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Children

Crime Victims’ Institute • Criminal Justice Center • Sam Houston State University

The Effects of Family-of-Origin Violence on

Intimate Partner ViolenceCortney A. Franklin Tasha A. Menaker Glen A. Kercher

March 2011

…from the Director

In 2007 the Crime Victims’ Institute conducted a statewide survey that inquired about intimate partner violence among Texas citizens (Kercher, Johnson & Yun, 2008). This kind of violence occurs in dating rela-tionships and cohabitation as well as in marriages. This report is based on the 2007 dataset and is the second of two reports published by the Crime Victims’ Institute on the intergenerational transmission of intimate partner violence. The report focuses on factors that either increase or mediate the risk of intimate partner vio-lence among those who were corporally punished and/or witnessed inter-parental violence as children. It is our hope that the findings reported here will increase understanding of the conditions and situations that lead to intimate partner violence and lead to constructive ways to both prevent it and assist those persons who are victimized.

Glen KercherCrime Victims’ Institute

Mission stateMent

The mission of the Crime Victims’ Institute is to

• conductresearchtoexaminetheimpactofcrimeonvictimsofallagesinordertopromoteabetterunderstandingofvictimization

• improveservicestovictims

• assistvictimsofcrimebygivingthemavoice

• informvictim-relatedpolicymakingatthestateandlocallevels.

Mission stateMent

Figures and Tables

Figure 1. Sex of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 2. Race/Ethnicity of Respondents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 3. Educational Status of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 4. Income of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 5. Religiosity of Respondents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 6. Marital Status of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Figure 7. Alcohol Consumption of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Table 1. Decision Making Variables and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Table 2. Significant Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Victimization . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Table 3. Significant Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Perpetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Table of Contents

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Sample Charcteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Intimate Partner Violence Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Independent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Study Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Clinical and Policy Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

The Crime Victims’ Instituteii

Executive Summary

Intimatepartnerviolence(IPV)isasignificantpublichealthissue.Estimatessuggestthatasmanyas22.1percentofwomenand7.4percentofmenhavebeenvictimizedintheirprimary adult relationships.1 Scholars have highlighted the importance of family-of-origincharacteristicsascontributingtoemotionalandphysicalconflictinrelationships.Specifically,theintergenerationaltransmissionofviolencetheoryproposesthatindividualslearntechniquesandbehaviorsforinteractingwithothersintheirfamilies-of-origin.2Whenchildrenwitnessviolencebetweentheirparentsoraretherecipientsofabuseand/orcorporalformsofpunish-ment,theymaygrowuptobelievethatthesestrategiesareappropriateforconflictresolutionandproblemsolvingandmaybemorelikelytouseviolenceasadults.Manychildrengrowupinfamilieswhereparentsbehaveaggressivelyand/orviolentlytowardoneanotherortheymaybetherecipientsofcorporalpunishmentduringchildhood,buttheydonotgrowuptouseviolenceintheiradultrelationships.3Thepurposeofthisreportistopresentfindingsthatanswertworesearchquestions:1)amongthoseadultswhowitnessedinter-parentalviolenceorexperiencedcorporalpunishmentduringchildhood,whatfactorsmediatetheeffectoffamily-of-originviolenceonadultIPV,and2)domultipleexperiencesofviolenceinthefamily-of-originproduceacumulativeeffectsothatantisocialbehavioristransmittedintergenerationallywhenindividualsaresubjectedtomorethanoneformofviolence?

Family-of-Origin Violence 1

The Effects of Family-of-Origin Violence on Intimate Partner Violence

CortneyA.Franklin,Ph.D.TashaA.Menaker,M.A.GlenKercher,Ph.D.

