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Running head: CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 1
Children’s Looking Behavior at Different Visual Elements in Detailed Illustrations of
Storybooks.
Yvet Diamanti-Knteis
S1162535
Leiden University
Master of Education and Child Studies
Specialization: Learning Problems and Impairments
Academic year 2014-2015
Supervisor: Takacs, Zs. K. (Zsofia)
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 2
Abstract
The present study compared looking behavior of preschoolers at different visual
elements in storybook illustrations. Fourteen Dutch children, aged from 4 to 6, were
recruited. Three detailed illustrations from a storybook were used, in which areas of interest
were created, distinguishing the elements between humanoid and non-humanoid figures,
elements highlighted and not highlighted by the oral text, and combinations of the two
categories. Children’s eye movements on the illustrations were recorded with an eye-tracking
device. For each picture, separate paired-sample t-tests were conducted and results indicated
that children integrated the oral text of the story and the illustrations that were accompanying
it. Children’s visual attention to the illustrations focuses mostly on humanoid figures that are
highlighted by the accompanied text of the storybook. Recommendations for future research
and practice implications are discussed.
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 3
Introduction
There is ample evidence that storybook reading is beneficial for children (Chun &
Plass 1996; Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005; Guttmann, Levin & Pressley, 1977; Hudson &
Lawson, 1996; Hyona, 2010; de Jong & Bus 2002; Justice, Pullen, & Pence, 2008; Sénéchal,
LeFevre, Hudson, & Lawson, 1996; Verhallen, Bus, & de Jong, 2006; Verhallen & Bus,
2011). Shared storybook reading is beneficial for children, because it makes a contribution to
the development of a child’s knowledge about the world, increasing their motivation for later
book reading, and functioning as a useful tool to stimulate the reader’s imagination and
creativity (Bus, van IJzendoorn & Pellegrini, 1995; Evans, Williamson, & Pursoo, 2008;
Fang, 1996; Greenhoot & Semb, 2008; Guttmann et al., 1977; Sénéchal et al., 1996).
Although there might be concerns that pictures in a storybook create distractions from
the linguistic content of the story and that children would depend only on the illustrations for
the comprehension of the story (Beck & McKeown, 2001), many researchers point out the
important role of pictures in storybooks for children’s comprehension of the story (Chun &
Plass 1996; de Jong & Bus 2002; Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005; Guttmann et al., 1977, Justice
et al., 2008; Sénéchal et al., 1996; Sipe, 1998, 2012; Verhallen et al., 2006; Verhallen & Bus,
2011). Pictures in a storybook contribute to the learning of new vocabulary, if the words
from the oral text are depicted with supportive indication of their context (Evans & Saint-
Aubin, 2005). Another important role of pictures would be completing the text by giving
extra information that the text in the storybook does not provide and vice versa (Greenhoot &
Semb, 2008; Sipe, 1998, 2012; Verhallen & Bus, 2011).
According to Fang’s (1996) view on the role of illustrations in picture storybooks,
preschoolers usually have short attention spans, and, combined with their restricted
vocabulary and syntax, they rely more heavily on pictures to comprehend the meaning of the
written text than on the text itself. Comprehension of the story might be supported by
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 4
illustrations that supply referential cues for the text. When the text has vague referents about
pronouns and location words, their interpretation depends on the way that they are depicted in
the illustration. Pictures can also determine the atmosphere of a storybook and may add a
different viewpoint than the one presented in the text.
Sipe (1998) discussed the relations between words and images in picture storybooks,
and characterized these relationships as “synergistic” and “complicated”. The different types
of information that children process during listening to a story and watching the
corresponding illustrations can be interpreted with Paivio’s dual-coding model (Sadoski,
2005). According to this model, there are two separate cognitive structures for information
processing; one for processing language and one for managing non-verbal information such
as images (Paivio, 1986; Sadoski & Paivio, 2004; Sadoski, 2005). These two separate
systems, both play their individual roles in the integration of the illustrations and the
narration of the story. At the same time, however, they are working together in an
interconnected fashion, (Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Paivio, 1986; Sadoski & Paivio, 2004;
Sadoski, 2005).
