Háskóli Íslands

Hugvísindasvið

Íslenskmiðaldafræði

Whatdidtheysoundlike?

ReconstructingthemusicoftheVikingAge

Ritgerð til MA-prófs í íslenskum miðaldafræðum

ChihiroTsukamoto

Kt.:250493-3209

Leiðbeinandi:ÞórirJónssonHraundal

Janúar2017

ii

Abstract

There has been much scholarship over the years regarding Scandinavian

cultureduringtheVikingAge(c.793–1066CE).However,oftenmissingfromthese

discussions is thestudyofmusic.Thispaperattemptsto fill thatgapbyofferinga

reconstructionofVikingAgeScandinavianmusic.Archaeologicalevidence, literary

records, and medieval music theories were used as the basis of this study.

Archaeology indicates that Scandinavians played wind, string, and percussion

instruments,whilelaterOldNorseliteraryaccountsdetailthemanycircumstances

whereinmusicwasperformed,andsuggestthelikelyexistenceofdifferentmusical

genres. I have consulted Arabic, Greek, and Latin accounts for contemporary

sources,astheScandinavianpeopledidnothaveawrittencultureduringthistime.

Markingadeparturefromtypicalhistoricalanalyses,Ihavealsoconductedacross-

cultural comparison of medieval Arabic, Greek, and Western European music

theoriesinordertorecognizewhatScandinavianmusiccouldnothaveresembled.

Bycombiningarchaeological,literary,andmusicalevidence,itispossibletopropose

a highly educated hypothesis on how Viking Age Scandinavian music may have

sounded.

Ágrip

MikiðhefurveriðrættogritaðígegnumárinumSkandinavískamenninguá

Víkingaöld(um793–1066e.Kr.).Hinsvegarer tónlistviðfangsefni semoftvirðist

vanta í þessar umræður. Þessi ritgerð mun reyna að fylla það skarð með því að

leggja fram tilgátu um endurgerð Skandinavískrar tónlistar frá Víkingaöld.

Fornleifar, bókmenntir og kenningar um miðaldatónlist voru notaðar sem

grundvöllurfyrirþessarannsókn.FornleifafræðibendirtilþessaðNorðurlandabúar

hafi leikið á blásturs-, strengja- og slagverkshljóðfæri. Einnig lýsa norrænar

bókmenntirmörgumtilvikum,þarsemtónlistvarspiluð,ogbenda tilþessaðþað

voru sennilega margar tónlistarstefnur. Ég leitaði einnig til arabískra, grískra og

latneskra textaeftir samtímaheimildum,þarsemSkandínavarhöfðuekki skriflega

iii

menningu á þessum tíma. Ólíkt venjulegum sögulegum greiningum, hef ég gert

menningarsamanburð á kennningum um arabíska, gríska, og Vestur-Evrópska

tónlist til að bera kennsli á hvernig Skandinavísk tónlist hefði ekki geta hljómað.

Meðþvíaðsameinaheimildirumfornleifar,bókmenntirtónlistar,erhægtaðleggja

framtilgátuumhvernigSkandinavísktónlistkannaðhafahljómaðáVíkingaöld.

iv

Acknowledgements

First,Iamgratefultomyadvisor,ÞórirJónssonHraundal,forhiskindnessandtruly

wonderfulconversations.Iamindebtedtohishelpandopen-mindedness.Igivemy

thanks to the lovely faculty and staff of the University of Iceland, in particular to

Haraldur Bernharðsson, Torfi Tulinius, and Geir Þórarinn Þórarinsson, whose

supportandteachingswereatremendoushelp.

IowemygratitudetotheLeifurEiríkssonFoundation,whosefellowshipgenerously

fundedthisresearch.ThanksalsotoSigurðurGunnarMagnússon, formakingsure

thatmymodernIcelandicisnotstuckinthe13thcentury.

Finally,Imustthankmyfamilyandfriends,whosenamesaretoonumeroustolist

here.Specialthankstomyparents,HironoriandAkikoTsukamoto,withoutwhomI

would have no idea what microtones are, and to my sister, Kay Tsukamoto, for

raiding and pillaging every library in the Greater Boston area for any book on

Scandinavianmusic.Yourherculeaneffortsweretrulyappreciated.

v

TableofContentsListofFigures…………………………………………………………………………………………………….vi

ANoteonSpelling…………………………………………………………………………………………......vii

1.Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………12.MusicinVikingAgeArchaeology……………………………………………………..……………….4

2.1 WindInstruments 42.2 Stringinstruments 112.3 Percussioninstruments 15

3.ExternalAccountsofVikingAgeMusic……………………………………………………………18

3.1 Arabicaccounts 193.2 Greeksources 213.3 Latinsources 24

4.MusicintheOldNorseWrittenRecord…………………………………………………………...32

4.1 Runes 334.2 TheEddas 344.3 Sagas 36

5.ReconstructingMusicintheVikingAge…………………………………………………………..45

5.1 EarlyMelodies 465.2 MedievalBallads&theGymel 485.3 FolkSongs 495.4 IcelandicRímurandTvísöngur 535.5 ReconstructingVikingAgemusic 54

6.Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………….59

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………..61

vi

ListofFigures

1. BronzeAgelurhorn………………………………………………………………………………….7

2. Modernlurhornmadefrombirch……………………………………………………………..7

3. ReconstructionofacowhornfoundinVästerby,Sweden……………….................8

4. BoneflutefoundinBirka,Sweden……………………………………………………………..9

5. PanpipesfoundintheCoppergateexcavationinYork,UK………………………...10

6. FragmentsofalyrefromtheshipburialatSuttonHoo………………………….....12

7. SuttonHooHarpreplica………………………………..………………………………………...12

8. IllustrationfromMSJunius11ofJubalplayingalapharp…………………………13

9. Stonesculptureofamanplayingabowedstringinstrument…………………....14

10. OneoffiverattlesfoundintheOsebergship…………………………………………….16

11. MusicalnotationsintheCodexRunicus…………………………………………………….33

12. WoodcarvingofGunnarplayingaharpwithhistoes……………………………….37

13. Exampleofamusicalstavenotation……………………………………………………......45

14. Modernstaffnotationof“Drømtemigendrøminat”……………………………….46

15. “Nobilis,humilis”onCodex233…………………………………………………………….....47

16. Modernstaffnotationof“Nobilis,humilis”……………………………………….……...47

17. Völuspásong,asrecordedbydelaBordein1790…………………………………….51

18. SongofHaraldrhardráði,asrecordedbydelaBorde………………………….......52

19. Thesong“Lilja”,asrecordedbydelaBorde……………………………………………..53

vii

ANoteonSpelling

Thispapercontainsnumerousnon-Englishwordsandnames,namelyArabic,

Greek, Latin, and Old Icelandic/Old Norse. I have endeavored to keep the

transliterationsystems foreach languageasconsistentandascloseaspossible to

the original language,with exceptions to names that are overwhelmingly used in

theirAnglicizedforms(e.g.ConstantineVIIinsteadofKonstantinosVII).Withthisin

mind,Ihavechosentousetheoriginalaccentmarkingswhenapplicable.Inregards

tospellingGreekandArabicwords,IhaveusedtheAmericanLibraryAssociation–

LibraryofCongress systemsof transliteration.AllByzantineGreekpresent in this

paperhasbeentransliterated likeAncientGreek,andnotModernGreek.WithOld

Icelandic, I have kept “ð” and “þ” instead of using theRomanized “d” or “th.” For

languages that do not use the Latin alphabet, I have included only their English

translationsforblockquotations.

Unlessotherwisespecified,alltranslationsinthispaperaremyown.

1

Chapter1

Introduction

TheVikingswerenotthedirty,violentraidersthattheyaresooftendepicted

as being. Not only were most so-called “Vikings” farmers who went trading––or

raiding––during the summers, but the archaeological record indicates that they

were highly artistic. Intricately carved swords, captivating runestones, and highly

decorateddailyartifacts,suchascombs,tools,andthelike,haveallbeenunearthed

overthepastfewdecades.Forsuchanartisticallyinclinedpeople,thereisonegenre

thatisnoticeablyabsentfromdiscussionsconcerningtheVikingAge:music.

It has often been said that where there is man, there is music. Indeed, it

wouldbequitethechallengetonameasinglemajorcivilizationorpeoplewithout

some form of music. Yet, music has often been missing from discussions about

VikingAgeScandinavians.Partofthereasonforthisisnodoubtduetotherelatively

lownumberofinstrumentsthathavebeendiscovered,butperhapsnosmallpartis

alsoduetothenatureofmusicitself.Music,moresothananyotherartform(except

perhapsdance),isephemeral,makingitexceedinglyhardtorecreateorcapturein

words.

Whatismusic?

At firstglance, theremayseemtobe littleneedtodefine the term“music.”

Music is suchagivenandsoubiquitous inourmodernconsciousness that it feels

oddtoevenquestionitsnature.Yet,“music”ismuchmoreelusivethanitmayfirst

appear.TheOxfordDictionary definesmusic as “Vocal or instrumental sounds (or

both) combined in such a way as to produce beauty of form, harmony, and

expression of emotion.”1This is a vague definition. Words such as “beauty” are

clearly subjective, and what might be considered beautiful in one culture might

soundhideoustoanother.Asitstands,whilethereislittlequestionthattheNorse

1OxfordDictionaryofEnglish.3rded.(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010)1168.

2

peoplehadmusicintheirsocieties,thematteriscomplicatedbythefactthatthere

appearstohavebeennostrictcategoryofmusicforitsownsake.Musicwasnotthe

most important art form in Norse culture––that throne was reserved for poetry.