Few studies have addressed the intergenerational transmission of violence by look-ingatfamily-of-originviolencesubsamples. Collectively,thesestudieslendcredencetothenotionthatviolenceislearnedthroughparentsduringtheearlysocializationprocess.4,5 This bodyofresearchhighlightstheroleofparticularriskfactorsthatinteractwithfamily-of-originviolencetoincreasethelikelihoodofadultpartnerconflict.Inparticular,lowsocioeconomicstatus, decreases in self-esteem, exposure to community and school violence, experiencingchildabuse,poorschoolperformance,alcoholdependence,posttraumaticstressdisorder,andmoodinstabilityhavebeenidentifiedasdifferentiatingfactorsthatincreaseintimatepartnerviolence(IPV)amongindividualswhogrowupinaggressivehomes.6,7,8Whilethesestud-ieshelptoclarifysomeofthemechanismsbywhichviolencemaybetransmitted,theyleaveout important risk/resiliency factors including religiosity, adhering toa stringentormascu-linegenderideology,andrelationship-specificdecision-making.Additionally,onlyO’Keefe(1998) examined thecumulativeeffectofwitnessingviolencebetweenparents andexperi-encingcorporalpunishmentduringchildhoodasproducingnegativeoutcomesinadolescentdatingrelationships.9Whileinstructiveforunderstandingthenuancesofviolencetransmissionamongadolescentdatingpopulations,herfindingsraiseimportantquestionsforadultmaritalandintimatepartnerships.Thisreportpresentstheresultsofastudythat1)assessedtheeffectofseveralriskandresiliencyfactorsonadultIPVperpetrationandvictimization,and2)ac-countedforthepotentiallycumulativeeffectsofmultipleformsoffamily-of-originviolenceonlaterIPVvictimizationandperpetration.

Riskandresiliency factorshave longbeenacknowledgedas integral tounderstand-ingthedevelopmentandpreventionofdiversecognitiveandbehavioraloutcomes,includingmentalillness,criminaloffendingbehavior,andvictimization.10,11Riskfactorsarevariableswithpredictivevalueforthesenegativeoutcomes,whereasresiliencyfactorsprotectagainstthedevelopmentofaversivecognitionsorbehaviorsinspiteofthepresenceofrisk.12Identify-ingsuchfactorsareimportanttounderstandingviolenceandvictimization,andareinstructiveinthepreventionandtreatmentofnegativephysicalandmentalhealthoutcomescausedbyviolentbehavioranddomesticabuse.Inexaminingtherelationshipbetweenintergenerationaltransmissionofviolenceandintimatepartnerabuse,severalstudieshaveidentifiedriskandresiliency factors related to both IPVvictimization and perpetration.13, 14, 15 The most com-monlyincludedvariablesaresocio-demographicinnature,suchasgender,age,race/ethnicity,education,employment,andrelationshipstatus.16,17,18,19Fewerstudieshave lookedatmorespecificfactorssuchastheacceptanceofIPV,generalalcoholconsumptionpatterns,genderroleorientation,religiosity,anddecision-makingagreementamongcouples.20,21, 22, 23

Severalstudieshaveexaminedthelinkbetweenwitnessinginterparentalviolenceand/or experiencing physical punishment (i.e., spanking, hitting, or slapping) in the family-of-origin,andlaterperpetrationofdomesticabuseandvictimizationbyanintimatepartner.24, 25,26,27,28Resultsindicatethatwitnessingparentalviolenceisassociatedwithanumberofnegativeoutcomesincluding: intimatepartnervictimizationamongbothmenandwomen,29,30,31,32,33 perpetrationofdatingviolenceandIPV,34,35,36,37,38symptomsofpost-traumaticstressamongwomen,39andgreaterstressandlessmaritalsatisfaction.40Althoughthereisapositiverelation-

The Crime Victims’ Institute2

shipbetweenwitnessingparentalaggressionand later IPV,somestudiesare inconsistent.41,42 Similarly, experiencing corporal punishment hasbeen associatedwithpsychological andphysicalaggressionandvictimizationamongintimatepartners.43,44,45,46,47Somedatasuggests,however, thatnosignificantrelationshipexistsbetweenphysicalpunishmentandIPVor,atleast,thattheeffectsofcorporalpunishmentarenotentirelyclear.48,49,50,51Inshort,witnessingand/orexperiencingparentalviolenceisariskfactorforadultdomesticabuseandvictimiza-tion; however, not all children exposed to family-of-origin violence later inflict or tolerateintimatepartneraggression.TheseresultsindicateaneedtorefinepredictivemodelsofIPVamongindividualswhohavebeenexposedtofamily-of-originviolence.