The activation of both the non-verbal and the verbal system (as explained in the dual
coding theory of Paivio), allows for the hypothesis that illustrations in a storybook support
children’s story comprehension (Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005; Verhallen & Bus, 2011). The
illustrations are making the abstract language of the story more specific and understandable
by depicting the verbal information in a way that may contribute to the setting up of more
powerful, more complicated and better organized memory traces (Levin & Mayer, 1993).
It has been shown that children fixate more on the elements of the picture that are
highlighted by the oral text as compared to elements that are not mentioned in the oral text
during picture storybook reading (Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005; Verhallen & Bus, 2011). It
has also been suggested that this preference for the parts of the illustration that are
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 5
highlighted by the narration, depicting and concretizing the oral text, shows that children
follow the story line on the illustration with their eyes, and thus, integrate the visual and the
verbal information (Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005; Verhallen & Bus, 2011). This is in line with
the dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986; Sadoski & Paivio, 2004; Sadoski, 2005). Story
comprehension is more effective when it is framed in both visual and lingual ways (Chun &
Plass, 1996; Sénéchal et al., 1996).
Buswell (1935) discovered that, within a detailed illustration, humans demonstrate a
strong preference for looking more at people in comparison to nonliving objects. This finding
has been replicated consistently confirming this strong visual preference for humanoid
elements or elements with anthropomorphic characteristics (Tatler, Wade, Kwan, Findlay,
Velichkovsky, 2010; Yarbus, 1967). Human figures are to be the most favored targets and a
likely explanation is the capability of the observers to understand the figures’ intentions and
goal directed actions and reactions (Fang, 1996; Verhallen & Bus, 2011). That means that
children might fixate longer on the human or anthropomorphic figures of the illustrations of
picture storybooks in their effort to have a better comprehension of the story by recognizing
features of the main characters and their acts (Fang, 1996; Verhallen & Bus, 2011).
Given the supportive role illustrations play in children's picture books and in
children's language and literacy development, the present study investigates where children’s
visual attention to the illustrations focuses by answering the following research questions:
1. Do humanoid/anthropomorphic figures in a picture attract the attention of
preschoolers more than the non-humanoid ones during storybook reading?
For the first research question it was expected that preschoolers would focus longer at
the humanoid elements of the illustrations compared to nonliving objects. Previous studies
showed that anthropomorphic visual elements attracted children’s attention more than the
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 6
ones that were not anthropomorphic (Buswell, 1935; van der Geest et al., 2002; Fletcher-
Watson et al., 2008; Tatler et al., 2010; Verhallen & Bus, 2011; Yarbus, 1967).
2. Do children pay more attention to the visual elements of a picture that are
highlighted in the narration than the ones irrelevant to the oral text?
From the previously discussed research, it was hypothesized that preschoolers would
fixate more on the text-relevant visual elements in comparison to irrelevant ones in their
effort to follow the story and integrate the visual and the verbal information. Such a finding
would suggest that preschoolers are able to integrate the oral text of the story and the
illustrations accompanying it, as the dual coding theory suggests (Paivio, 1986; Sadoski &
Paivio, 2004; Sadoski, 2005).
3. Since the two questions above can be confounded, an additional question was
asked for a stricter test of the effect of the oral narration: When there are humanoid figures in
the pictures, do children prefer to focus more on the ones that are also highlighted in the text
of the story compared to the ones that are not mentioned?
It was predicted that preschoolers would fixate most often and longest at the elements
of the picture that are highlighted by the text and have an anthropomorphic figure based on
previous researches (Buswell, 1935; Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005; van der Geest et al., 2002;
Fletcher-Watson et al., 2008; Tatler et al., 2010; Verhallen & Bus, 2011; Yarbus, 1967).