Poetrywastheartisticmediumofchoice fortheNorsepeople,oftenbeingrecited

aloudtoanaudience,andtherebybeingaperformingart.Oralpoetryhasacadence

andrhythmofitsownthatisnotunlikemusic,andtheincorporationofmusicinto

anotherartformmayhaverelegatedittothesidelines.Thisnon-primarystatusof

musicinVikingAgeScandinaviancultureisreflectedbythefactthat,unlikeinmany

societies, theNorsepeopledidnothaveadesignateddeity formusic.There isno

Æsir or Vanir equivalent of Apollo; instead, the major deity Óðinn presided on

poetry. This preoccupation with poetry and its crossover into a theater-esque

performingart furtherblurs the linebetweenmusic, chants, andpoetry.Tomake

matters more difficult, music without a notation system––such as Scandinavian

music during the time––is far more vulnerable to extinction than poetry, which

enjoyed a rather better survival rate due to the existence ofwritten records. It is

thus understandable that the combination of ambiguity and lack of abundant

materialsonmusic, incontrasttotherelativeplethoraofmaterialsforpoetry,has

led to a proliferation of scholarship on Old Norse poetry, with far less attention

beingpaidtoOldNorsemusic.Inresponse,itisthepurposeofthisthesistobring

much-neededattentiontothelatter.

MusicoftheGermanicScandinavians

TheNorsepeople had curious relations tomusic.Despite holdingmusic in

highregard,theydidnotseemtohaveheldthisviewformusicians.Whileitisnot

unheard of formusicians to be considered servants of kings and aristocrats (this

wasindeedthecaseformostBaroqueandClassicalcomposersandmusiciansinthe

1600sand1700s)itisratherunusualforthemtoberegardedwithoutrightdisdain,

as they seem to have been in Old Norse-speaking societies. As Nils Grinde

speculates, thismay have been because instrument players had virtually no legal

3

rightsinlawstatutebooks.2Musicianstendedtobean“internationalgroupwhose

jobitwastoentertainatcelebrationsofvariouskinds”3forvariousaudiences,and

wereoftengrouped togetherwith jestersandother “low” formsofentertainment.

As they frequently traveled fromplace toplace, theymayhavebeen lookedupon

withsuspicion.Furthermore,musicianswereoftenforeignersatthelocationwhere

theywereperforming,whichcertainlydidnothelptheircase.

BeforedelvingintoadiscussionofNorsemusic,itwouldbeprudenttofirst

definethepeopleaboutwhomIamspeaking.Regardingterminology,Iwillreferto

theGermanicScandinavianswhenwritingNorsepeople,asopposedtotheSaamior

Finno-Ugric peoples. Despite using the term “Norse people”, it is always kept in

mindthattheywerenotamonolithicblock,andIamsimplyalludingtothosewho

spokesomevarietyofOldWestorOldEastNorse.IwillonlyusethetermVikingsto

refertotheOldNorse-speakingpeoplewhowentabroad. Inthecaseof theRus’, I

meanonlytorefertotheGermanicScandinavianswhowenttoByzantiumortothe

East, asopposed toSlavicpeoples,or those inSlavic settlementswhoseancestors

were Scandinavian. Imay use the termRus’ orVarangian interchangeably in this

paper,butIrecognizethatviewsofthesewordslikelydifferaccordingtotheschool

ofthoughtthataparticularscholarsubscribesto,andthatthereison-goingdebate

regarding thedefinition of these terms.Definingmusic is likewise a difficult task,

but here I shall be following the lead ofTheOxfordDictionary, andwill consider

vocaland/orinstrumentalsinging,chanting,andplayingasmusicforthepurposes

ofthispaper.

2NilsGrinde,AHistoryofNorwegianMusic. (Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1991)12.3Ibid.

4

Chapter2

MusicinVikingAgeArchaeology

The matter of writing a Stand der Forschung for Viking Age music is

complicated by the fact that the number of excavated instruments is few and the

scholarshiprelativelylacking.Forallthementionsofsinging,chanting,andmusicin

OldNorseliterature,thearchaeologicalrecordofferslesssupport.Nevertheless,the

varietyofinstrumentsfoundinarchaeologydoilluminateafewtantalizinghints.In

general, the instruments that have been found in excavations can be categorized

intowind,string,andpercussioninstruments.

WindInstruments

By far themost common type of instruments that have been excavated is

wind instruments. A wind instrument is any musical instrument that creates a

soundbythevibrationofair.Suchinstrumentstypicallyincludeamouthpieceanda

resonator.Theplayerblowsairintooroverthemouthpiece,whichmovesintothe

resonator,whichisoftensomesortoftube.Thepitchisdeterminedbythelengthof

theresonatorand/orbymanuallymodifyingthecolumnofairbypressingkeysor

covering holes. Wind instruments are further classified into the woodwind and

brassfamilies.CallingsomeoftheVikingAgeinstruments“woodwinds”and“brass”

mightseemabitofamisnomer,asmanyofthemaremadeofboneorsomeother

material not suggested by the name of their categorization. In actuality, the

classification of wind instruments is dependent not upon the material of its

composition,butbyhowthesound isproduced. Inotherwords,woodwindsneed

not bemadeofwood, nor brass instrumentsmadeof brass.Historically, thiswas

often the case (and hence their names), but what determines whether a wind

instrument iswoodwindorbrass iswhatvibrates inorder to cause the sound. In

woodwinds,theairvibratesbecausetheplayercausesareedtovibrate(e.g.modern

clarinet, oboe,bassoon, etc.), blowsagainst a fipplemouthpiece (e.g. recorder), or

5

blowsacrosstheedgeofahole(e.g.flute).Forbrassinstruments, it istheplayer’s

ownlipsthatvibrate,whichcausestheairtovibrateinturn.4

Lurhorns

Hornsofvarioustypeshavebeenfoundinexcavations,yetperhapsthemost

famousofthesearethe lurhorns.Theretendstobesomeconfusionregarding lur

horns, as the same name applies to both the bronze horns that date to the

ScandinavianBronzeAge(c.1500–500BCE)andtothewooden,trumpet-likehorns

fromtheMiddleAges(c.400–1400CE).

BronzeAgelurhornsdatefromc.1000BCE.5Itisratherironicthattheolder

bronzelursaremorefamousthanthewoodenones,astheformerwerenamedafter

their more recent cousins. Cast in bronze, Bronze Age lurs are remarkably well

crafted,consistingofadecoratedbell,preciselyfittingresonator,andamouthpiece

thatisstartlinglysimilartothatofthemoderntrombone(seefig.1).Thebellatone

end of the instrument is an ornamented platewith six to ten round depressions,

withtheaveragebeingeight.6Thesedepressionsdonotserveanacousticpurpose

andissolelyfordecoration.Somelursalsohavesmallrattlingplatesattachedtothe

bellorthemouthpieces,alsofordecoration.Thebodyoftheinstrumentismadeup

of cylindricalpieces thatcreate theresonator.Eachpieceof the tubular resonator

hasbeenconstructedtofitexactlysothattheycannotslidewhenfittogether.The

mouthpiece greatly resembles that of modern brass instruments and is well

designed for good tone production. It tapers from the blowing end,which curves

outward, to the narrower, cylindrical end that inserts into the resonator piece.

Bronze Age lursmost closely resemble a modern tenor trombone in pitch and4AnthonyBaines,MusicalInstrumentsThroughtheAges(Baltimore:PenguinBooks,1961).5“The lurs of the Bronze Age,” National Museum of Denmark, accessed July 15,2016, http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/ denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-bronze-age/the-lurs-of-the-bronze-age/.6“Thelursandtheirmusic,”NationalMuseumofDenmark,accessedJuly15,2016,http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-bronze-age/the-lurs-of-the-bronze-age/the-lurs-and-their-music/.

6

timbre.Modernplayingtechniquesallowtheinstrumenttoproduceeighttotenof

the first partial tones, in some rare cases even going up to the twelfth.7It is

unknownwhetherancientplayerswereabletoproducesucharange,butthehighly

sophisticatedacousticdesignof themouthpiece indicates that theywerecertainly

skilled and competent. Bronze Age lurs are often curved, likely for purposes of

easier carrying, much like the modern sousaphone.8Some have carrying chain

attachments just for this purpose. They often come in pairs, and almost certainly

hadreligiousfunctions,asnearlyallwerefoundinbogsasofferings.Imagesoflurs

are found in rock carvings depicting religious scenes in Tanum, Sweden, further

indicatingareligiousfunction.9

IncontrasttoBronzeAge lurs, thoseoftheVikingAge(Anglo-centricdates:

793–1066CE)andtheHighMiddleAges(c.1001–1300CE)arelargelycomposedof

wood,particularlybirch(seefig.2).Theearliestwrittenmentionsoflurhornsarein

theIcelandicsagas,wheretheyaresaidtohavehadmilitaryfunctions,beingusedin

battles to marshal troops and to intimidate opponents. These wooden lurs are

straight in shape, and aside from times ofwar,were used formundane purposes

suchasshepherdingandsignalingcattle.Onesuchlurmayhavebeenfoundduring

theOsebergexcavation.Datingbetween834–850CE,theOsebergluriswoodenand

nearly a meter long. It is straight in form, and has many similarities to modern

herdinglurs,thoughunlikethelatter,theyarenotcoveredinbirchbarkoranything

ofthekind.10Aninstrumentveryclosetothewooden lur isthebirchtrumpet, the

oldest of which dates to the 10th century and which were used in Scandinavian

societies(particularlyinNorwayandSweden)untilasrecentlyasthe19thcentury.7A partial tone for a brass instrument is one of the series of notes that can beproducedgivenasettingofslides,valves,orholes.8A sousaphone is a type of tuba thatwasdesigned to be in a ring shape that theplayermayhoistontooneshoulder.Thisallowsthemtobeusedinmarchingbandsintheplaceofthemoreunwieldyconcerttuba.9"VitlyckeRockCarvings,Tanumshede,"TanumMuseum&TanumWorldHeritage,accessed December 30, 2016, http://www.vastsverige.com/en/tanum/b/49992/Vitlycke-Rock-Carvings-Tanumshede.10NilsGrinde,AHistoryofNorwegianMusic(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1991)11.