Researchhasconsideredfactorstatmymorethoroughlyexplaintherelationshipbe-tweenchildhoodfamily-of-originandadultIPVlikegender,age,andrace/ethnicity.Forex-ample,Alexanderetal.(1991)52foundthatchildhoodphysicalabusewaspredictiveofIPVvictimizationandperpetrationamongmales,butnot females.Conversely,Magdolandcol-leagues(1998)53andFangandCorso(2008)54foundthisassociationtobestrongeramongthewomenincludedintheirrespectiveanalyses.Withregardtowitnessingparentalviolence,moststudiesindicateastrongerrelationshipbetweenfamily-of-originviolenceandadultIPVformalesthanfemales.55,56

ItisoftenhypothesizedthattheoccurrenceofIPVdecreaseswithage.Researchfind-ingssuggestthatyoungerindividualsofeithergenderaremorelikelytoinflictintimatepartnerharm,57,58,59youngerwomenaremoreatriskfordomesticabusevictimization,60,61andolderageisaprotectivefactorforperpetrationamongbothgenders,andforvictimizationamongfemalesinparticular.62,63,64

Researchonrace/ethnicityandIPVhasbeenmixed.65Itisclearthatrace/ethnicitymustbeaconsiderationwhenexaminingthelinkbetweenfamily-of-originviolenceanddomesticabuse.Whilemanystudieshaveindicatedthatminoritystatus,particularlyAfrican-AmericanorHispanicethnicity,isassociatedwithincreasedperpetration,66,67,68,69,70,71fewstudieshaveconsidered the linkbetween race/ethnicityandvictimization.Among those thathave,Cok-erandcolleagues(2000)72disclosedfindingscontraryto thosereportedabove.Specifically,Cokeretal.’s(2000)73resultssuggestedthatbeingWhitewasassociatedwithintimatepartnervictimizationamongwomenandperpetrationamongmen.ResultspresentedbyMarkowitz(2001)74supportedtheseconclusions,findingthatpeopleofcolorwerelesslikelytocommitspousalabusewhencomparedtotheirwhitecounterparts.

Additionally, researchhasdemonstrated thateducationalandemploymentstatusaresignificantpredictorsofintimatepartnerabuse.Specifically,individualswithgreatereduca-tionandthosethatareemployedarelesslikelytobevictimsorperpetratorsofIPV,thuspo-sitioningeducationalattainment/achievementandwage-earningemploymentasprotectiveorresiliencyfactorswhenconsideringIPV.75,76,77,78,79,80Forexample,studieshavefoundthatmenwhoareunemployedaremorelikelytoengageinspousalviolence.81Inparticular,O’Keefe(1998)82foundschool-relatedsuccesstobeaprotectivefactoragainstIPVvictimizationandperpetrationamongadolescentgirls.SeveralstudieshavealsoidentifiedrelationshipstatusasimportantinconsideringtheetiologyofIPV.83,84,85,86Beingmarried,asopposedtocohabitingonly,mayserveasaprotectivefactorforvictimizationbyasignificantother.87Severalstudieshave,however,reportednosignificantdifferencesinIPVbetweenmarriedrespondentsandtheircounterparts.88,89

Recently,riskfactorsthatmaystrengthenormediatetherelationshipbetweenchild-hoodexposuretoparentalviolenceandfutureintimatepartnervictimization/abusehavebe-comeanissueofconcern.90,91,92,93Thegeneralassumptionisthatcertaincharacteristics,suchasacceptanceoftheuseofviolenceinrelationships,alcoholconsumption,andhypermascu-


linityoramoremasculinegenderorientation,increasethelikelihoodofviolentoffendinginintimaterelationships.94Infact,studiesshowthatfamily-of-originviolenceincreasesthelike-lihoodthatmenwillcondoneviolentperpetrationagainstpartnersandtolerateintimatepartnervictimization.95,96,97,98

Additionally, researchdemonstrates a correlationbetween alcohol consumption andintimatepartnerabuse.99,100,101,102Specifically,recurrentdrinkingamongrespondentshasbeenassociatedwithhigherratesofIPVvictimizationandperpetrationformenandwomen,103,104 andfrequentdrinkingbypartnersputsrespondentsofbothgendersatincreasedriskforvictim-ization.105Caetanoetal.(2000)106suggeststhatlessfrequentalcoholconsumptionisaprotec-tivefactorforIPVvictimizationandperpetrationforbothsexes.Whenconsideringvictimsoffamilialviolence,evidencesuggeststhatsubstanceabuseproblemsaremorecommonamongthosewhoinflictorreceiveharminintimaterelationships.107,108,Attemptstodisentangletheserelationshipshavesuggestedthatsubstanceabuseproblemsmaybetheresultofrepeatedvic-timization(e.g.,ascopingstrategies)ormaybeantecedentstoperpetrationofIPV(asaresultofaggression,reducedinhibitions,etc.).109,110,111

