both the value of thefunds provided to the armed forces and their use are confidentialand the figures shown in Figure 33 here are for reference purposesonly, since they come from Codelco’s balance sheets.


each project and every action it involves are inaccordance with what has been established inthe original project, which eventually takes theform of an executive decree signed by the Minis-ters of Finance and Defense.

For its part, the General Comptrollership of theRepublic, under the Political Constitution, over-sees all the administrative acts performed by theState agencies. Each project and its respectivepayments, and all administrative acts in generalmust be authorized by decree and be overseenby the Comptrollership. This State agency notonly ensures that the services subject their reso-lutions for the record, but also performs reviewsat the offices of the public agencies that must is-sue them. These reviews also extent to the pro-curement of material for Defense, which in-cludes a visit to CONSUDENA to review the ac-count reporting and verification of movementsat the different military missions located abroad.

It should be noted that the legislation governingthe Copper’s Reserved Law does not empowerthe Commanders in Chief of the armed servicesto make direct purchases. Although each pur-chase is the initiative of the Armed Forces and,until the project is submitted, each Commanderin Chief is responsible for how the process is car-ried out, the finalization of each purchase re-quires the respective contracts issued by execu-tive decree. This means that the President of theRepublic, the Minister of Defense and the Minis-ter of Finance are eventually responsible foreach project. Even so, it is important to stressthat, before a project can be implemented, itmust be previously approved by the Executive,which informs the ministerial authorities of theintended objectives and the procedures adopted

to define it and select the best alternatives for itsrealization.

The good operation of a democratic state entailsthe need for public transparency and responsi-bility for the decisions and policies to be adopt-ed, without compromising the necessary confi-dentiality required by the nature of the equip-ment being purchased. In fact, during the lastdecade the most important procurement projectshave had a high level of dissemination and exhi-bition and were generally of public knowledgethroughout their entire development process.Undoubtedly, this practice represents progresstoward a system that is more open to all branch-es of government and the citizens and which ul-timately contributes to the country’s defense fi-nancing.

4. OFFSETS

The weapons system procurement processeshave given rise in Chile to the initiative to asso-ciate these purchases to industrial offset projects,i.e., commercial agreements required by a buyerthat force the seller to carry out actions to offsetthe money flow required by the sales agreement.

The offsets arose as a mechanism to supplementthe defense system purchases with commercialand technological initiatives generating socioe-conomic benefits for the buying country, andspecifically, technological developments for lo-cal industry. These initiatives are made possiblethrough the capabilities of the industrial con-glomerates producing the weapons systems,which, with a relatively small effort, may trans-fer technology, orient investments, contract pro-

FIGURE 33


ductive processes or open markets for the bene-fit of the buying country’s industry.

The Chilean Government decision states that in-dustrial offsets do not determine or affect the se-lection of the defense material, since the techni-cal decision on the material to be selected corre-sponds to the respective service of the ArmedForces and the Ministry of Defense.

This policy allows a defense investment to al-ways provide an opportunity for technological,industrial and commercial development for thecountry.

The National Committee of Supplementary In-dustrial Programs under the Corporación de Fo-mento (CORFO) is the Chilean State agency incharge of the negotiation, evaluation and follow-up of the industrial offset bids.

❦


Social security for Armed Forces per-

sonnel is part of the set of legislation

and resources that the State uses to

meet the social security needs of the

men and women who serve in the

Defense services. Therefore, given the

special characteristics of a military

career, a special system was developed

to guarantee proper, life-long protec-

tion to the Armed Forces personnel.

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM

Chile’s social security system has two groups ofpeople, deriving from the social security reformof 1981. One group consists of all the people whojoined the new individual capitalization systemand make payments into personal accounts man-aged by private sector Pension Fund Administra-tors (AFPs). After Law Decree 3500 was passed,everyone entering the labor market must jointhe new system.

The other group remained in the old “distribu-tion” system that was structured on the basis of acentral administration: the Social Security Stan-dardization Institute. This system, governed byLaw Decree 3501, includes the civil pensionfunds existing in 1981 and standardizes its bene-fits in a single system and maintains the portfo-lio of retirees that existed at the time the newsystem was established.

Nevertheless, the change in the Chilean socialsecurity system did not extend to the personnelof the Armed Forces or those of the Forces of Or-

der and Security, which kept their respectivesystems with some small differences.