7

Fig.1 BronzeAgelurhorn.(Photo:NationalMuseumofDenmark.Copenhagen.)

Fig.2 Modernlurhornmadefrombirch.Thisstyleisfarclosertothelurhornsof

theVikingAgeandMedievalEra.(Photo:Thuen,“Neverlur,”July24,2006.)

8

Cowhornrecorder Various types of recorders carved from cow horn have been found. An

excavation inVästerby,Sweden,hasrecoveredonesuch instrument.TheVästerby

recorderhasamouthpieceat thesmallendof thehorn,andhas foursmall finger

holes(seefig.3).AsimilarhornrecorderwasdiscoveredinKonsterud,Värmland,

Sweden, but with five finger holes and measuring around 27 cm. Other types of

recordershavebeen foundwhere themouthpiece is at thewide endof thehorn;

such horns have a wooden stopper that plugs the space around themouthpiece.

Calledthegemshorn,itisuncertainwhetherthesehornswereknowntotheVikings,

astheearliestextantrecordofoneisfrom1511,wellaftertheVikingAge.

Anothertypeofhornedinstrumentisworthmentioninginthissection.This

is the two Golden Horns of Gallehus (c. 400 CE) that were found in Gallehus,

Southern Jutland,Denmark.However, as theGallehushornsdate to theGermanic

IronAge,centuriesbeforetheVikingAge,theywillonlyreceiveapassingmention

here. Composed of pieces cast in double sheet gold, the horns were stolen and

melteddownin1802.11DespitetheearlydatingoftheGallehushorns,usinghorns

fordrinkingandmusicisnotuniquetothemalone.RudolfSimekobservedthatthe

Germanic people have a long history of using horns for aesthetic purposes, and

speculatedthat theymayhavekeptsacredhornssolely forreligioususesince the

earlyGermanicIronAge(400–800CE).12

Fig.3 ReconstructionofacowhornfoundinVästerby,Sweden.(Photo:Mogens

Friis,"Kopiaf“Västerbyhornet,"LevendeMusikhistorie.)

11RI.Page,Runes.(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1987).12RudolfSimek.DictionaryofNorthernMythology. (Cambridge:D.S.Brewer,2007)110–111.

9

Boneflutes

BonefluteshavebeenfoundthroughoutScandinavia,variouslydating from

the800stothe1200sCE.Typicallycarvedfromthebonesofcows,deer,largebirds,

or branches of the easily hollowed elder tree, these flutes range from a simple

whistletoa longerflutewithmultiplefingerholes.Alloftheflutesthathavebeen

foundthusfarproducesoundviaawoodenfippleoraninertbonewhenblowninto.

They are quite short in length, usually having around three finger holes, butmay

have become longer and more elaborate over time. Those found in the Swedish

tradingcityofBirka,datingc.800–900CE,havetwoholes(seefig.4),whilealater

flutefoundinAarhus,Denmarkdatingtothe13thcenturycontainssevenholes.The

smallnumberofholesisundoubtedlyexplainedbythesmallsizeofthebones(often

sheepbone)outofwhichtheflutesweremade.Longerflutes,naturally,tendtohave

morefingerholes,andcanthereforeproducemorenotes.

Fig.4 Bone flute found in Birka, Sweden. (Photo: Swedish History Museum,

Stockholm.)

Panpipes

Acurious instrument found in theCoppergateexcavations inYork,UK, isa

setofpanpipes.Madeoutofboxwood,itresemblesaslabofthin,rectangularwood

thathashadfiveholesdrilledintoitalongsideitsverticallength,followingthegrain

of the wood (see fig. 5). Only one set of this instrument has been found in

Coppergate, andhas beendated to the10th century. Theplayer’s lips rest upon a

10

slightlybeveledholecarvedatthetopoftheinstrument,andthevariousdepthsof

theholesboredintothewoodcreatedifferentpitches.Alsocalledasyrinx,eachhole

ofthepanpipesproducesonenote,fromAtoE.

Fig.5 PanpipesfoundintheCoppergateexcavationinYork,UK,datingtothe10th

centuryCE.(Photo:“PanPipes.”JorvikArtefactGallery,YorkArchaeologicalTrust,York.)

Falsterpipe

AfragmentofawindinstrumentwasfoundduringanexcavationatFribrødr

river in Falster,Denmark. This so-called “Falster pipe” is awoodwind instrument

that dates from the latter half of the 11th century.13The recovered section is a

wooden tube with finger holes, and may once have been part of a bagpipe-like

instrument;however,thistheoryisunconfirmed.Amodernreconstructionattached

a wooden mouthpiece and a bell-like piece at either end, creating a kind of

hornpipe.14

13“Falster-pibe,”TheVikingNetwork,lastmodifiedFebruary21,2001,http://www.viking.no/e/life/music/instruments/e-falsterpibe.html.14Ibid.

11

StringInstruments

Stringinstrumentsareamajorcategoryofmusicalinstrumentsthatproduce

sound via vibrating strings, which may be bowed or plucked. Modern examples

includetheviolin,harp,guitar,anddulcimer,tonameafew.Tochangethepitch,the

player manipulates the length, tension, and linear density of the string. Various

types of string instruments have been excavated from Germanic settlements,

includingbothpluckedandbowedinstruments.

Harps&Lyres

ThereareseveralstringinstrumentsthatarefeaturedinNorseliterature.Of

these, theharpand the lyreareundoubtedly themostubiquitous, indicating their

solidpresenceinNorseculture.However,despitethisfact,fewhavesurvivedinthe

archaeologicalrecord.OnefamousearlyinstrumentthathassurvivedistheSutton

Hoo round lyre (see fig. 6). Archaeologistswere able to reassemble the damaged

fragments and numerous reconstructions have since been created. A rather thin

plank ofwoodwith rounded corners, there is an oblong hole in themiddle, over

whichsixstringsarestretched.Thestringsare loopedthroughholesat the topof

theinstrumentandtapertowardstheotherend,wheretheyaregathered(seefig.

7). Although the SuttonHoo instrument isAnglo-Saxon, its shapematches that of

otherlyresthatwereoutsideEnglandandincontinentalEuropeatthetime.

Mostlyresthathavesurvivedarefromlaterperiods,suchastheKraviklyre,

dating to the 13th century. Found in northwest Oslo, the part that has been

recovered is incomplete, and is somewhat different from the other depictions of

lyres fromtheera,butappear tobea related typeof instrument. It evidentlyhad

sevenstringsthatwereplayedbyplucking.Therehasbeennodiscoverytodateofa

three-corneredharp(e.g. likemodernharps) fromtheVikingAge,but this typeof

harphas been in use inNorway fromat least the LateMiddleAges until the 19th

century,andalthough theoldestextantoneonlydates to the1600s, it isbelieved

thatthismodelfollowedpreviousmodelsfromearliertimes.

12

Fig.6&7SuttonHoolyre(left)alongsideareplica(right).(Photofig.6:“Fragments

ofaLyrefromtheShipBurialatSuttonHoo.”TheBritishMuseum,London.Photo fig. 7: “Sutton Hoo, Harp Replica.” Sutton Hoo. Furman University,Greenville.)

Thoughmostoftheinstrumentsthemselvesmaynothavesurvived,thereare

quiteafewdepictionsofharpsandlyresonmanuscripts(seefig.8)andfromother

archaeological sources. The harp is the most frequently depicted instrument in

stone carvings, almost all of which depict the famous scene from Vǫlsunga saga

whereGunnar tames thesnakes in thesnakepit.Despite the fact that thewritten

sourcenamesaharp,manyof these illustrationsshowa lyre-like instrumentwith

arms that extend outward from the sound box instead of the typical corners that

harpshave.This is the case for thewoodencarvingofGunnaron theUvdal stave

church in Norway, which was originally built around 1168 CE,15and the wood

carvingontheHyllestadstavechurch,alsoinNorway,fromc.1200.

15Aspartsofthechurchweretorndownandrebuiltinlatercenturies,however,thisdoesnotmeanthatthisparticularcarvingwasmadein1168.

13

Fig.8 IllustrationfromMSJunius11ofJubalofGenesisplayingalapharp,c.1000CE.Thisis likelytheoldestdepictionofatriangularclosedframeharpinEngland.(Photo:MSJunius11,folio54.Artstor,BodleianLibrary,Oxford.)

Fiddle&Gigje

ThesetwoinstrumentsarementionedtogethersoofteninOldNorsesources

that it is hard to write about one without mentioning the other. Both the fiðla

(fiddle) and thegigjeweremost certainly foreign imports, and not indigenous to

Scandinavia.16Unfortunately,itisnotknownwhatthegigjelookedlike,asthereare

nonethathavebeendiscoveredfromtheVikingAgeperiod.Ithasbeenspeculated

thatafiddlehadastraighterback(muchlikethemodernviolin)whileagigjehada

domedback(liketheNeapolitanorround-backedmandolin),butitisimpossibleto

knowforcertain.17Althoughnofiddles fromtheVikingAgehavebeenfound, they

16The Hardingfele, or Hardanger fiddle, on the other hand, was unique to theScandinavian region for having sympathetic strings (understrings) that resonateundertheotherstrings,unlikeviolinsandcontinentalfiddles.However,theearliestknownonedatesto1651,wellaftertheVikingAge.17Grinde,AHistoryofNorwegianMusic.12–14.