Whilegenderroleexpectationsaid inunderstandingviolenceagainstwomengener-ally,112adherence toamoremasculine identitycontributesspecifically to IPV.Reitzel-JaffeandWolfe(2001)113arguedthatnegativegenderbeliefsareassociatedwiththeperpetrationofdomesticviolence,andadditionalfindingshaveconfirmedthatbeliefingenderinequalitypredictincreasedandseverespousalabuse.114,115Similarly,Alexanderetal.(1991)116indicatedthatdiscrepantperceptionsofgenderrolesbetweenpartners(i.e.,conservativeversusliberal)aredirectlyrelatedtoIPVvictimizationandabuse,particularlyofthelesstraditionalpartnerbythemoretraditionalone.Uponconsideringtheadditionalcontributionoffamilialexposureto violence, research has demonstrated increases in respondents’ endorsements of negativebeliefsaboutgender,aswellasmoretraditionalviewsofwomenamongmen.117,118Alexanderand colleagues (1991)119 further suggested thatwitnessing parental violence in the family-of-originisassociatedwithconservativeattitudesamongmales,egalitariangenderbeliefsinwomen,andtheperpetrationandreceiptofIPVamongfemaleswhoperceivetheirpartnertohaveconservativeviews.Dataindicatesthatexposuretofamilyviolenceisanimportantcon-siderationinthedevelopmentofgenderrolebeliefsandadultIPV.

TheinfluenceofreligiosityasaprotectivefactorforIPVisunderinvestigated,particu-larlyamongindividualsexposedtointerfamilialfightingandabuse.Thatsaid,however,schol-arshaveproposedthatincreasedreligiouscommitmentandinvolvementinfaithcommunitiesshoulddecreasetheoccurrenceofIPV.Whilesomestudieshavefoundreligiositytobeunre-latedtoIPV,120,121othershavefoundittobeasignificantprotectivefactoramongfemalesforviolentbehaviortowardtheirpartner.122Related,DudleyandKosinski(1990)123andFilsingeretal.(1987)124reportedincreasesinmaritalhappiness,relationshipduration,satisfaction,andadjustment—allofwhichmaydecreasetheoccurrenceofIPV—amongthosewhoreportmorefrequentchurchattendance.Indeed,increasedchurchattendancehassignificantlyreducedvio-lenceindatingrelationships125,126andmaritalunions,127,128underscoringthepotentialcontribu-tionofthefaithcommunityinprotectingintimatepartnerships.Incongruentreligiousbeliefswithin a relationship, however, are associatedwith increased violence between partners.129 Althoughreligiosityiscommonlyidentifiedasaresiliencyfactorfordomesticabuse,130,131 the impactoffaithcommitmentamongvictimsoffamily-of-originviolenceiscurrentlyunclear.

Asmallbodyofstudieshave investigatedrelationship-relatedcognitionsandpowerdifferencesindecisionmakingaspredictorsofIPV.Evenso,examinationofdecision-makingagreementinrelationshipsisscarce.132,133Itisreasonabletoassumethatdisagreementamongcoupleswillincreaseconflictandstrengthenthelikelihoodofviolence.Indeed,disagreement


inrelationship-relatedsphereswas,inonestudy,indirectlyrelatedtobothwitnessingparentalviolenceandintimatepartnerabusebymen.134Specifically,Choiceetal.(1995)135foundthat,viaineffectiveconflictstrategies,witnessingparentalviolenceindirectlypredicteddisagree-mentinrelationship-relatedareas,whichweretermed“maritaldistress”(p.110).Thesefac-tors,inturn,predictedtheuseofphysicalviolencebymalesagainsttheirpartners(Choiceetal.,1995).136Thesefindingssuggest thatdecision-makingdisagreementdoeshavea role inintimatepartnerperpetration,atleastamongmales.

Methodology

Thepurposeofthestudypresentedinthisreportwastoinvestigatetheeffectofriskand resiliency factors in a sample of 439 adult respondents, all ofwhom reported either ahistoryofbeingcorporallypunished,interparentalviolenceexposure,orboth.Thisresearchtestedthefollowingtwoquestions:first,whatriskandresiliencyfactorsmediatedtheeffectoffamily-of-originviolenceonadultIPVvictimizationandperpetration?Second,didmultipleexperiencesofviolenceinthefamily-of-originproduceacumulativeeffectsothatantisocialbehaviorwas transmitted intergenerationallywhen individualsweresubjected tomore thanoneformofviolence?