Method
Participants
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 7
For this study 14 Dutch kindergartners were recruited from three regular primary
schools. The participants were all between 4 and 6 years of age (M= 4.57 years; SD = 0.76),
from both genders (seven boys, seven girls). Headmasters from each school were contacted
for approval in order to conduct the experiment at the school. Parents of children that
participated in the study gave written informed consent. Parents also filled out questionnaires
about their educational level, their socioeconomic status, and other background information
that is not discussed further in this study. There was missing background information from a
total number of five children; the parents of three participants did not hand in the
questionnaire, and two did not respond to all the questions of the questionnaire. The highest
educational level of the mothers varied among the participants and included 28.6% with a
bachelor or master degree, 21.4% with vocational education, and 14.3% with a high school
diploma. Paternal education levels were slightly higher included 14.3% with a master or
higher degree, 35.7% with a bachelor degree, and 14.3% with vocational education.
Design
The current study was part of a larger experiment where animated illustrations were
used in comparison to static. According to a within-subject design, children were exposed to
two of the three storybooks used in the study; one with animated illustrations and one with
static illustrations, both repeated three times. A third book served as the control condition..
The books were evenly distributed in the three conditions. The order of presentation was
counterbalanced, meaning that half of the children first encountered the dynamic version of a
storybook and then a static story, while the other half had the static storybook first and then
the dynamic story, ensuring that the order in which participants encounter the stories could
not affect their attention due to fatigue or environmental factors. The three storybooks were
evenly distributed over the three conditions by creating six separate groups of subjects, i.e.
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 8
group 1 had the static version of the book Imitators (Na-apers!) (Veldkamp, 2006), the
dynamic version of Little Kangaroo (Kleine Kangoeroe) (van Genechten, 2005) and Bear is
in love with the butterfly (Beer Is Op Vlinder) (Haeringen, 2004) was the control condition,
while group 2 had the static version Bear is in love with the butterfly (Beer Is Op Vlinder)
(Haeringen, 2004), the dynamic version of Little Kangaroo (Kleine Kangoeroe) (van
Genechten, 2005) and Imitators (Na-apers!) as the control condition. In the present study
only the data of the groups that had Imitators (Na-apers!) in its static version was used.
Procedure
There were two sessions in total that took place inside the school. Dutch
undergraduate students collected the preschoolers individually from their classroom during
school hours and brought them back to class after the session. Preschoolers were awarded
with a “certificate” which they could fill with stickers in order to increase their motivation to
continue further with the experiment.
Standardized tests like Peg Tapping Task (Diamond & Taylor, 1996), Digit Span Test
(forward and backward parts) (Kaufman & Kaufman, 1983) and Head Toes Knees Shoulders
Task (Pontiz, et al., 2008) were used at the beginning of each session to measure children’s
skills of inhibitory control, working memory and attention. The results of these tests were
used as background measures to test if those skills have an effect on children’s reading
comprehension.
During the first session were posited in front of the screen of the eye-tracking device
where the two stories were played twice. During the second session participants listened to
the two stories once more.
When listening to the stories, children were seated approximately 60 cm from the
computer monitor, and were asked to stay still. After adjusting the best possible position for
the children, a calibration procedure took place. During this calibration participants followed
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 9
five consecutive dots with their eyes that appeared in different positions on the Tobii screen.
All sessions were recorded with a digital camera in a fixed position.
Materials
Three picture storybooks were chosen for the experiment; Bear is in love with the
butterfly (Beer Is Op Vlinder) (Haeringen, 2004), Little Kangaroo (Kleine Kangoeroe) (van
Genechten, 2005) and Imitators (Na-apers!) (Veldkamp, 2006). These books were chosen
because they were all age-appropriate for the participants of this experiment, they had an
animated version of the story, making possible to compare the animated version with the
static one, and their illustrations had many elements that could be categorized in different
groups (non-humanoid, highlighted by the text, etc.) to answer the research questions of this
study. For this study only the book Imitators (Na-apers!) (Veldkamp, 2006) was used in its
static version. Three detailed pictures were chosen for analyses of the eye-tracking data. The
oral narrations of the stories were recorded with no sound or music effects that might be
distracting (Smeets et al., 2012). The pictures typically illustrate what the text describes but
they also illustrate details that are not mentioned in the text.