The Armed Forces system is generally based ondistributions, with contributions from the active,retired and State personnel. Active personnelcontribute 6% of their salary or pension, therebyfinancing a common pool of benefits. This com-mon fund also finances other social services andthe administration of CAPREDENA.

2. COMPOSITION OF THE SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM ADMINISTERED BY CAPREDENA

CAPREDENA provides social security benefitsthrough four funds. The following are the mostrelevant features.

2.1. The Common Benefits Fund

The main mission of this fund is to pay social se-curity benefits, pay the transfers required by law,and finance the administration of the social se-

4. The Social Security System of the Armed Forces


curity institute. These benefits included the pay-ment of retirement and widow’s pensions, whosefinancing is governed by the Fund’s implement-ing act, DFL 31 of 1953, ratified by Law 18948,the implementing act of the Armed Forces, ac-cording to the following formula:

a) The Fund pays for 25% of the initial val-ue of the pensions. To meet this legal obliga-tion, the Fund uses the 6% social security taxon the active and retired personnel of theArmed Forces (before 1979 the tax was 8%).

b) The State directly pays 75% of the initialvalue, plus all adjustments or increases re-quired by law.

Though a deficit is not feasible in this Fund be-cause the State must cover the portion not fi-nanced through social security taxes, a review ofthe figures for the last few years reveals the needfor a higher direct contribution from the State,which has doubled in the period. Figure 34shows the direct contribution of the State toCAPREDENA from 1990 to 2002.

Today, CAPREDENA maintains 92,547 retireesand widows.40

2.2. The Severance Fund

Created by Law 8895 of October 4, 1947, its mainobjective is to make the severance payments ac-cording to the provisions established in DFL 1

(G) of 1968, and in Law 18948, the implementingact of the Armed Forces, of 1990. Until 1989, itshowed balanced financial statements in termsof its income and expenses, but this situation be-gan to change in 1990 as a result of the legalmodifications made between 1988 and February1990.

These changes led to a structure in which costswere higher than income and the difference wasfinanced, for a time, by the Fund’s equity, until1995. Since then successive direct fiscal alloca-tions have been needed.

2.3. The Curative Medicine Fund

Regulated by law 19465 and financed with the6% tax on retirement and widow’s pensions paidby CAPREDENA, minus the 17.5% that must beleft available for the corresponding Commandersin Chief of the services, and with a state contri-bution of 1% of the retirement and widow’s pen-sions paid by the Fund. In practice, this meansthat this fund is financed with 5.95% of the con-tributions paid by its affiliates.

The fund finances the health benefits of 42,000retired affiliates, who constitute 45% of the totalretired individuals. The rest have remained withor rejoined the Armed Forces health systems.This fund is complemented with a voluntary mu-tual fund.

2.4. The Social Help Fund

This was created Law 16285 of 1965, for the pur-pose of granting housing and assistance loans tothe contributing affiliates of CAPREDENA, withinitial capital from the outstanding balance ofthe loans granted by the institution.

FIGURE 34

✪ 40 Figure updated as of July 2002. Source: Report to the Board ofCAPREDENA.


According to current regulations, the annualbudget is distributed among the affiliates in ac-tive service and those retired, proportional to thecontributions paid by each group to the CommonBenefits Fund.

3. BENEFICIARIES AND BASIS OF THESYSTEM

3.1. Beneficiaries

All permanent staff serving in the Armed Forcesin the different ranks of officers, enlisted per-sonnel, and permanent civil employees partici-pate in the Armed Forces social security system.The retired personnel and their direct survivingfamily members, retirement and widow’s pen-sions of the system also participate.

The system covers risks during the professionalcareer of the military personnel protecting themember of the system and their family, until thedeath of the last family member with rights inthe system. If the beneficiary is on active duty, itincludes accidents, disabling illnesses, deathwhile in service, and after twenty years of serv-ice, the possibility of retiring with a percentageof their salary proportional to the years of serv-ice.

3.2. The Bases for the Social SecurityFramework

One of the essential duties of the State is the na-tion’s defense, which requires dedicated citizensengaged in this task and sometimes putting theirown lives on the line. For this reason, the Stategives these citizens a fair reward during theirservice, and after they complete their service,the State offers a proper social security and re-tirement plan.

The risk and the effort involved in the militaryprofession are not compatible with a social secu-rity system based on normal mortality and dis-ability rates.

The design of a hierarchical and pyramid-typecareer is not compatible with a system that isbased on an age to ensure certain profitability ofthe funds in an individual capitalization account.In addition, the highly specialized and specificprofessional education of the Armed Forces per-sonnel does not welcome everyone to the labormarket after retiring.