DatawerederivedfromtheFourthAnnualTexasCrimeVictimizationSurvey.137 This particulardatawascollectedin2007bythePublicPolicyResearchInstitute(PPRI)atTexasA&MUniversity.Usingacomputer-assisteddigitizeddialingsystem,700citizenswereran-domlyselectedfromthestateofTexasandcontactedoverthetelephoneforinterviews.In-dividualswere retainedforanalysis if theymet the following twocriteria:1)subjectswhowereeithercurrentlyinaseriousromanticrelationship(definedasmarried,cohabitating,ordating)orhadbeeninaseriousromanticrelationshipintheprevioustwenty-fourmonths,and2) subjectswho reportedhavingexperienced family-of-originviolenceaseitherwitnessingviolencebetweenparentsduringchildhoodand/orbeingcorporallypunishedaschildren.Thefinalsamplefortheanalysiswas439cases.

Sample Charcteristics

Figure1showsthat65.9percentofthesamplewasmadeupoffemalerespondentsand34.1percentofthesamplewasmale.Ageofrespondentsrangedfrom18to91yearswithanoverallaverageageof46.6years(Figure2).TheracialandethniccompositionofthesampleshowsthatthemajoritywereWhite(59.0%),followedbyHispanic(25.5%)andBlack(9.5%).Additionally,nearly14percentofthesampledidnothaveahighschooldiploma(Figure3).Oftheremainingparticipants,47.4percentreportedhavinggraduatedfromhighschool,21.6percentearneda4-yearcollegedegree,and17.1percentcompletedsometypeofpost-collegeeducation,includingagraduate(M.A.,M.S.,orJ.D.),doctoral(Ph.D.),orprofessionaldegree(M.D.,D.D.S.).Justunderhalfoftherespondentsreportedannualearningsof$30,000orless(45.9%),with 24.8 percent earningbetween$30,001 to $60,000, and18.5 percent earning$60,001ormore(Figure4).Amajorityoftherespondentsindicatedfullorparttimewage-earned labor (64.6%) and the remaining 35.4 percent were not currently employed. Uponconsiderationofparticipants’ religiousserviceattendance,16.4percent reported“never”or“rarely”attendingreligiousservices,followedby13.9percentwhoindicatedattending“onceayearormore,”19.2%reportingmonthlyreligiousserviceattendanceandjustoverhalfofthesamplesaidtheyattendedchurchonaweeklybasis(Figure5).Finally,ofthoseindividu-alscurrentlyinanexclusiverelationship,themajorityweremarried(75.5%),with7.0percentcohabitating,and5.7percentinadatingrelationship(Figure6).


Figure 1. Sex of Respondents Figure 2. Race/Ethnicity of Respondents

Figure 3. Educational Status of Respondents

Figure 4. Income of Respondents Figure 5. Religiosity of Respondents


Intimate Partner Violence Measures

Thisstudyincludedtwodependentvariables:IPV PerpetrationandIPV Victimization. AmodifiedversionoftheRevisedConflictTacticsScale(CTS2)138wasadministeredtothesampleduringthetelephoneinterview.TheCTS2includesaseriesofquestionspertainingtoconflict resolution tactics in relationships andcaptureshealthyprosocial conflict resolution(e.g.,“discussedanissuecalmly”),psychologicalabusetactics(e.g.,“insultedorswore,”“didorsaidsomethingtospitehim/her,”“threatenedtohitorthrowsomething”),andmoreseriousphysicalabusetactics(e.g.,“pushed,grabbedorshoved,”“beatup,”“choked,”“usedaknifeorfiredagun”).Thirteenquestionspertainingtopsychologicalandphysicalformsofviolencewereusedtoformthedependentvariables,respectively.

Independent Variables

Family-of-origin Violence. Tocapturereceiptofviolenceinthefamily-of-origin,re-spondentswereaskediftheyhadeverbeenphysicallypunished(e.g.,“spanking,hitting,slap-ping”)aschildren.Additionally,exposuretoviolenceinthefamily-of-originwascapturedbyaskingrespondentsif,duringtheirchildhood,theywitnessedoneparent“hitorthrowsome-thing”attheotherparent.Respondentswereselectedforinclusioninthesampleiftheyan-swered“yes” toeither receivingorwitnessing family-of-originviolence. Inorder toassessthepossibility that receivingand witnessingviolence in thefamily-of-originmayhavehadcumulativeeffects,adummyvariableidentifiedthoserespondentswhoreportedbothcorporalpunishmentreceiptandwitnessinginterparentalviolence.