Measurement Instruments
Visual attention. While listening to the narration, children’s eye movements on the
illustrations were recorded with a Tobii eye-tracking device (Tobii TX120). With the eye-
tracking method it is possible to explore when the child first fixated on a particular part of the
illustrations, the duration of all those fixations and the elements that attracted the participants’
attention the most (Hyona, 2010). Tobii was chosen mostly because it is user friendly since
Tobii screen has built-in high-resolution cameras; no other equipment, like special glasses,
was needed (Tobii Technology, 2011). Thus, participants were not aware of the fact that their
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 10
eye movements were recorded so they were spontaneous in their looking behavior. The Tobii
eye-tracking device requires a calibration process before the start of each recording (Tobii
Technology, 2011). A sampling rate of 120 Hz was used. The eye-tracking data was analyzed
using the Tobii Studio 3.1 software.
In this study the focus was on total fixation duration at the different visual elements.
Fixation means the point that eyes stand still on an element (Rayner, 1998). Previous findings
suggest that longer fixations indicate information processing and cognitive activities (Rayner,
1998). Average fixation times were calculated for the different types of elements over the
three sessions.
Areas of interest. Based on the research questions of this study areas of interest were
created in the Tobii Studio™ Analysis Software. The areas of interest were drawn in all the
three pictures that were used in this study.
The first distinction that was made between the elements in all the illustrations was if
they were humanoid or non-humanoid. For example in Figure 1, Mom Monkey is considered
a humanoid element, while the lamp a non-humanoid one. Secondly, a distinction was made
between the elements that were highlighted by the text and the ones that were not. For
example in Figure 3, the parents are mentioned in the text but none of the monkeys were
highlighted. Another research question regarded the combinations of the two kinds of
distinctions, such as elements that were both humanoid and highlighted by the text or
elements that were humanoid but not mentioned in the text. For example in picture 2, Mom
Monkey was highlighted by the text and was also considered a humanoid figure.
Most of the elements that were both humanoid and highlighted by the text or elements
that were humanoid but not mentioned in the text were often positioned at the center of the
pictures, while non-humanoid elements that were not mentioned in the text were more in the
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 11
background of the illustration and tended to be smaller. This is a common tendency in
storybook illustrations to position essential elements of the story in the center of the picture.
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Figure1. Picture 1, scene from the static version of Imitators (Na-apers!) showing mother monkey and
Jaap’s mother having coffee. The areas of interest are marked with different colors. The accompanied
text was: “Then they shake coffee” (“Daarna schudden ze koffie”)
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 13
Figure 2. Picture 2 scene from the static version of Imitators (Na-apers!) with the areas of interest
marked with different colors. The accompanied text was: “Jaaps’ mother walked on her hands”
(“Jaaps moeder aafte (liep) op haar handen.”)
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 14
Figure 3. Picture 3 from the static version of Imitators (Na-apers!) showing Jaaps with his parents in
the zoo. The areas of interest are marked with different colors. The accompanied text was: “Jaap and his
parents were released” (“Jaap en zijn ouders liet hij vrij.”)
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 15
Univariate Data Inspection
All variables were inspected for missing values, outliers and normal distribution.
Three children had poor quality data on one of the three pictures at the first session,
and for that reason their data from this session was not used in this study. The averages of the
total time that preschoolers fixated in each picture in the three different sessions were
calculated. There were no missing values on these average fixation duration variables.
The averages of the total time that preschoolers fixated on different visual elements in
each picture over the three different sessions were calculated. Normal distribution of these
variables was inspected with the help of histograms and boxplots. With boxplots extreme and
outlying scores were detected. Winsorizing was applied for the extremely low scores of three
children in total. In order for the distribution not to be influenced by these extreme outliers,
these scores were replaced with scores closer to the distribution but still lower than the lowest
value, to achieve normal distribution of the scores on the variables. After winsorizing normal
distribution was checked on the variables based on the skewness and kurtosis statistics. Table
1 shows the descriptive statistics of the different visual elements in each picture. Further on,
paired samples t-tests were used for the comparison of average mean time of children’s
looking behavior at the different types of elements in all three pictures.