4. MODERNIZATION CRITERIA

4.1. The Ongoing Situation

The social security framework defined in thenotes above shows a situation that is character-ized by increasing costs, which arises from theneed to finance the social security of the numer-ous personnel that belong to the large graduatingclasses of the 1970’s and are now retiring aftercompleting their careers, and in agreement withthe benefits introduced with the amendments ofthe laws that regulate the military social securitypaid in the 1980’s.

Furthermore, maintaining certain benefits forwhich the basic rules have not changed for a longtime has become an excessive burden for a sys-tem founded on historical circumstances and cri-teria that have increased the cost of those bene-fits and the number of beneficiaries. On the oth-er hand, these benefits have differ significantlyfrom those of the civilian system that protectsthose who could not choose the new individualcapitalization system enforced in the country, orwho preferred to stay in the distribution systemmanaged by the State. There are even differ-ences in benefits of the same type.

4.2. The Modernization Process

Studies were stated some time ago to analyze thepossible solutions to this situation and they ex-plore the characteristics and costs of a militarysocial security system that includes criteria re-lated to the current social security system. Basedon the results of these studies and the criteria de-fined by the Ministry, much work was done toprepare a project that made the social securitysystem shared by the Armed Forces and the Or-der and Security Forces economically and social-ly feasible.

The criteria considered are related to the need tomaintain a specific system for the Armed Forcesand the policies based on the current distributionsystem, given the characteristics of the profes-sional career in these institutions. This frame-work will cover the reform of the different sub-systems separately, as each of the funds managedby CAPREDENA (or DIPRECA) face specific prob-lems that require specific solutions. A detailedstudy of the current laws and their regulations, aswell as of each benefit granted with the pensions,will allow the system to update the rights of themilitary personnel, the retired members and theirfamilies, and their access requirements.


Ultimately, the application of a gradual modern-ization criteria presupposes that no member inactive duty will see his rights affected and no re-tired member will see his pension modified dueto the implementation of changes proposed.

The working plan considers the participation ofthe governmental agencies related to the subjectand of the military and police services, and con-siders the creation of technical groups in chargeof studying the specific processes. These groupswill have the task of submitting a modernizationproposal that includes the necessary economic,legal and social security aspects.

❦


Since the end of the 20th Century,

Chile and Argentina have promoted a

cooperation and integration process. In

this framework, the agreement on a

common standardized methodology for

measuring the corresponding Defense

spending, with the collaboration of the

Economic Commission for Latin

America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)

has been a very important progress in

this issue. This method has helped to

overcome some suspicions caused by

the disparity between the figures sub-

mitted by governments, international

agencies and independent institutions.

By approving, together with Argentina, themethod developed by ECLAC for measuring de-fense spending, Chile has responded to the pos-sibility, put forward in the Book of the NationalDefense of 1997, of improving its budget andevaluation systems used in defense to providedinternationally accepted data

Indeed, in the 1997 book, Chile defined the cat-egories included in defense spending, but indi-cated that it was not considering the expense ofmilitary social security as part of its defensespending. It actually stated: “For the effects ofthis Book of the Defense, it [social securityspending] will be considered separately, becauseit is not a cost covered by the Ministry of Na-tional Defense and therefore is not included inits budget, nor discussed in the National Con-gress within the items of this ministerial portfo-

lio. The consideration of this item as part of de-fense spending is debatable because it is a socialexpense oriented to protecting the personnelserving the defense institutions, and their fami-lies, when they are no longer in service.” The1997 book added that “whoever analyzes the in-formation on defense spending shall choose thecriteria, which implies fully or partially includ-ing or excluding from their analysis the tax-re-lated cost of the social security system of the de-fense institutions.”

Nevertheless, in order to strengthen mutualtransparency and trust, the Chilean governmentagreed with the government of Argentina to askthe Economic Commission for Latin Americaand the Caribbean (ECLAC) to study a methodol-ogy for measuring and comparing their defensespending.41

5. Standardized Measurement of Defense Spending


Both countries agreed to not restrict access to theinformation, and committed to open figures thatreflect complex realities, so it could be properlyanalyzed by the ECLAC experts in charge of thestudy. They had to work with the budgetary andfinancial management methods in force in eachcountry, which differ significantly. Due to thesedifferences and the need to find a standardiza-tion formula, the study was defined as a “ho-mologation” process for calculating defensespending.