Acceptance of the Use of Violence in Relationships. Subjectswereasked,“Generallyspeaking,aretheresituationsthatyoucanimagineinwhichyouwouldapproveofamanslap-pinghiswife’s/girlfriend’s/partner’sface?”Similarly,subjectswereasked,“Generallyspeak-ing,aretheresituationsthatyoucanimagineinwhichyouwouldapproveofawomanslappingherhusband’s/boyfriend’s/partner’sface?”

General Alcohol Consumption. Alcoholconsumptionfrequencywascapturedbyask-ingsubjects,“Ingeneral,howoftendoyouconsumealcoholicbeverages(e.g.,wine,beer,orliquor)?”(Figure7).

Figure 6. Marital Status of Respondents


Masculine Gender Orientation.Tocaptureamasculinegenderorientation,respondentswereaskedtoindicatetheiragreementwithstatementsaboutmalecontrol inarelationshipasitreferstosexualintercourseanddecisionsaboutworkingoutsidethehome.Specifically,statementswerephrased,“Amanhastherighttodecidewhetherhiswife/partnershouldworkoutsidethehome”and“Amanhastherighttohavesexwithhiswife/partnerwhenhewants,eventhoughshemaynotwantto.”Theirresponsesweresummedtocreate ascalewithhighernumbersindicatingagreaterdegreeofmasculinegenderorientation.

Religiosity. Tocapturefaithcommitment,subjectswereaskedtoreportthefrequencyoftheirreligiousserviceattendance.

Decision-Making Agreement. Aseriesof fourquestionswereposed to subjects re-garding agreementwith their intimate partners on relationship-related issues. Specifically,subjectswereaskedtoindicatehowoftentheyagreedabout“managingthemoney,”“cook-ing,cleaning,orhouserepair,”“socialactivitiesandentertaining,”andaffectionandsexualrelations”overatwoyeartimeperiod.Thesefourseparateitemswereusedtoidentifylevelofagreementondecision-makingsothatseparatesourcesofpotentialcontentioncouldbeidentified(Table1).

Sixdemographicvariableswereincludedintheanalysis:sex,age,race/ethnicity,edu-cationalattainment,employmentstatus,andrelationshipstatus.

Results

MultivariatestatisticalmodelswererunseparatelyforIPVvictimizationandIPVper-petration.ThefirstmodelexaminedtheeffectofriskandresiliencyfactorsofIPVvictimiza-tion and the findings reveal several significant relationships. Specifically, three of the fourrelationship-relateddecisionmakingitemsweresignificantlycorrelatedwithIPVvictimiza-tion.Foreachone-unitdecreaseinthelevelofagreementbetweenpartnersonissuesrelatedtomoneymanagement,theoddsofIPVvictimizationincreasedby1.41times.Similarly,eachone-unitdecreasethelevelofagreementoncooking,cleaning,andhouseholddutiessignifi-cantlyincreasedtheoddsofIPVvictimizationby1.35times.Finally,eachone-unitdecrease

Figure 7. Alcohol Consumption of Respondents


IPV Victimization Odds Ratio

MoneyManagement 1.41Cooking,CleaningandHousehold 1.35SexandAffection 1.36Gender 1.63Age 1.03EmploymentStatus 1.74

Table 2. Significant Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Victimization

Decision Making Agreement

Agreement on Money ManagementNever 4.4% Sometimes 15.1%Usually 12.9%AlmostAlways 27.4%Always 40.2%Agreement on Cooking, Cleaning and House RepairsNever 4.5% Sometimes 10.3%Usually 16.0%AlmostAlways 26.3%Always 42.9%Agreement on Social Activities and EntertainingNever 4.2% Sometimes 14.5%Usually 17.3%AlmostAlways 31.8%Always 32.2%Agreement on Affection and Sexual RelationsNever 2.9% Sometimes 9.9%Usually 14.6%AlmostAlways 29.4%Always 43.3%

Table 1. Decision Making Variables and Statistics


inagreementonissuesrelatedtosexandaffectionamongromanticpartnerstranslatedtoa1.36 increase in the odds of IPVvictimization.Results also demonstrated that gender andemploymentstatusweresignificantly related to thedependentvariable,so that respondentswhoweremaleandthosewhowereunemployedweresignificantlymorelikelytoreportIPVvictimizationascomparedtowomenandthosewithsteadyemployment.Finally,ageemergedasasignificantcorrelateofIPVvictimizationsothatforeachone-unitdecreaseinage, theoddsofvictimizationincreasedby1.03times.Table2presentsthesignificantcorrelatesofIPVvictimizationandtheircorrespondingoddsratios.