14

presumably resembled the fiddles that were in use in continental Europe during

thattime.18

Miscellaneousstringinstruments

Despitenothavinganextantstringinstrument,thereisastonesculptureon

the Nidaros cathedral (built from 1070–1300 CE) in Trondheim, Norway, of a

musician playing a stringed instrument (see fig. 9). The stringed instrument

depictedhere resembles awoodenplankwith three strings that theperformer is

bowing. Some scholars have theorized that thismight be a type of jouhikantele, a

bowedharporiginating inFinland, yet this is all pure speculation.19Finlandhasa

rich musical heritage, including its famous string instrument, the kantele (Sami:

harppu)––apluckedstringinstrumentbelongingtothezithercategory.20However,

there is littleevidence tosuggest that theGermanicScandinaviansplayedsuchan

instrument.Theclosestmightbea typeofzithercalleda langeleik inNorway,yet

theoldestoneknownisinscribedwiththeyear1524.21

Fig.9 StonesculptureofamanplayingabowedstringinstrumentontheNidaros

cathedralinTrodheim,Norway.(Photo:AHistoryofNorwegianMusic,p.14.)18Asnoarchaeologicalevidenceof fiddlesandgigjesareknownatthistime,IwilldiscussthemfurtherintheOldNorseliteraturesectioninchapter4.19Grinde,AHistoryofNorwegianMusic.14.20A category of stringed instruments that consist of a thin, flat body over whichstringsarestretchedandarethenplucked.21“Instruments,”DarkAgesRe-CreationCompany.December4,2007.AccessedJuly15,2016.http://www.darkcompany.ca/articles/NorseMusicBInstruments.php.

15

PercussionInstruments

Undertheumbrellaofthepercussionfamilyareallinstrumentsthatproduce

sound by being struck or scraped. Aside from the human voice, percussion

instruments are likely to be the oldest type of instruments in human history.

Broadly speaking, there are two types of percussion instruments: pitched and

unpitched percussion. As their names imply, the former produce an identifiable

pitch(e.g.marimbas,xylophones,timpani,etc.),whilethelatterdoesnot(e.g.snare

drum,cymbals,cowbells,etc.).

Rattle

Archaeological excavations of the Oseberg ship in Norway have found five

rattlesburiedamongthemanyartifacts.Severaltheoriesexistastotheirpurpose:

theymay have been items used during religious rituals, used as sleigh “bells”, or

simplyplayedasmusical instruments.The firstof these isaparticularlyelaborate

theory:supposedly,theladyofhighrankburiedintheOsebergship22wasavǫlva23

whomayhaveusedthemetalrattle(seefig,10)insomeformofritual.Themetal

rattle in questionwas attached to a post of the ship thatwas toppedby a carved

animalheadandcoveredwithintricateknotwork.24Additionally,severalrattle-like

instruments have been found elsewhere in Norway, including in Stövernhaugen

(dating800–1000CE)andAkershus(dating800–900CE).Theseconsistofaseries

ofironringsthathavebeenlinkedontoalargeovalring,withtheformerattached

toalongstaveandthelatterpossiblycreatedtoaccompanyahorse-drawnsleighor

22TheOsebergexcavationfoundtheremainsoftwowomenburiedintheship,oneaged between 60–70 while the younger was around 50–55. See Per Holck, “TheOseberg Ship Burial, Norway: New Thoughts On the Skeletons From the GraveMound,” European Journal of Archaeology 9, no. 2-3 (August 2006):,doi:10.1177/1461957107086123.23Aseeress.24"VikingShipCannabisConundrum."TheNorwegianAmerican.January27,2016.AccessedJuly15,2016.http://www.norwegianamerican.com/heritage/viking-ship-cannabis-conundrum/.

16

sledge.25However,thepurposeoftheseironringsisstillopentointerpretationand

it isunknown if theywere indeedusedas sleighbells; if theywere,whether that

wouldqualifyasmusic,perse,wouldbeopentodebate.

Fig.10OneoffiverattlesfoundintheOsebergshipdiscoveredinVestfold,Norway.

(Photo:Thorguds,“Osebergmetalrattle.”2008Oslo.)

Drum

Thought to be one of the oldest sources of sound production, surely few

instruments are as universal as the drum. Norse people during the Viking Age

almost certainly knew of the instrument, as their neighboring peoples had a

plethora of drums, including the Celtic bodhrán frame drum, the northern Saami

goavddisbowl drum, and the southern Saamigievrie frame drum, to name a few.

Thus,itappearsquitestrangethattherehavebeennodrumsfoundbelongingtothe

GermanicScandinavians.ThereissomeevidencetosuggestthatVikingsmayhave

usedtheirshieldsasdrumsubstitutesduringcertainrituals,as is indicated in Ibn

Fadlan’s account. His report in the Risala (“Epistle”) is a shockingly graphic

25"Instruments,"DarkAgesRe-CreationCompany.

17

descriptionofafuneraryritualwhereinaslavegirl iskilledtobeburnedwithher

master. During the moments of her death, at the height of her agony, the

“Northmen”aresaidtobeattheirshieldsinordertocoverupherscreams:

Atthismomentthemenbegantobeatupontheirshields,inordertodrownoutthenoiseofhercries,whichmightdeterothergirls fromseekingdeathwiththeirmastersinthefuture.26It goes without saying that banging on shields to cover up screams is the

farthestpossible thing frommusic; that said, it isnot impossible that shieldsmay

havebeenstrucklikedrumsduringpre-battleritualsorduringotheroccasionsthat

merited sound. If suchwas the case, itmay partly account for the lack of drums

foundinexcavations.Otherreasonsfortheirlackofsurvivalmaybedueinpartto

theirnaturalcomposition;thinpiecesofwoodandanimalhides––themostfrequent

and important materials for drums––easily decompose. Of course, other wooden

instrumentshavealsoundoubtedlysufferedthesamefate(and,indeed,maybepart

of the reason why archaeologists have found so few wooden instruments in

general).Literaryreferencestodrums,ontheotherhand,aremoreplentiful,which

willbeaddressedinthenexttwochapters.

Conclusion

Whilemusichasoftbeenoverlookedasafruitfulsub-categoryofVikingAge

studiesduetoaperceivedlackofinformation,theactualamountofevidenceoffered

by the archaeological record is far from nothing. Granted, the number of

instruments found in excavations may not be prodigious, but those that have

survived demonstrate a variety that cannot be easily dismissed. Fromwoodwind

andbrasswindinstrumentstostringsandpercussion,thesheerdiversityofmusical

instruments demonstrates that the Scandinavians during the Viking Age lived

amongamyriadofsounds.WemaysafelysaythattheNorsepeopleplayedmusical

instruments.26AḥmadibnFadlān,“MissiontotheVolga,”inTwoArabicTravelBooks,translatedbyJamesE.Montgomery(NewYorkandLondon:NewYorkUniversityPress,2014),85.

18

Chapter3

ExternalAccountsofVikingAgeMusic

Although Scandinavians had runes as a form of writing, during the Viking

Age, they did not yet have thewriting culture that would later proliferate in the

regionafterthearrivalofChristianity.Duetothisratherunfortunatehistoricalfact,

we must turn to the writings of non-Scandinavian peoples for contemporary

sources. Obviously, this presents several problems. The first, and perhaps most

significant, is the lack of cultural awareness and detail; foreigners who are not

intimatelyacquaintedwiththepeoplesaboutwhomtheyarewritingareinevitably

notabletowritewithasmuchknowledgeasaninsiderwhohadbeenraisedinthat

culturalenvironment.Thesecondistheproblemwithbias.Itmaybethathistoryis

writtenby thevictor,butonly theempoweredcanwriteat all, and thiswaseven

more true in the distant past,where thosewhowrote about other cultureswere

generally well-educated people from more powerful social groups, kingdoms, or

empires. As such,manywriters of early history had the unfortunate tendency to

regardothersocieties,particularlythosethatwerelesspoliticallyunified,ashaving

beeninferior.ThiswascertainlythecasewithScandinavia,whichwasfirstviewed

as a troublesome ‘fringe’ society by the Roman Empire, and also later by the

emergingChristendom.Ofcourse,writerswithintheculturehavetheirownbiasas

well; this is obvious in cases of propaganda or self–laudatory writings where an

insider seeks topromotehisorherownsociety. In the ideal scenario, then, there

wouldbedetailedsourcesfrombothwithinandoutsidethecultureunderstudyin

order to attain themost even-handedwhole picture.Unfortunately for historians,

thisscenarioisnotalwayspossible.

Writers from diverse cultural backgrounds have written about the Norse

people,particularlyaboutthefar-traveled(andinfamous)VikingsandRus’.Among

this number were those from three distinct empires: the Roman and Byzantine

Empires,andtheAbbasidCaliphate.Tobesure,thesethreewerenottheonlyones

whowrote about Scandinavians: the Vikings andRus’ arementioned in the Irish

19

AnnalsofUlster(AnnálaUladh)andthePrimaryChronicle(Повѣстьвремѧньныхъ

лѣтъ),forexample.However,hereIwillfocusonArabic,Greek,andLatinsources,

asthesethreearetheonlyonesthatmentionanythingnoteworthyaboutGermanic

music.EachofthethreehasdistincthistorieswithGermanicpeoples.Arabicwriters

wereoften travelersormerchants (or, in thecaseof some laterwriters, armchair

historians)whowereoutsideobserversofGermaniccultureinGermanicterritory.