1. PROBLEMS OF COMPARATIVE ESTIMATES OF DEFENSE SPENDING

There are several sources that provide compari-son studies on defense expenses. The main onesare the International Monetary Fund (IMF),through its annual book “Government FinanceStatistics Yearbook” (GFSY); the United Nations,by publication of the report, Reduction of Mili-tary Budgets: Military Expenditures in Standard-ized Form Report by States; the International In-stitute for Strategic Studies (IISS), of London,that publishes the Military Balance; the Stock-holm International Peace Research Institute(SIPRI) and, before that, the Arms Control andDisarmament Agency (ACDA), which has beenpart of the Department of State of the UnitedStates since 1999. The Congressional ResearchService (CRS) and the United Nations, throughthe United Nations Register of Arms Transfer, al-so gathers information on military purchases.

Most of the reports published use commonbenchmarks based on the Classification of theFunctions of Government (COFOG), a systemdeveloped by the United Nations, and from NA-TO methodologies. However, these measure-ment systems are normally fed by the data sub-mitted by the countries analyzed or by the pub-lic-domain information available.42 This is a largedisadvantage: the information is not standard-ized. Moreover, the COFOG and NATO method-ological frameworks have some differences with

respect to the activities considered as part of thedefense function and thus, of the spending in-volved.

There are various examples of this. NATO con-siders military pensions as part of defensespending, while the IMF includes them under“Social Security and Welfare” spending. The for-mer considers transactions within the State, anaspect omitted by the IMF, as part of defensespending. Another relevant aspect are the PoliceForce and Frontier Control, Auxiliary or Paramil-itary, which are included as defense expenses bythe Atlantic Alliance, but excluded by the IMF.On the other hand, the Civil Defense is part ofthe GFSY defense concept, but not according toNATO.

There are also differences between each institu-tion’s measurements. The ACDA excludes thecivilian expenditures of the Ministry of Defense,and foreign military aid, and includes militaryacquisitions at the time the debt contract issigned, not when the payment is made. In turn,the IMF does not include expenses for non-mili-tary purposes, regardless of whether they aremade by the Ministries of Defense (Education,Health, Research and Development, interestsover military debts and pensions). Also, theSIPRI does not include purchases made with do-nations within the calculation.

Lastly, while collecting the data there is a per-sistent danger: many countries argue that theydo not have information available, a situationthat is particularly frequent in the calculationmechanisms used by the UN.

2. ECLAC METHODOLOGY

Before starting the methodological design, Chileand Argentina submitted to ECLAC a basic docu-ment with the work specifications, the basic def-initions of the calculation, and in general terms,all data and procedures required to obtain them.

The “Common Standardized Methodology forMeasuring Defense Spending” prepared by theECLAC understands “defense spending” as theexpenses incurred to implement activities the di-rect effect of which is to protect the national sov-ereignty. In brief, its objective is to reach a con-dition of external security.

Based on this definition, the study chooses threebasic directing principles:

✪ 41 The work was requested to the Economic Commission of LatinAmerica and the Caribbean (ECLAC) as it is a supranational institu-tion of the United Nation that enjoys a broad recognition in the eco-nomic area, and offers guarantees of seriousness and impartiality toall the countries of the region.

42 Excluding only NATO member countries.


a) National Defense is related to the protec-tion of the geographical boundaries in theevent of foreign threats and therefore ex-cludes the expenses of the domestic securityfunction.

b) The expenses are “measured” in terms ofthe annual cash flows and not of physical ormonetary assets accrued over time. Thisdoes not prevent other measures of trans-parency from reporting that information.

c) The governments of Chile and Argentinaestablished that the central goal of their pro-posal was to have a “standardized methodol-ogy” that would permit a rational compari-son of the spending and contribute to trans-parency and trust between the two coun-tries.

In short, the expense to be measured is the ex-pense the countries incur in performing the de-fense function, restrictively defined in relationto external security and the care of the nationalsovereignty. This means the analysis does not in-clude the functions of domestic security and oth-er duties performed by agencies under the min-istries of Defense, but whose tasks are not di-rectly related to the stated purpose.

The methodology required “operationalizing” theaforementioned criteria. It was also to assumesome problems related to the valuation of certainexpenses, and clarify any tax-related and fee-re-lated effects that could eventually distort the val-ues. Therefore, some common criteria and “facil-itating” procedures were used to calculate the de-fense spending in Chile and Argentina, therebyenabling their proper comparison.