Thesecondmodel investigatedtheeffectofriskandresiliencyfactorsonIPVper-petration.First,theresultsdemonstrateacumulativeeffectformultipleformsoffamily-of-originviolenceon adult IPVperpetration.Specifically,findings indicate that experiencingbothformsoffamily-of-originviolenceincreasedtheoddsofperpetratingadultIPVby1.73times.Additionally,disagreementonissuesrelatedtomoneymanagementandsex/affectionincreased theoddsofperpetratingviolence inadult relationships. Inparticular, aone-unitdecreaseinthelevelofagreementonmoneymanagementsignificantlyincreasedtheoddsofperpetrationby1.31times.Similarly,foreachone-unitdecreaseinagreementrelatedtosex/affection, theoddsof IPVperpetration increasedby1.40 times.UnlikeIPVvictimization,genderdidnotproducesignificanteffectsforperpetration.Uponconsiderationofrace/ethnic-ity,however,HispanicethnicitysignificantlydecreasedtheoddsofIPVperpetration,whileBlackrespondentswerenotsignificantlydifferentwhencomparedtoWhiterespondentsonreportsofperpetration.Inparticular,Hispanicrespondentswere1.96timeslesslikelytore-portIPVperpetrationinthissampleofcommunitymembers.Finally,ageemergedasariskfactorforperpetrationsothatforeachone-unitdecreaseinage,theoddsofIPVperpetrationincreasedby1.03times.Table3presentsthesignificantcorrelatesofIPVperpetrationandtheircorrespondingoddsratios.

Conclusions

Existing research on intimate partner aggression has highlighted the importance offamily-of-originviolenceasacontributortolateradultrelationshipconflict,particularlyasitpertainstothesociallearningofinterpersonalbehavior.Whileimportantinunderstandingtheetiologyofdomesticabuse,noteverychildwhowitnessesinterparentalaggressionorreceivescorporalpunishmentgrowsuptoparticipateininterpersonalrelationshipsthatarecharacter-izedbyviolence.Thisstudyexaminedthemediatingroleofriskandresiliencyfactors,includ-ingdemographic, lifestyle, and relationship characteristics, among a sample of adultswithfamily-of-originviolencehistories todetermine their ability todifferentiatebetweenadultswhowereinvolvedinIPVfromthosewhowerenot.

Resultspresentedin thisstudyleadto twoimportantconclusions.First,severalriskandresiliencyfactorsemergedassignificantmediatorsoffamily-of-originviolenceonadultintimatepartnervictimizationandperpetration.Generally,theriskandresiliencyvariablesthat

IPV Perpetration Odds Ratio

BothformsofFamily-of-originViolence 1.73MoneyManagement 1.31SexandAffection 1.40Hispanic 1.96Age 1.03

Table 3. Significant Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Perpetration


emergedassignificantforbothoutcomespertainedtorelationship-relateddecisionmakinganddemographic characteristics. Indeed, victimizationwas a likely outcomewhen relationshippartnersdisagreedonissuesrelatedtomoneymanagement,cooking,cleaning,andhouseholdduties,andsex/affection.Similarly,beingolder,male,andemployedprotectedagainstintimatepartnervictimization.

Uponconsideringperpetration,findingsdemonstrated thatperpetrationwasa likelyoutcomewhenpartnersdisagreedonmoneymanagementandsex/affection—twosubstantiveissuesconsistentlyidentifiedascreatingrelationshipproblems,butthat,accordingtothisstudy,areparticularlyimportantamongindividualswithchildhoodhistoriesoffamilyaggressionandviolence.These results reiterate thegeneralfindingspresented inChoiceet al. (1995)139 asrelatedtotheperpetrationofdomesticabuse.Further,Hispanicethnicityandbeingolderpro-tectedagainstIPVperpetrationamongthissampleofadults.Itissurprisingtonotethatnoneoftheotherrelevantriskorresiliencyfactorsdemonstratedsignificanteffects.Inparticular,theacceptanceofinterpersonalviolence,adheringtoamasculinegenderideology,generalalcoholconsumptionfrequency,andreligiosityhaveallbeenidentifiedaseitherpromotingorprotect-ingagainstviolenceinrelationships.Similarly,relationshiptypeandeducationalattainmenthadnoeffectonvictimizationorperpetrationamongthissample.