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 16
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of the Average Time that Children Fixated on the Different Kinds of Elements
on the Three Target Pictures.
N Min. Max. Mean SD
Highlighted elements pic1 14 0.67 1.93 1.49 0.41
Highlighted elements pic2 14 0.50 1.74 1.20 0.31
Highlighted elements pic3 14 0.64 2.35 1.45 0.47
Not Highlighted elements pic1 14 0.51 1.39 0.82 0.27
Not Highlighted elements pic2 14 1.01 3.54 1.89 0.66
Not Highlighted elements pic3 14 0.09 0.77 0.44 0.26
Humanoid elements pic1 14 2.06 2.63 2.30 0.17
Humanoid elements pic2 14 1.04 2.72 1.99 0.40
Humanoid elements pic3 14 1.38 2.35 1.81 0.28
Non-Humanoid elements pic1 14 0.00 0.22 0.08 0.08
Non-Humanoid elements pic2 14 0.60 1.86 1.12 0.34
Non-Humanoid elements pic3 14 0.00 0.23 0.11 0.07
Not Highlighted, Humanoid elements pic1 14 0.40 1.30 0.74 0.27
Not Highlighted, Humanoid elements pic2 14 0.15 1.68 0.81 0.40
Not Highlighted, Humanoid elements pic3 14 0.00 0.70 0.32 0.26
Highlighted, Humanoid elements pic1 14 0.67 1.93 1.49 0.41
Highlighted, Humanoid elements pic2 14 0.50 1.74 1.20 0.31
Highlighted, Humanoid elements pic3 14 0.64 2.35 1.45 0.47
Not Highlighted, Non-Humanoid elements pic1 14 0.00 0.22 0.08 0.08
Not Highlighted, Non-Humanoid elements pic2 14 0.60 1.86 1.12 0.34
Not Highlighted, Non-Humanoid elements pic3 14 0.00 0.23 0.11 0.07
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 17
Results
For each picture separate paired-sample t-tests were conducted to compare looking
behavior at the visual elements that were humanoid and non-humanoid. In picture 1, there
was a significant difference in fixation time on humanoid (M = 2.30, SD = .17) and non-
humanoid elements (M = .08, SD = .08); t(13) = 36.24, p < .001, d = 16.32. The same effect
was also present in picture 2, where there was a significant difference in visual attention on
humanoid (M = 1.99, SD = .40) and non-humanoid elements (M = 1.12, SD = .34); t(13) =
6.06, p < .001, d = 2.34. In picture 3 the same pattern was observed with a significant
difference in fixation time on humanoid (M =1.81, SD = .28) and non-humanoid elements (M
= .11, SD = .07); t(13) = 25.81, p < .001, d = 8.33. These results indicate that longer
fixations were made on all three pictures for the visual elements that were humanoid as
compared to non-humanoid ones.
For each picture separate paired-sample t-tests were conducted to compare looking
behavior at the visual elements that were highlighted by the text and the ones that were not.
See the descriptive statistics in Table 1. In picture 1, there was a significant difference in
looking behavior between the elements that were highlighted (M = 1.49, SD = .41) and the
ones that were not (M = .82, SD = .27); t(13) = 3.91, p = .002, d = 0.69. The same was true
for picture 3, there was also a significant difference in fixation time on highlighted (M = 1.45,
SD = .47) and not highlighted elements (M = .44, SD = .26); t(13) = 6.04, p < .001, d = 2.66.
These results suggest that longer fixations were made for the visual elements that were
highlighted by the text on picture 1 and 3. In picture 2, there was also a significant difference
in fixation between the elements that were highlighted (M = 1.20, SD = .31) and not (M =
1.89, SD = .66); t(13) = -2.93, p = .01, d = 1.34. However, the difference was in the opposite
direction in this picture. This suggests that children’s attention on the second picture was
more attracted by the visual elements that were not highlighted by the text as compared to the
visual elements that were highlighted.