Standardization was performed based on thebudgetary and accounting procedures in force inChile and Argentina, which are not entirely sim-ilar and that the project entrusted to ECLAC didnot really intend to modify it, thus assigningmore relevance to the data selection criteria.

Though the main objective of the study was tomeasure defense spending, it seemed appropri-ate to complement the available informationwith certain quantitative and qualitative data onthe revenues that finance this spending. In thismanner, as far as possible, the reliability of thedefense spending estimates was strengthened.A better understanding of the budgetary and gov-ernment revenue and spending control systemsthat exist in Argentina and Chile, which consti-

tuted the basis for preparing a common stan-dardized methodology for measuring defensespending, led to the conclusion that the essentialdata should come from government cash-basisaccounting (“paid” and “banked” in Argentinaand “cash” in Chile), eliminating some specifical-ly budgetary terms such as (“commitments” or“accrued”). The figures were obtained from theGeneral Comptrollership of the Republic and theOffice of the Budget, in Chile, and the IntegratedFinancial Data System of the National Treasury,in Argentina.

The cash-basis accounting criteria is used by theInternational Monetary Fund in its statistics,which are widely known, accepted and usedworldwide.

In addition, as a trial period for analyzing andverifying the strengths and possible weaknessesof the standardized methodology, it was appliedin 1996, 1997 and 1998; in other words, in a rea-sonable and relatively recent period of time,with much data available and stable criteria andprocedures in both countries.43

Lastly, to prepare the common standardizedmethodology, the decision was made to submitan option of successive approaches that wouldallow for definition of different concepts of whatdefense spending is in the two countries, de-pending on the coverage of the concept used,from the smallest to the greatest, in order to pro-vide a more complete view that could includedifferent criteria for what comprises the spend-ing.

Thus the Office of the Executive Secretary of theECLAC proposed that defense spending be cal-culated for three different aggregates –G1, G2,and G3–, which progressively broaden its scope.In this manner, the methodology proposed canrespond better to the aspirations and needs ofthe countries involved, and allows more validand pertinent international comparisons, de-pending on the level used.

a) Aggregate Level G1The Function of Defense, Central or Basic

✪ 43 In the 12th Meeting of the Permanent Security Committee(COMPERSEG: Buenos Ai-res, December 2002), Chile and Argentinaagreed to update the application of the ECLAC methodology in bothcountries, and they analyzed different alternatives to implement thisdecision.


Defense Spending for Level G1 corresponds—according to the definitions of the IMF inits public statistics manual— to governmentspending on the management and adminis-tration of the military defense, especially theadministration, supervision and manage-ment of military defense matters and forces,understood as ground, air, or sea defenseforces; engineering, transportation, commu-nications, information, materials, personneland other forces and non-combatant com-mands; reserve forces and auxiliaries linkedto the defense system, equipment and mili-tary structures. Issues related to the Civil De-fense; applied research and experimental de-velopment related to defense, and the man-agement, administration and support of de-fense matters that cannot be assigned to anyof the previous expense categories, for exam-ple, those related to civil or academic agen-cies of the Ministries of Defense.

The calculation procedure starts with the re-ports that the countries submit to the IMFevery year, in which they officially reportthe defense expenditures made by their re-spective ministries of Defense, according toa functional ranking of government spend-ing generally used by agencies under theMinistry of Finance. It includes both the dis-bursements made in local currency and theequivalents in local currency for those madedirectly in foreign currency. It must be not-ed that in official publications of Argentinaand Chile, and in those of the IMF, only totalvalues are reported in local currency and incurrent values for each year.

This initial data is corrected because it doesnot reflect the same concepts, in otherwords, it includes other expenses associatedwith different functions of Defense and ex-clude others that fit the definition of Defenseadopted for ECLAC’s work.

In the case of Argentina, some items areadded such as education, training and healthexpenses, paid by the Ministry of Defense,excluding the aeronautical police force andother minor items. In the case of Chile, thisdata also includes the revenue from the Cop-per’s Law. (Information is only available onthe revenue from this source, but not the useof these funds, which include all acquisitionexpenses charged to these funds, includinginterest and commissions.) In the case ofChile, the expenses that do not correspond to

the military function as it was defined or thatconstitute services supplied to the communi-ty by Ministry of Defense agencies and paidby the users must be deducted.