ArabicsourceshavebeenhistoricallyunderutilizedinScandinavianandVikingAge

studies, no doubt due to linguistic and perceived cultural barriers. Greek sources

have faredbetter, but tended tobe at themercyof outdated translations and the

availability of Byzantine texts. The number of Greek accounts is not great, and of

these, almost all of them (with the possible exception of Strabo) concern the

Scandinavianswhoareonthewriter’sown,Greeksoil,asopposedtoArabwriters,

who occasionally wrote about Scandinavians in Scandinavian lands. While

seemingly minor, such nuances matter, for there is a significant demographic

difference(mostnotably ingenderandage)betweentheScandinavianswhowent

seafaring abroad versus thosewho did not. This significantly changes the kind of

peoplewithwhomthewriterswouldhavegottenintocontact,andthereforewritten

about. Latin sources are themost numerous, andwhile it is certainly possible to

classify them inmultipleways, chronologically speaking, they fall into two broad

categories: polytheist or Christian. Unfortunately, despite the number of sources

available,mostof themgivenoclear indicationas towhat ‘Viking’musicsounded

like,andiftheydo,itisoverwhelminglylikelytohavebeenanunfavorablestringof

insultsbecausethewriterfounditrepulsive.

ArabicSources

InChapter1,Imentionedtheelusivenessofwhatmaybeconsideredmusic

whendiscussing its definition.Nowhere is thismore evident than in at-Tartushi’s

descriptionsofGermanicmusicinwhatisnowDenmark.The10thcenturytraveler

andmerchant Ibrahim ibnYa’qub at-Tartushi (also knownby the nameAbraham

benJacob),hadthistosayaboutthemusicoftheNorthmenwhomheencountered

intheDanishtradingcenterofHedebyaroundtheyear950:

20

I have not heard an uglier singing than Shalshaweeq people [people fromSchleswig].Itisahummingcomingfromtheirthroatsthat’sworsethandogsbarking.27At-TartushiwasoriginallyfromtheAndalusiancityofTortosa,Spain(hence

hisname“at-Tartushi”, i.e. “fromTortosa”).Andalusiawastheregionwheremany

Near and Middle-Eastern instruments were carried into Europe, including such

recognizableonesastherebec(ancestoroftheviolin),guitar,andbassdrum.Asthe

cityofTortosaitselfwasatthecruxofmultiplecivilizations,at-Tartushiwouldhave

been exposed to a wide variety of music, among them Moorish, Roman Catholic

(from the Christian minority in the north), and Jewish (as Jewish culture was

surprisingly thriving during this time in the Iberian Peninsula). Thus, given this

assumption,hisdescriptionofthemusicatHedebytohavebeentheugliesthehad

ever heard is not just an unfortunate opinion, but is also revealing, as it suggests

that it was unlike any he had ever come across before in the very cosmopolitan

cities of Iberia. This point becomes relevant when reconstructing Norse music,

whichwillbediscussedlater.

ThereisanotherArabwriterfromthe10thcenturywhowasnoticeablyless

opinionated inhisdescriptions.Ahmad ibnFadlān, anambassadorof theAbbasid

CaliphatefromBaghdad,alsomentionssingingandmusicinhisfamousaccountofa

funeralforaVikingchieftaininthelate900’s:

…theyconsume[intoxicatingdrink]inthecourseoftendays,unitingsexuallywithwomenandplayingmusical instruments.After that, thegroupofmenwhohavecohabitatedwiththeslavegirlmakeoftheirhandsasortofpavedway whereby the girl…mounts onto the ship…She was given a cup ofintoxicatingdrink; shesangat taking it anddrank.The interpreter toldmethatsheinthisfashionbadefarewelltoallhergirlcompanions.Thenshewasgivenanothercup;shetookitandsangforalongtimewhiletheoldwomanincitedhertodrinkupandgointothepavilionwherehermasterlay.28

27 Translation provided by Rawia Azzahrawi, Professor of Arabic Language,University of Manitoba in Noel Braucher, Throat Singing in Old Norse Culture?(UniversityofManitoba.March1,2016).28AhmadibnFaḍlān,“MissiontotheVolga,”inTwoArabicTravelBooks,translatedbyJamesE.Montgomery.(NewYorkandLondon:NewYorkUniversityPress,2014).

21

Compared to at-Tartushi’s scathing report of Danish songs, Ibn Fadlān’s

accountistamer,andisthemoresubjectiveofthetwo;hiswritingismoredetached

reportthanopinion.Yetironically,at-Tartushi’sisthemorehelpfulofthetwowhen

reconstructingNorsemusicbecauseheprovidesadescriptionofthesinging,rather

thanjustageneralstatementthatsongsweresung.Obviously,thisisnottosuggest

thatthesongsinHedebymusthaveliterallysoundedlikecanines.Still,asurprising

amountofinformationcanbegatheredfromhisunfavorablenotes.Wecangather,

for instance, from his description of “humming”, that the sound was probably

guttural and produced from the back of the throat; from “their throats” it can be

guessed that perhaps more than one person could have been singing at once,

although this is speculation. Finally, the adjective “barking” suggests that the

melody–ormelodies if thereweremultiplesingers–wasnotofaharmonythat the

far-traveledat-Tartushiwasfamiliarwith.ThisScandinavianstyleofsingingwas,in

fact, probably closer to throat-singing, or what western listeners might associate

with Saami or Native American chanting, rather than themelodic type of singing

thatismorecommonlyheardtoday.Furtheranalysisofwhatat-Tartushimayhave

heard ispossiblebycomparingScandinavianoralpoetrytothemusicandstyleof

IslamicchantspopularduringtheAbbasidCaliphate,whichwillbe thepurposeof

chapterfive.

GreekSources

ThereareanumberofGreeksourcesdetailingtheNorsepeopleoftheViking

Age.Thesewritersvariouslyreferredtothelatterasthe“Rus”(Ρως),29“Varangians”

(Βάραγγοι),30or those from “Thule.”31However, not all such accounts will be

referenced here. Many commonly referenced Greek writers, such as Patriarch

29PhotiusI,TheHomiliesofPhotius,PatriarchofConstantinople,translatedbyCyrilMango(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1958),HomiliesIII&IV.30MichaelPsellusChronographia,translatedbyE.R.A.Sewter(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1953).31AnnaKomnene,Alexiad,ch.9.Thulewasanoftenused,vaguetermforanorthernorScandinaviancountry.

22

Photios(c.810–893)andMichaelPsellos(1017/8–ca.1078),wereonthereceiving

endofVikingattacksand,ratherunderstandably,theirwritingsreflectaless-than-

stellarviewoftheirScandinavianinvaders.Suchchroniclersdidnotmentionmusic

as they were unlikely to have known their attackers closely enough to have

observedtheirmusicalcustomsand,assuch, theirwritingsarenothelpful for the

purposesofthisthesis.

One of the earliest Greek descriptions of the Germanic peoples and their

soundisfromtheGreekhistorianStrabo(64/63BCE–c.24CE),farbeforethetime

oftheVikings.Hehintsthatthelatterhadatypeofdrum,“ἐνδὲτοῖςἀγῶσινἔτυπτον

τὰς βύρσας τὰς περιτεταμένας τοῖς γέρροις τῶν ἁρμαμαξῶν, ὥστ᾽ ἀποτελεῖσθαι

ψόφονἐξαίσιον.”32(“Andduringthebattles,theywouldbeatonthehidesthatwere

stretched all around the wicker-bodies of the wagons, and in this way produce

noise.”) As was stated in the previous chapter, despite the lack of extant

archaeologicalevidence, it is likely that theNorsepeoplehadsome typeofdrum-

like instrument composed of stretched animal hides. Although theymaynot have

hadwickerwagonsoftheaforementionedtypeduringtheVikingAge,itisentirely

possiblethattheyhadstretchedanimalhidesoverotherwickerframeswithwhich

theyproducedabeat.

AnotherearlyGreekwriterwhomentionsmusicisPriscus,aByzantinewho

visitedthecourtofAtillain448.Althoughhisaccountdescribesafeastgivenbythe

Huns,whowereanAltaicpeople,thepoetryrecitedthereinmayhavebeensimilar

incharactertoGermanicones.AccordingtoPriscus,atAttila'sfeastweretwoskalds

whorecitedtheexploitsofthosewhowerepresent.Theirsongswereapparentlyso

movingthatlistenersburstintotears.

When evening fell torcheswere lit, and two barbarians coming forward infront ofAttila sang songs theyhad composed, celebratinghis victories anddeedsofvalorinwar.Andoftheguests,astheylookedatthesingers,somewerepleasedwiththeverses,othersremindedofwarswereexcitedintheirsouls,whileyetothers,whosebodieswerefeeblewithageandtheirspiritscompelledtorest,shedtears.33

32Strabo.Geographica.EditedbyAugustMeineke.(Leipzig:Teubner,1877).VII.2.3.33R.C.Blockley,TheFragmentaryClassicisingHistoriansoftheLaterRomanEmpire.

23

The feast-time ritual celebration depicted here was probably similar to those

performed during Scandinavian celebrations. During Norse blót (sacrifice-

celebration) it was customary to drink aminni (a toast of remembrance). At the

beginningofthesetoasts,storiesofwarriors’exploitsanddeedsweretypicallytold

in theirhonor.Priscus’accountparallels themanydescriptionsof feastsandblóts

thatareillustratedinBeowulfandinlaterIcelandicsagas.