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 18
Lastly, for each picture separate paired-sample t-tests were conducted to compare
looking behavior at the humanoid visual elements that were highlighted by the text and the
ones that were not. In picture 1, there was a significant difference in fixation at highlighted
humanoid (M = 1.49, SD = .41) and not highlighted humanoid figures: (M = .74, SD = .27);
t(13) = 4.53, p = .001, d = 2.16. The same applied in picture 2; there was a significant
difference in visual attention to highlighted (M = 1.20, SD = .31) and not highlighted
humanoids (M = .81, SD = .40); t(13) = 2.28, p = .04, d = 1.09. Also in picture 3, there was a
significant difference in the scores for highlighted (M = 1.45, SD = .47) and not highlighted
humanoid figures (M = .32, SD = .26); t(13) = 6.42, p < .001, d = 2.98. These results suggest
that humanoid elements that were highlighted by the text attracted more attention than the
ones that were not highlighted.
Discussion
In the present study it was found that children’s visual attention when listening to a
picture storybook was most attracted to humanoid elements of the illustrations that were
highlighted in the oral narration. The present study converges with the body of empirical
work showing that children’s attention is focused on visual elements that are highlighted by
the text, suggesting that they integrate the oral text of the story with the illustrations (Evans &
Saint-Aubin, 2005; Verhallen & Bus, 2011).
For the first research question it was assumed that the humanoid visual elements
attract children’s attention more than non-humanoid figures, as previous findings indicate
(Buswell, 1935; van der Geest et al., 2002; Fletcher-Watson et al., 2008; Tatler et al., 2010;
Verhallen & Bus, 2011; Yarbus, 1967). As it was hypothesized, preschoolers showed in all
three pictures a strong preference for the humanoid elements of the illustrations reflected by
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 19
the large differences in fixation time at these elements compared to the time they spent
looking at non-living objects.
For the second research question it was hypothesized that preschoolers would fixate
longer on the visual elements of the illustrations that were highlighted by the oral text of the
storybook compared to the ones that were not. This type of looking behavior was found for
the first and the third picture of the study, indicating that children integrated the oral text of
the story with the accompanying illustrations. This replicates the results of previous studies
(Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005; Verhallen & Bus, 2011). Children focused more on the details
of the pictures that depict the story they were listening to as compared to other parts of the
illustrations that were irrelevant to the story, which implies that children follow the story line
on the illustration, and thus, integrate the visual and the verbal information. This finding also
confirms the dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986; Sadoski & Paivio, 2004; Sadoski, 2005)
proposing two separate cognitive structures for processing verbal and nonverbal information
that are interconnected.
On the other hand, in picture 2, results showed the opposite pattern: children’s
attention was attracted more by the visual elements that were not highlighted by the text. A
possible explanation for that could be the fact that there were many humanoid elements not
highlighted by the text on picture 2 that possibly worked as distractors.
Since both questions of whether elements are humanoid or non-living and whether
they are highlighted by the oral narration were found to have an effect on looking behavior,
children’s attention to humanoid elements that were highlighted and the humanoid figures
that were not highlighted were compared in order to test the effect of the narration while
controlling for the effects of humanoid and non-humanoid figures. Results indicated that in
all three pictures humanoid elements that were highlighted by the text had longer fixations
compared to the humanoids that were not highlighted by the text. Thus, this stricter
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 20
comparison suggests that children integrated the oral text of the story and the illustrations that
were accompanying it, by focusing on the elements that were mentioned by the oral text. In
the case of picture 2, a plausible explanation for the finding that children focused more on the
visual elements that were not highlighted by the oral narration is that they were more
attracted to objects that were not highlighted by the text. On further inspection it was found
that children paid the most attention to the lamp that Jaap, the main character of the story,
was sitting on. Apparently children were more curious about the surprising element that a
child is sitting on a lamp, rather than to follow the story of this specific picture.
In summary, the findings of the present study are in line withthe dual coding theory
(Paivio, 1986; Sadoski & Paivio, 2004; Sadoski, 2005) since children’s comprehension was
dependent on both verbal (oral text) and the nonverbal information (images). These results
are in line with previous findings, implying that illustrations are helpful during storybook
reading because they can supply referential cues for the text and help preschoolers to
comprehend the story better (Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005; Verhallen & Bus, 2011).