The result of these operations constitutes thefirst or basic level of Defense Spending orG1, defined as the Central Defense Spend-ing.

b) Aggregate Level G2Aggregate Level G2 or Extended DefenseSpending is obtained by adding the associat-ed expense to Level G1, the net social secu-rity expenses executed in each country forpaying the pensions of retired military per-sonnel and to their heirs (widow’s pension).In the case of Chile, they originate in the ex-penses associated with the provision and ad-ministration of the National Defense Fund,CAPREDENA. In the case of Argentina, theyoriginate in the institute of Financial Assis-tance or IAF for the same concepts.

Regarding to this Level G2, it is important tonote that some methodologies do not includesocial security expenses deriving from thesocial security system of retired military per-sonnel, as part of defense spending, as is thecase of the United States and in the interna-tional agencies. In turn, other methodolo-gies, basically European, do include them.Since this topic is open to discussion andthere is no consensus, as indicated in theECLAC study itself, this Level G2 expressesanother concept of defense that differs fromand complements Level G1.

The statistics in Chile’s 1997 Book of the Na-tional Defense do not directly include thesefigures as defense spending, though somestatistics of the social security spending arepresented separately.

c) Aggregate Level G3Aggregate Level G3 or Total, includes severalconcepts that are related to industrial and de-fense development activities, as well as toconcepts related to the defense spending ofother public agencies and military aid.Though in the cases studied in Chile and Ar-gentina some of these items do not have anyrelevance, they are essential to a more glob-al analysis and sustained effectiveness overtime.

The methodology designed by the ECLAC,


that yielded the common standardizedmethodology described above, was devel-oped to measure defense spending in Chileand Argentina. However, it is possible to ap-ply it in other countries of the region. In fact,during the year 2002 a joint effort was start-ed between Chile and Peru to apply it be-tween both countries44.

In summary, the policies promoted by theChilean State in terms of the transparency ofdefense spending have led to severalachievements. On the one hand, while theirpurpose is to increase mutual confidence be-tween Chile and other countries, they havecontributed to improving our external secu-rity. From a strictly economic point of view,there is now a nationally and internationallyaccepted methodology to measure defensespending. Within Chile, this leads to the pos-sibility of a better allotment of the resources,and in internationally it enables a better ap-praisal of the economic management of thepublic sector.

✪ 44 The 5th Conference of Defense Ministers of the Americas (Santiago, November 2002) recognized the work done by Chile and Argentina, withthe contribution of the ECLAC, agreeing to a common standardized methodology for measuring defense spending as a mutual confidence measureand proposed it as an incentive for doing similar efforts in the region. The Conference understood that developing this methodology among otherAmerican countries requires establishing the common factors and elements, and considering its particular issues (Conclusions of Point 2 of the Sec-ond Labor Commission). In turn, in the 12th Meeting of the Permanent Security Committee (COMPERSEG: Buenos Aires, December 2002), Chileand Argentina agreed on the need to increase the efforts to develop the proposed methodology with other countries of the region and decided toseek ways to disseminate it in order to achieve its best acceptance.

❦


Institutions,Agencies and People involved

in the Project “Book of the National

Defense of Chile 2002”

▼

PERMANENT EXECUTIVE COMMITTEEOF THE BOOK OF NATIONAL DEFENSE2002

PRESIDENTUndersecretary of War:Gabriel Gaspar

GENERAL COORDINATORChief of the MND Advisory Committee:Rodrigo Atria

EXECUTIVE SECRETARYClaudio Ortiz

MEMBERSMND Advisory Committee:Marcos RobledoCOL (A. Ret.) Julio E. Soto COL (A. Ret.) Carlos SolarFelipe Illanes

GENERAL STAFF OF NATIONAL DEFENSERA Gerardo CovacevichCOL (AF) José HuepeCAPT (Nav) Ricardo BenaventeCAPT (Nav) Mario González

ARMED FORCES DELEGATESCOL (A) Jorge VillagránCAPT (Nav) Claudio GonzálezCOL (AF) Carlos Stuardo

▼

PARTICIPATING AGENCIES

PRESIDENCY OF THE REPUBLICErnesto OttoneMireya Dávila

NATIONAL CONGRESSSenate of the Republic – Defense Commission:Senator Jaime Gazmuri

▼

STATE MINISTRIES

MINISTRY OF STATEOffice of Public Security and Information:Luis Marcó

MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRSOffice of the Undersecretary:Heraldo MuñozGuillermo BittelmanAndrés Landerretche