AmongtheGreeksourcesfromtheVikingperiodisDeCeremoniis.Writtenby

Emperor Konstantinos Porphyrogennetos (Constantine VII, 905–959), De

CeremoniisaulaeByzantinae(Greek:Ἔκθεσιςτῆςβασιλείουτάξεως,Explanationof

theOrderofthePalace)describesceremonialprotocolsattheByzantinecourtandis

invaluable for its descriptions, as they illuminate the existence of Scandinavian

culture among the Varangians. Here, the Scandinavians who composed the

VarangianGuardarereferredto(ratheroddly)asΓοθικἁ(“Gothika”).34Membersof

theVarangianGuardaresaidtohaveperformed“Gothicdances”anddancedinwolf

skins.35Such depictions are strongly reminiscent of berserkers, who are typically

glorified inOldNorse literatureasbeing fearless inbattleand immune topainor

injury, andwhowereknown todance inwolforbear skins.36The combinationof

fearlessnessandaffinityforwolf-skinritualsisparticularlyevocativeofberserkers,

and it is intriguing that the termConstantineuses todescribe their ritual isμἐλος

(“song”,“melody”),37whichsuggestssometypeofmusicalaccompaniment.

Another source for Vikings in the east is The Alexiad (Ἀλεξιάς), which is

uniqueequallyforitsdetaileddescriptionsoftheVarangianGuardasitisforbeinga

historical workwritten by awoman.Written by Princess Anna Komnene around

1148CEduring theKomnenid dynasty of theByzantine Empire (1081–1185CE),

TheAlexiaddescribesthepoliticalandmilitaryconditionsoftheByzantineEmpire

Vol.II.Liverpool:FrancisCairnsPublications,1981,286.34ConstantineVII,DeCeremoniis,BookI,ch.83.35Ibid.,BookI,ch.83;BookII,ch.52.36HildaR.EllisDavidson,PaganScandinavia.NewYork:F.A.Praeger,1967,100.37HenryGeorgeLiddellandRobertScott.AnIntermediateGreek-EnglishLexicon.Oxford:ClarendonPress,1889.

24

under the reign of her father, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (c. 1056–1118 CE).

Although it is a fairly late document and describes events that occurred slightly

before1148––pastthestandardAnglo-centricdatesfortheVikingAge(793–1066)–

–TheAlexiad isoneof the fewsources thatgivescluesregardingthereputationof

ScandinavianswhowerewellestablishedinConstantinople.WhileAnnaKomnene

does not write about music in particular, she does write that the Varangians

adhered strongly to tradition and handed down their customs. “The Varangians,”

she writes, “regarded their loyalty to the Emperors and their protection of the

imperialpersonsasapledgeandancestral tradition,handeddown from father to

son,whichtheykeepinviolate.”38Clearly,handingdowntraditionwasimportantto

theseNorthmen. If suchwas the case, it isnotunreasonable to suppose that they

mayhavepasseddowntheirmusicaltraditionsaswell.

LatinSources

TheextantLatinsourcesontheScandinavianstendtobeevenlesspositive

thantheArabicaccounts,asasubstantialnumberofLatinaccountswerewrittenby

Christianswhoeitherexperiencedthehorrorsof theirownmonasteriesandcities

burning by Norse hands, or were Church clergy debating ‘how to deal with the

pagan problem.’ Such accounts tend to be variations on the theme of how the

northernbarbariansshriekedwhile theyraidedvillagesandsackedcities––hardly

usefulinformationforunderstandingScandinavianmusic.

Someof theearliest, non-ChristianLatinwritingswehaveof theGermanic

peoples and their customs is from Cornelius Tacitus (c. 56–c. 117 CE). Although

TacituslivedfarbeforetheVikingAge,wecansurmisefromlaterliteraturethatthe

Germaniccustomofsingingaboutbattlesandheroicdeedsisalongone,extending

tofarbeforetheVikings:

FuisseapudeosetHerculemmemorant,primumqueomniumvirorumfortiumituri in proelia canunt. Sunt illis haec quoque carmina, quorum relatu, quembarditum vocant, accendunt animos futuraeque pugnae fortunam ipso cantuaugurantur. Terrent enim trepidantve, prout sonuit acies, nec tam vocis ille

38AnnaKomnene,Alexiad,ch.9.

25

quamvirtutisconcentusvidetur.Adfectaturpraecipueasperitassonietfractummurmur, obiectis ad os scutis, quo plenior et gravior vox repercussuintumescat.39TheysaythatHerculesalsovisitedthem;theysingofhim,firstofallmeninstrength,whengoing tobattle.Theyhave, too, those songsof theirs–whichtheycall "baritus”–by therecitalofwhich theyrouse their spiritsand fromtheir song, augur the fortune of the approaching fight. For they inspireconfusionorfearastheirlineshouts;itisnotsomuchanarticulatesound,asa general cry of valor. They aimprincipally at a harsh note and shatteringroar, putting their shields to theirmouth so that, by reverberation, itmayswellintoafulleranddeepersound.

Although Tacitus writes in the interpretatio romana that was common for

Romansinhistime––translatingGermanictermstotheirclosestRomanequivalents

andturningwhatwasprobablyÞórrintoHercules––theheroicsubjectmatterofthe

singingisclear.AlsointerestingishismentionoftheGermanicpeople’spracticeof

puttingshieldsaroundtheirmouthstoamplifytheirvoices.40ThattheScandinavian

Vikings and Rus’ used their shields to produce sound is also attested to in later

writingssuchasthoseofAbboofSt.GermainandIbnFadlān.

Twocenturieslater,whentheGothsattackedtheRomanEmpirearound375

CE,theRomansoldierandhistorianAmmianusMarcellinus(325-330–post-391CE)

wrotethattheGothssangsongsoftheirforebears:

39 Tacitus, Cornelius. de Origine et Situ Germanorum Liber. Edited by HenryFurneaux.(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1900),III:1-2.40It would be interesting if any helmet or mask had changed the sound of thewearer’svoiceoramplifiedthesound,muchlikethetheatermasksdidinClassicalAthens, which projected the voices of the actors. It is not inconceivable, asarchaeologistshavefoundmanysophisticatedhelmetswithextrafeatures,suchasthe famous Sutton Hoo helmet that causes the wearer to look as if he had oneglittering eye, mimicking Óðinn. There has been speculation that another SuttonHoo-era helmet, that of King Raedwald of East Anglia, amplified the voice of thewearer.Asitstands,however,itappearsthattheeffectwasmorepsychologicalthancausedby thehelmet itself–the impressivehelmet causes thewearer to feelmorepowerful and thereforeuse a louder voice. SeeNeil Price andPaulMortimer. "AnEye for Odin? Divine Role-Playing in the Age of SuttonHoo."European JournalofArchaeology17,no.3(2014):517-38.

26

Et Romani quidem voce undique Martia concinentes, a minore solita admaioremprotolli,quamgentilitateappellantbarritum,viresvalidaserigebant.Barbariveromaiorumlaudesclamoribusstridebantinconditis,interquevariossermonisdissonistrepitus,levioraproeliatemptabantur.41And theRomans inunison sangofMars [battle-cry], asusual rising fromalower to a louder tone, ofwhich the national name is barritus, and raisedthemselves tomightystrength.But thebarbarianspraised their forefatherswith harsh disorderly shrieks, and amid this dissonant clash of differentlanguages,skirmisheswerefirsttried.

In fact, singing of their ancestors appears to have been a common theme

throughoutGermania.Inthe6thcentury,theRomanbureaucratJordanesmentions

music of the Gothic tribe several times in his well-known work, De origine

actibusqueGetarum,orGetica(c.551CE).Themajorityofthesereferenceshighlight

thehistoriccontentofthesesongs:

Ex hac igitur Scandza insula quasi officina gentium aut certe velut vaginanationum cum rege suo nomine Berig Gothi quondam memoranturegressi…Quemadmodum et in priscis eorum carminibus pene storicu ritu incommunerecolitur.42Then from the island of Scandza, as from a hive of races or as awomb ofnations,withtheirking,namedBerig,theGothsaresaidtohavewentforthlongago...Andinthismanner[thestory]isgenerallyrecalledintheirancientsongsinanalmosthistoricfashion.reliquam vero gentem capillatos dicere iussit, quod nomen Gothi promagnosuscipientesadhucodiesuiscantionibusreminiscent.43

buthebadethemcall therestof theirraceCapillati,whichnametheGothsaccepted[andprized]greatly,andtheystillrecallittothisdayintheirsongs.

Elsewhere inGetica, hementions that these songswere accompanied by a

cithara––astringinstrumentrelatedtotheguitar:

Ante quos etiam cantu maiorum facta modulationibus citharique canebant,Eterpamara, Hanale, Fridigerni, Vidigoiae et aliorum, quorum in hac gente

41AmmianusMarcellinus.RerumGestarum.EditedbyJohnC.Rolfe.(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1935-40)XXXI.7.11.42Jordanes.DeorigineactibusqueGetarum,IV:25,28.43Ibid.,XI:71-72.

27

magnaopinioest,qualesvixheroasfuisseMirandaiactatantiquitas.44

Inearliesttimestheysangofthedeedsoftheir forebearsinstrainsofsongaccompanied by the cithara; chanting of Eterpamara, Hanala, Fritigern,Vidigoia and others whose fame among them is great; such heroes asadmiringantiquityscarceproclaimsitsowntobe.

FromJordanes’writings,wearetoldthattheGothssangabouttheirancestorsand

history.Thisisnotafar-fetchednotion,asthissamethemeispresentinthepoetry

and stories of Germanic people elsewhere––in Germany, Norway, and Iceland in

particular––centuries later during the High Middle Ages, well after the region’s

conversiontoChristianity.