It has to be noted that the present study has some limitations. First of all, the size of
the sample was small, and as such the results can only be interpreted cautiously. It would be
interesting in future research to use a larger sample, taking into account other variables, such
as the gender of the child and the gender of the characters in the illustrations. Gender might
affect looking behavior since boys might look more often to male characters than female ones
and vice versa.
Secondly, the amount of information that eye tracking data alone can provide is
limited. It does not measure, for instance, whether the participants have comprehended the
story and how much they received from the text (Hyona, 2010). It is suggested to combine
eye-tracking data with comprehension and vocabulary tests in order to have a clear view of
what the eye movement behavior shows regarding learning (Hyona, 2010). With
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 21
comprehension and vocabulary tests researchers would be able to make conclusions
regarding the level of understanding and word learning of the participants. Previous findings
suggest that there is a strong relationship between fixation behavior when listening to the
story and word learning since children are more likely to learn new words when they focus
more on the detail in the illustration that depicts the word (Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005).
In the present study, the conclusions were based on three pictures taken from the same
storybook. This fact can be considered as a limitation since three detailed pictures are neither
representative of all the pictures of this storybook nor of the illustrations in storybooks in
general.
Another limitation is the fact that the areas of interest in the pictures were not the
same size and had different positions as well; the highlighted humanoid elements tended to be
in the center of the picture, while non-humanoid elements that were not mentioned in the text
were more in the background of the illustration and tended to be smaller. As a consequence
the finding that preschoolers focused longer on humanoid elements that are highlighted in the
text as compared to non-humanoid elements that were not mentioned in the text might be due
to the central position of those elements in the illustration and their size (Buswell, 1935). In
picture 2, the focus of the preschoolers was mostly on the humanoid elements not mentioned
by the text, but at the same time they were in the center of the picture but also greater in size,
indicating that the position of the elements might be another important factor to be considered
when studying children’s attention to the illustrations.
The children were exposed to the picture storybook three times. Repeated exposure to
the same storybook increases story familiarity and consequently might change the attention
given to particular elements in the pictures by the children (Evans et al., 2008). It would be
interesting to test if there is any difference in the looking behavior between the different
sessions using the same storybook. A possible outcome would be that after the first session
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 22
children could focus on objects in the background that are not highlighted in the narration,
since they have already inspected the humanoid and highlighted features of the illustration.
Future research could also explore whether children tend to look more at anthropomorphic
figures even if they are not text relevant as compared to nonliving elements that are
highlighted by the text. A possible outcome could be that they would look at both categories,
since humanoid visual elements attract children’s attention more than non-humanoid figures
in general, (Buswell, 1935; van der Geest et al., 2002; Fletcher-Watson et al., 2008; Tatler et
al., 2010; Verhallen & Bus, 2011; Yarbus, 1967) but they would spend more time looking at
the elements highlighted by the text compared to figures that are not text relevant, as was
found in the present study.
In summary, it was found that children’s attention to visual elements was increased
when they were highlighted by the text, suggesting that they integrated the oral text of the
story (Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005; Verhallen & Bus, 2011). These results imply that
illustrations are helpful during storybook especially if they closely depict the oral text, in
order to facilitate the activation of both verbal and nonverbal cognitive systems of processing
information (Paivio, 1986; Sadoski & Paivio, 2004; Sadoski, 2005) Additionally, a general
tendency to focus on humanoid elements was found. The findings of the present study could
be used as possible guidelines to book publishers and illustrators of storybooks. Illustrators of
storybooks could take advantage of children’s preference for humanoid elements and the fact
that they tend to integrate illustrations with the oral text. By closely illustrating the most
important key concepts of the story with humanoid figures children are guided to focus on the
main points of the story in the illustrations and to connect them with the language of the story.
CHILDREN’S LOOKING BEHAVIOR AT VISUAL ELEMENTS 23
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