Second, thepotentiallycumulativeeffectof family-of-originviolenceonadult rela-tionshipaggressionwasinvestigated.Inparticular,thecurrentanalysiswasabletoassessifahistoryofbothbeingcorporallypunishedandwitnessinginterparentalviolencesignificantlyaffectedadultIPV.Resultsindicatedthatthiscumulativeeffectwaspresent,butonlyforper-petrationofdomesticabuse. Inotherwords, corporalpunishmentproducedadverseeffectsonlywhencoupledwithwitnessinginter-parentalviolenceandonlyasitwasrelatedtotheperpetrationofviolenceinadultintimaterelationships.ThisfindingissubstantivelyimportantwhenconsideringtheintergenerationaltransmissionofIPVasitisabletoinformthosefactorsmostrelevanttopreventingandcontainingtheperpetrationofdomesticabuse.

Study Limitations

Despitetheimportanceofthefindingspresentedhere,thisstudyisnotwithoutlimita-tions.First,thisanalysiswascross-sectionalinnature,makingitimpossibletoimplycausa-tion. Consequently, any significant and substantive relationships uncovered in this analy-sismustbeinterpretedaccordingly.Second,thequestionnaireemployedinthisstudyreliedonretrospectiverecallamonganadultsample.Adultparticipantswereaskedtoreporttheirchildhoodexperiencesofphysicalpunishmentandwhetherornottheywitnessedtheirpar-entsaggressagainst(or“hit”)oneanother.Thispresentsthepotentialformemorydecayandrecallbias.Severalscholarshavehighlightedthevalueinaskingrespondentstorememberifsomethingsignificanthappenedduringchildhoodascomparedtoaskinghow many times somethingsignificanthappenedduringchildhood.140,141Researchhassupportedthevalidityofreportsofparentalaggressionand/ortheexperienceofcorporalpunishmentduringchild-hood.Thephrasingofthequestionsinthissurveyandthecodingoftheitemsintheanalysisreflectedthisstrategy.Third,thereportsofcurrentIPVperpetrationandvictimizationwerederivedfromonememberofthetwo-personpartnership.Studieshavediscussedtheimpor-tanceofinvolvingbothpartnersincapturingdataonviolenceinrelationships,yet,despitethis,researchcontinuestoqueryonememberofthepartnershipwithsuccessintermsofiden-tifyingviolentandaggressive relationalbehavior.142,143Finally,while this studyemployedacommunitysampleofadults,theseparticipantswereresidentiallylocatedwithinthestateofTexas—a large southern geographic region thatmay have presented important culturalconsiderationswheninterpretingandgeneralizingtheresultsoftheanalysis.Futureresearch


should attempt to replicate thefindingspresentedhereby randomly sampling larger adultpopulationsfromdifferentgeographicregions.

Clinical and Policy Implications

ThesefindingsalsohaveimplicationsforclinicalpracticeandresearchontheetiologyofIPVasitisinfluencedbyfamily-of-origincontributions.Identifyingriskandresiliencyfac-torsthatimpacttherelationshipbetweenfamily-of-originviolenceandintimatepartnerabuseisparticularlyrelevanttointerventionandpreventioninitiatives.Thepresentstudyexaminedvariablesthatpotentiallydevelopthroughoutadolescence(e.g.,acceptanceoftheuseofvio-lence),andthataffectcurrentindividualfunctioning(e.g.,alcoholconsumption),inadditiontointerpersonalrelationshipfactors(decision-makingagreement).Inthisstudy,however,onlyrelationship-relateddisagreement and family-of-origin violence significantly impacted IPV.AsnotedbyDelsole&Margolin(2004),144acontinuedunderstandingoftheseprocessesasoccurringindevelopmentalstagesandasuniquecontributorstoIPVallowsformorepreciseinterventionandpreventativetechniquesinrelevantphasesofavictim’slifespan.Thesemayinclude the increase of community resources andpsycho-educationon the negative effectsofinterparentalviolenceandphysicalpunishmentofchildren,adaptiveproblem-solvingandconflictresolutionseminarsforparentsandintimatepartners,andviolenceprevention-focusedprogramsforchildrenwhomaybeexposed to family-of-originaggression.Future researchmayfocusonfurtherclarifyingthemechanismsthataugmentordiminishthelinkbetweenfamily-of-originviolenceanddomesticabuse,aswellasfurtherevaluationofeffectivemeth-odsofinterventionandpreventionamongfamiliesandintimatepartners.


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144SupraNote13

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