Later accounts in Latin from the Viking Age are from the Christian

perspective. In 797 CE, Alcuin, an advisor to the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne,

wrotea letter toSperatus, theBishopofLindisfarne.His letterwarnedagainsthis

priestssingingsongsinthevernacularorconductingpagan-ishactivities:

Verba Dei legantur in sacerdotali convivio. Ibi decet lectorem audiri, noncitharistam; sermones patrum, non carmina gentilium. Quid Hinieldus cumChristo?Angustaestdomus:utrosquetenerenonpoterit.Nonvultrexcaelestiscumpaganisetperditisnominetenusregibuscommunionemhabere.45

Let theWord of God be heardwhen the priests eat together. They shouldlistentothelector,notthecithara;tosermonsofthe(Church)Fathers,nottosongs in the vernacular.What has Ingeld to dowith Christ?Narrow is thehouse:itisnotwideenoughtoholdboth.Thekingofheavenwantsnothingtodowithdamnedpagansholdingthetitleofking.

Meanwhile, Paulus Diaconus (Paul the Deacon) wrote about the heroic

content of Germanic songs once again in hisHistoriaLangobardorum (c. 700 CE).

The Langobards were a Germanic people residing in large swaths of the Italian

Peninsulashortlybefore theVikingAge(c.568–744CE).TheHistoria relateshow

theLangobardickingAlboin(c.500CE)becameincludedinthehistoricalsongs:

Alboinveroitapraeclarumlongelatequenomenpercrebuit,uthactenusetiamtam apud Baioariorum gentem quamque et Saxonum, sed et alios eiusdem

44Ibid.,V:42.45 Alcuin. Epistolae. Edited by Ernst Dümmler. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. (MonumentaGermaniaeHistorica.Berlin:Weidmann,1895)p.183.

28

linguae homines eius liberalitas et gloria bellorumque felicitas et virtus ineorumcarminibuscelebretur.46

Alboin,meanwhile,wonsuchreputationandwasknownsowidelyinname,that still today the Baioares aswell as the Saxons, and other folkwith thesamelanguage,celebratehisgenerosityandglory,andhissuccessinwarandhonorintheirsongs.

AmongthemostreferencedLatinaccountsofthetraditionsoftheGermanic

Scandinavians is that of Adam of Bremen’s Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae

pontificum (c. 1073–1076CE).He tells of how theheathens sungmany “obscene”

songsduringceremoniesinhisdescriptionofaheathentempleatUppsala,Sweden:

“Ceterum neniae, quae in eiusmodi ritu libationis fieri solent, multiplices et

inhonestae,ideoquemeliusreticendae.”47(“Furthermore,ofthedirges,itissaidthat

thoseusuallysunginthismannerduringthelibationritesarecruel,numerous,and

shameful,andsoitisbettertosaynothingaboutthem.”)Itisimportanttonotethat

AdamofBremenhimselfneverwenttoUppsala,andwaswritingthisaccountfrom

his native Germany. All of his writings are compilations of (mostly Christian)

accountshehadgottenelsewhere,whichinevitablyaffectsaccuracy.

Two of the earliest chronicles written by Scandinavian authors are the

DanishChroniconRoskildense (theRoskildeChronicle,c.1138–1140CE)andGesta

Danorum(HistoryoftheDanes,c.1200).Thesetwoarenotableforbothbeingearly

Scandinaviansourceswrittensomewhat close to theVikingAge,butas theywere

writtenfirmlywithintheChristiantraditionandinLatin,cannotbecategorizedas

OldNorsesources.Botharewrittenwithasolidlyeuhemeralperspective.Thepriest

and historian Saxo Grammaticus (c. 1150–1220 CE)wrote the latterwhile in the

service of the archbishop Absalon. In Gesta Danorum, Saxo writes that ringing,

jinglingobjectscalledcrepitacula(sometypeofbellorrattle)accompaniedfertility

ritesinUppsaladuringheathentimes:

Sueonumfinesingreditur.UbicumfiliisFrøseptennioferiatusabhistandemadHaconem Daniae tyrannum se contulit, quod apud Upsalam sacrificiorum

46 Paulus Diaconus. Pauli Historia Langobardorum. Edited by Georg, Waltz.(Hannover:ImpensisBibliopoliHahniani,1878)I:27.47AdamofBremen,GestaHammaburgensisecclesiaepontificum,IV:27.

29

tempore constitutus effeminatos corporum motus scaenicosque mimorumplaususacmollianolarumcrepitaculafastidiret.Undepatet,quamremotumalascivia animum habuerit, qui ne eius quidem spectator esse sustinuit. Adeovirtusluxuiresistit.48

HewentintothelandoftheSwedes.WiththesonsofFreyrhelivedatleisurefor seven years; at last he left them and conferred himself to Hakon, thetyrantofDenmark,aswhenstationedatUppsalaatthetimeofthesacrifices,hewasdisgustedbytheeffeminategesturesandtheclappingof themimesonthestage,andbytheunmanlyclatterofthebells.Henceitisclearhowfarhekepthissoulfromlasciviousness,notevenenduringtolookuponit.Thusdoesvirtueresistdebauchery.

Most curiously, Saxo also writes at length of an incident wherein a lyre-

playerwhoplayedforKingErikEjegodinducesmadnessinthelatter:

Cuius prima specie praesentes veluti maestitia ac stupore complevit. Quipostmodumadpetulantioremmentis statumvegetioribus lyrae sonisadducti,iocabundiscorporummotibusgestiendodoloremplausupermutarecoeperunt.Postremo ad rabiem et temeritatem usquemodis acrioribus incitati, captumamentia spiritum clamoribus prodiderunt. Ita animorum habitus modorumvarietas inflectebat. Igitur qui in atriomelodiae expertes constiterant, regemcum admissis dementire cognoscunt irruptaque aede furentem complexicomprehensum continere nequibant. Quippe nimio captu furoris instinctuseorumsevalidecomplexibuseruebat;naturaesiquidemeiusviresetiamrabiescumulabat. Victo itaque colluctantium robore, procursum nactus, convulsisregiae foribus arreptoque ense, quattuor militum continendi eius gratiapropius accedentium necem peregit. Ad ultimum pulvinarium mole, quaeundique a satellitibus congerebantur, obrutus, magno cum omnium periculocomprehenditur. Ubi vero mente constitit, laesae primum militiae iustapersolvit.49

Firstheperformedvariouspiecessothateveryonewasfilledwithgriefandstupor.Andafterwardsthesoundofthelyreforcedthemtoanimpudentandlivelystateofmind,[then]jestingtunesthatmadethemeagertomovetheirbodies and they commenced to exchange anguish for applause. Finally itincited them tomadnessand rashness; seizedbymadness, theygavegreatcriesinutterfury.Thusthestateoftheirmindswaschangedvariously;theysawthatthekingwasdriventomadnessandragewhenthemusicinthehallcame to an end, so that theywere unable to restrain him. Thus theywereseizedbyexcessivemadnessandpowerfullyoverthrownbyfury;according

48SaxoGrammaticus.GestaDanorum.EditedbyJørgenOlrikandHansRæder.(Copenhagen:DetKongeligeBibliotek,1931)VI.5.10.49Ibid.,XII.6.2.

30

to their natures the men's madness increased. And so overcome by thestrength of the struggle, the king broke their hold and darted forward,wrenchedopenthedoorandseizedaswordandkilledfourofhiswarriors,andnonecouldcomenearenough torestrainhim.At theendhiscourtierstookcushionsandfromeverysideapproached,throwingthemoverhimuntilatgreatdangertheyallwereabletoseizehim.Whenheregainedhiswits,hepaidthejustweregildforthewarriors'injuries.

Ofalltheaccountsseenthusfar,thislastoneisuniqueinitsdepictionofthe

effectsofmusic.Nowhereelse ismusic said to induce suchanotableBacchic-like

frenzyinthelistener.50

Conclusion

In this chapter, I have focused on Arabic, Greek, and Latin accounts that

mention Germanic music or sound. Each has distinct relations with Germanic

peoples. In general, Arabic accounts contemporary to the Viking Age are about

Scandinavians living in their own settlements, exemplified by Ibn Fadlān and at-

Tartushi writing as travelers. This increased the likelihood of them encountering

non-militarysongs,andthereisfargreaterchancethatsomeofthe“ugly”songsthat

at-Tartushihadheardweredomesticinnature,ashewasobservingregularpeople

inHedebylivingeverydaylife;itwouldbestrangeindeedifthemajorityofsongshe

hadheardat a trading citywerewar songs. In contrast,with theexceptionof the

ambassadorPriscus,Greekauthorswerewriting fromtheir landsaboutGermanic

expatriates. As themajority of Scandinavians abroad were young tomiddle-aged

men, this skewed the demographic that thesewriters encountered. Expatriates of

the‘warriorclass’werenaturallymorelikelytoperformritualsconcernedwithwar

andbattleasopposedto thepeacefulweavingsongsofwomen, lullabies,orother

domestic songs of the like, and the extant Greek sources reflect this with their

descriptions of battle-related customs. Finally, the remaining accounts are all in

Latin,which can be divided into polytheist or Christian accounts. The former are

from pre-Viking Age times and describe Germanic people out of military and50Theremay be a possible exception in depictions ofberserkers, butmusic is notsaidtohavebeenamandatorycomponentininducingtheirbattlefrenzy(óðr).