Office of Foreign Policy (DIPEXT):Mario Artaza

Office of Special Policy (DIPESP):Luis WinterJulio Fiol

Office Planning (DIPLAN):Carlos Portales

Office of State Borders and Boundaries (DIFROL):María Teresa Infante

Diplomatic Academy:Juan Pablo Romero

MINISTRY OF NATIONAL DEFENSEUndersecretary Gabriel GasparJosé Luis Díaz

Office of the Undersecretary of the Navy:Undersecretary Ángel FlisfishCAPT (Nav) José María del Solar

Office of the Undersecretary of the Air Force:Undersecretary Nelson Hadad

Office of the Undersecretary of the Police Force:Undersecretary Patricio MoralesLTC (Pol) Lindorfo IbáñezCAPT (Pol) Mario MartínezCAPT (Pol) Álvaro Castillo

Office of the Undersecretary of the InvestigationsPolice:Undersecretary Gonzalo Miranda SPREF Salvador Rubio

Institutions,Agencies and People involved in theProject “Book of the National Defense of Chile 2002”

General Staff of the National Defense (EMDN):MG (AF) Ricardo GutiérrezMG (AF) Osvaldo SarabiaBRIG (A) Alfonso NeiraBRIG (A) Daniel CarrascoCOL (A) José A. Soto COL (AF) Guillermo NavarroCOL (A) Germán KaiserLTC (AF) Rolando MartinézCommander (Nav) Armando ArbuttiLT COM (Nav) Claudio Escudero

Advisory Committee to the Minister of NationalDefense:Eugenio CruzRenán FuentealbaAlfredo CanalesFernando Zuñiga

Head Office of National Mobilization (DGMN):MG (A) Waldo ZauritzBG (A) Carlos Oviedo

National Academy of Political and Strategic Studies(ANEPE):RA (Nav) Jorge HuertaBG (AF) Javier AnabalónCOL (A) Arturo ContrerasBRIG (A. Ret.) Gustavo BassoMG (A. Ret.) Enrique ValdésBG (A. Ret.) Humberto JulioMG (AF. Ret.) Marcos MierellesCAPT (Nav. Ret.) Francisco Le DantecCOL (A. Ret.) Ricardo Ibarra

Chilean Army:BG José Miguel PiuzziBG Gonzalo JaraLTC Ricardo PalmaLTC Carl MarowskiLTC Guillermo CarrascoLTC Hernán Giustinianovic

Chilean Navy:RA Eduardo GarcíaRA Rodolfo CodinaRA Alexander TavraCAPT Claudio LarrañagaCAPT Federico NiemannCommander Pablo MullerLT COM Juan Berasaluce

Chilean Air Force:BG Ricardo OrtegaBG Enrique RosendeCOL Edgardo VillalobosCOL Guillermo GallardoCOL Jaime San MartínSamuel VélizClaudio Ramírez

Chilean Police Force Carabineros de Chile:COL Gustavo GonzálezLTC Enrique Ramírez

Investigations Bureau of Chile:PREF Daniel Correa SUBCOM Alejandro BravoINSP Víctor EspinozaMilitary Studies and Research Center (CESIM)COL Carlos RiveraCOL Ricardo LobosLTC Jorge Fuenzalida

Center of Strategic Studies of the Navy (CEDESTRA):Fernando Thauby

Center of Air and Space Studies (CEADE):MG Máximo VenegasCOL Joaquín Urzúa

MINISTRY OF FINANCEBudget Directorate:Mario Marcel Hugo Zúñiga

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY GENERAL OF THE PRESI-DENCYInter-Ministry Coordination Division:Alfonso Néspolo

National Environment Commission:Aarón CavieresHernán Mladinic

MINISTRY OF ECONOMY, PROMOTION AND RECON-STRUCTIONProduction Promotion Corporation (CORFO):Pedro Sierra

Chilean Commission of Nuclear Energy:Carmen Silva


MINISTRY OF EDUCATIONUndersecretary of Education:Antonio Salinas

National Research, Science and TechnologyCommission (CONICYT):Cristina Lazo

MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKSMinister Carlos Cruz

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURECorporación Nacional Forestal (CONAF):Carlos Weber

MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND COOPERATIONJaime FierroJuan Cavada

Comisión Nacional de Desarrollo Indígena (CONA-DI):Cristian Catricura

POLITICAL PARTIES WITH REPRESENTATION IN THECONGRESSPartido Demócrata Cristiano (PDC):Gonzalo GarcíaEduardo Santos

Partido por la Democracia (PPD):Jorge HeineManuel Durán

Partido Radical Social Demócrata (PRSD):Isidro SolísGuillermo Abarca

Socialist Party (PS):Santiago Escobar

Partido Renovación Nacional (RN):Miguel Navarro

Partido Unión Demócrata Independiente (UDI):Germán Concha

▼

ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS

UNIVERSIDAD DE CHILEInstitute of Political Sciences:Guillermo HolzmannKarina DoñaCarolina Sancho

Department of Anthropology:María Benavente

School of Economic and Administrative Sciences:Ricardo Paredes

UNIVERSIDAD CATÓLICA DE CHILEInstitute of Political Sciences:Roberto DuranCarlos Martín

Department of Electric Engineering - School ofEngineering:Andrés Guesalaga

School of Economic and Administrative Sciences:Francisco Rosende

UNIVERSIDAD ARCISArmed Forces and Society Program:Carlos GutiérrezAlejandro Iturra

UNIVERSIDAD BERNARDO O’HIGGINSFrancisco AchurraCOL (A. Ret.) Héctor Villagra

UNIVERSIDAD DEL DESARROLLODaniel Prieto

CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS ESTRATÉGICOS (CEES)Patricio Rojas

CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS DEL DESARROLLO (CED)Sergio Micco

CORPORACIÓN TIEMPO 2000Hugo Espinoza

FACULTAD LATINOAMERICANA DE CIENCIASSOCIALES (FLACSO-CHILE)Francisco Rojas

FUNDACIÓN CHILE 21Oscar Landerretche

INSTITUTO LIBERTAD Y DESARROLLO (ILD)Axel Buchheister

INSTITUTO LIBERTAD (IL)Guillermo Pattillo

▼

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

INSTITUTO DE ECOLOGÍA POLÍTICAManuel Baquedano

INSTITUTO DE ECOLOGÍA DE CHILEJorge Vergara

CORPORACIÓN DE DEFENSA DE LA FLORA Y FAUNA(CODEFF)Miguel Stutzin

CORPORACIÓN DE LA DEFENSA DEL BOSQUECHILENOPaulina Vera

▼

DEFENSE INDUSTRIES

FABRICAS Y MAESTRANZAS DEL EJERCITO (FAMAE)COL (A) Carlos MassouLTC Mario Villarroel

ASTILLEROS Y MAESTRANZAS DE LA ARMADA(ASMAR)CAPT (Navy) Juan Schilling

EMPRESA NACIONAL DE AERONAUTICA (ENAER)LTC (AF) Jorge Vargas

EMPRESAS CARDOENCarlos Cardoen

SISDEFEnzo Ibazeta

DTSLuis MontecinosCarlos Cifuentes

▼

ORGANIZATIONS THAT PREPARED THEBOOK OF THE NATIONAL DEFENSE 2002

EDITORIAL STAFFAdvisory Committee to the Minister of the NationalDefense:Rodrigo AtriaMarcos RobledoCOL (A. Ret.) Julio E. SotoEugenio CruzCOL (A. Ret.) Carlos SolarFelipe IllanesClaudio Ortiz

NATIONAL DEFENSE GENERAL STAFF RA Gerardo CovacevichCAPT (Navy) Ricardo BenaventeCAPT (Navy) Mario González Mario Polloni

PRODUCTION TEAMMarcos RobledoJavier GalazNéstor Sepúlveda

SECRETARYS. Sergeant (AF) Maria Angélica MarfanCorporal (A) Claudia Leiva

! Presidency of the Republic, Department of Photography.

! National Congress, Public Relations of the Senate.

! Supreme Court and Administrative Corporation of the Judiciary.

! Chilean Army, Communications Department.

! Chilean Navy, Public Relations and Hydrograhy and Oceanography Services.

! Chilean Air Force, Public Relations and Aerophotogrammetry Services.

! United Nations Organization, Economic Commission for Latin America and the

Caribbean,

and Public Information Office.

! National Tourism Service.

! National Copper Corporation.

! Eduardo Gallegos, infographist.

! Maribel Urrea, designer.

! Iván Alvarado, photographer.

! David Fuentealba, proofreader.


Design ConceptFrancisco Javier Devilat RiveraJavier Florentino Galaz Barraza

Designed byDevilat Comunicaciones Ltda.

TranslationChilean Language ServicesCol (A. Ret.) Julio E. Soto

Printed in Chile byInstituto Geográfico Militar

The following type fonts wereused in this book:

GriffithGothicITC Veljovic Thesis Sans

www.devilat.com

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