31

political interest, while the latter have a significantly religious bent. With the

exceptionoftheDanishSaxoGrammaticus,bothtypesofaccountsgenerallyregard

Germanic tribesandcustomsasbeing lesscivilizedthantheauthor’sownsociety.

Themajorityof theseaccountsofferdisappointingly little inthewayofdescribing

whatGermanicmusicactuallysoundedlike;however,asurprisingamountmaystill

nevertheless be gleaned from these relatively anemic descriptions, as will be

demonstratedlaterinchapterfive.

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Chapter4

MusicintheOldNorseWrittenRecord

ThepreviouschapterexaminedsourcesthatdescribeOldNorsemusicwith

languagesandperspectives fromoutsideof the tradition. In contrast, this chapter

will discuss sources from within the Old Norse cultural tradition, describing Old

Norse music in its own language. There are several types of Old Norse written

sources.Theonesthatwillbefocusedherewillbe:runicwriting,skaldicandEddic

poetry,andsagas.RunesareaScandinavianalphabetsystemwithadebatedorigin,

butmostlikelyborrowedfromtheEtruscanalphabetduringtheearlycenturiesCE.

Runic inscriptions are few innumber,with even fewer that concernmusic in any

way,withoneimportantexception,aswillbediscussedlater.Followingrunes,Iwill

discussboththePoeticEddaandtheprosewritingoftheSnorraEdda inthesame

section, despite there being significant differences between them, as almost all of

theirreferencestomusicarerelatedtothesamefigures inOldNorsereligionand

mythology.Themostnumerousanddiverseoftheextantsourcesaresagas,manyof

whichwerewrittenduringthegoldenageofIcelandicliteratureinthe13thcentury

when literary activity particularly flourished. Of all the genres, the sagas are the

mostabundantwithreferencestomusic,themostcommontypeofwhichinvolves

singing.

Given the sheer number of sources in just the saga genre alone, it is

impossibletocovereverysingleinstanceofmusicbeingmentionedintheentirety

ofOldNorse literature in this short section.That said,music is surprisinglynot a

commontopicinOldNorseliterature,makingsourcesthatcontainareferencethat

ismore thanapassingmention relatively rare.Thiswhittlesdown thenumberof

sagas that couldbementionedhere.Of course, evenwith this selectivity, it is still

impossible to note every single saga that containsmusic, and it is inevitable that

somewillbeoverlooked. Inselectingthesourcesto include inthischapter, Ihave

consideredseveralcriteria.First,Ihavetriedtoincludesourcesfromamongthose

that are themost studied; second, to include asmany different genres ofwritten

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materialaspossible.Needlesstosay,anysourcewheremusicplaysapivotalroleis

included.SagasthatconcernpeopleandeventslongaftertheVikingAge,however,

willnotbediscussed,astheyareoutsidethetimeframeofthisstudy.

Runes

Tomyknowledge,therearenorunicinscriptionsdatingfromtheVikingAge

(c.793–1099CE)thatconcernsmusic.Ironically,althoughtheuseofrunicscriptin

Scandinavia pre-dates the use of the Latin alphabet, the one famous example of

runesbeingusedtonotatemusicisfromcirca1300.AptlynamedCodexRunicus,the

entirecodexiswritteninmedievalfuthark,whereeachrunecorrespondstoaletter

of the Latin alphabet. The Codex Runicus mostly concerns Danish Scanian Law

(Skånskelov)andearlyDanishhistory.Interestingly,thelastleafofthismanuscript

containsaversewithmusicalnotations.Thelyricsofthissong,whichiswrittenin

OldEastNorse,goesasfollows:

Drømdemikendrøminatum DreamedIadreamlastnightof

silkiokærlikpæl51 silkandfinefur

Fig.11MusicalnotationsintheCodexRunicus.(Photo:“CodexRunicus.”

ArnamagnæanDigitizationProject,Denmark.)

Theabovelines(seefig.11)aretheonlymusicalfragmentinthemanuscript,

andhaveno relation to thewritingpreceding it.Theyarevery likely theopening51CodexRunicus,AM288vo(Copenhagen:TheArnamagnæanInstitute).

34

twolinestoamedievalballad.Afewnotes,orneumes,astheyarecalledinmedieval

musicalnotation, continueafter therunes.Thesecontinuingsinglevirga52neumes

beginwiththesamesequenceofnotesasthebeginning,beforebreaking fromthe

precedentwithaporrectusflexus53seriesofnotes; thusthesenotesarevery likely

the beginning of a variation on the preceding main theme. Medieval ballads

frequently contain a refrain that repeats multiple times in a set pattern (e.g. the

NorwegianMedievalballad“MargjitHjukse”),andthisseriesofnotesisconsistent

withthatpattern.

TheEddas

WhiletheNordicpeopledidnothaveagodofmusic(e.g.Apollo)amongtheir

deities, there is one god who is particularly associated with sound: Heimdallr.

Heimdallrissaidtohavehearingsoexcellentthatheisabletoheargrassgrowing

on the earth and wool growing on sheep,54and possesses the horn Gjallarhorn

(“yelling horn”), which he will blow when marking the coming of Ragnarǫk.

GjallarhornismentionedinVǫluspá55(CodexRegiusc.1270)andinGylfaginning56of

Snorri Sturluson’s Prose Edda (c. 1220). In addition to this musical mention, in

Vǫluspá,theshepherdEggþérissaidtositonamoundandhappilyplayhisharpat

thebeginningofRagnarök.

Satþaráhaugi Satthereonamoundogslóhörpu andstruckaharpgýgjarhirðir, giantherdsmanglaðurEggþér57 gladEggþér

52Thenameofsingleneumesinmedievalmusicalnotation,equivalenttoan8thnoteinmodernnotation;alsocalledapunctum.53Aporrectusisaseriesof threenotesconsistingofahigh, low,andanotherhighnote,respectively.Aporrectusflexusaddstothissequencebyendingwithalow4thnote.54SnorriSturluson,“Gylfaginning,”TheProseEdda,27.55“Vǫluspá,”ThePoeticEdda,stanza46.56SnorriSturluson,“Gylfaginning,”TheProseEdda,ch.14,25,51.57Vǫluspá41.Thetranslationismyown.

35

Whileitdoesnotcontainmentionsofinstruments,Hávamálalsohasvarious

cryptic allusions to singing. In it, Óðinn is described as knowing galdr58––aword

closeinmeaningtotheEnglish“enchantment.”Bothwordsindicateaspecifictype

ofmagic, but also share an etymological rootwith a verb closely associatedwith

singing:gala,“tochant”or“tosing”ingaldr,59andobviouslychantinenchantment.

In stanza160, in theLjóðatal sectionof thepoem, there is amentionof a certain

Þjóðrerirwhoknowssorceroussinging:

160.Þatkannekitfimmtánda ergólÞjóðrerirdvergrfyrDellingsdurum: aflgólhannásumenalfumframa, hyggjuHroftatý.60160.Iknowafifteenth,whichsangÞjóðrerirdwarfbeforeDellings’door,powerhegavetothegodsandfametotheelves,foresighttoHroftatý[Óðinn].TwooftheheroicpoemswithinThePoeticEdda,AtlamálandAtlakviða,also

include mentions of music, i.e. Gunnar playing harp with his toes.61This subject,

whichisalsofeaturedintheVǫlsungasaga,isacommononethroughouttheNorse

world during the Viking Ages and succeeding Middle Ages. The heroic poem

Oddrúnargrátur likewise mentions harp-playing and furthermore includes a

depictionofsorceroussinging.62Meanwhile,HjálmarH.Ragnarssonarguesthatthe

entirely of Grottasǫngr, which is preserved in Snorri’s Prose Edda, as well as

Darraðarljóð in Brennu-Njáls saga, are in fact working songs.63According to his

theory,Grottasǫngris themillsongof twogirlsorderedtoproducewealth forthe

kingbygrindingamagicstone.Whilethisisnotproven,onenoticesthatthetitleof58Hávamál,stanza152.59Geir T., Zoëga, Richard Cleasby, and Guðbrandur Vigfússon. A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910), s.v. “gala.” 60Hávamál,stanza160.61Atlamál,verse31;Atlakviða,verse66.62Oddrúnargrátur,stanza29.63HjálmarH.Ragnarsson,“AShortHistoryofIcelandicMusictotheBeginningoftheTwentiethCentury”(MFAdiss.,CornellUniversity,1980),Introduction.

36

thepoemindeedcallsittheSongofGrotti,andnotthePoemofGrotti.Ifthisistrue,

then it would imply that working songs, the majority of which belong to oral

traditionandmanyofwhicharebelievedtohavebeenlost,couldhavesurvivedin

someformwithintheexistingwrittenrecords.

Sagas

Byfarsomeofthemostimportantsourceswehaveformusicarethefamed

sagas.SagasaresomeofourbestliterarysourcestowardunderstandingtheViking

Ageandlatermedievalperiod,astheyprovidesomeofthemostdetailedaccounts

ofScandinaviansocietyduringorshortlyafterthattime.Sagasencompassabroad

varietyofstylesandsubjects,rangingfromrealistictofantastic,heathenmythology

toChristianhagiography.Themanygenresofsagasinclude:Íslendingasögur(sagas

of Icelanders), fornaldarsögur (legendary sagas), riddarasögur (chivalric sagas),

konungasögur(kings’ sagas),samtíðarsögur (contemporarysagas),heilagramanna

sögur (saints’ sagas), and biskupa sögur (bishops’ sagas). Íslendingaþættir (short

talesofIcelanders)arealsooftenincludedindiscussionsaboutsagas.UnlikeEddic

andskaldicpoetry,sagasaregenerallywritteninprose.

For all their merits, one must use caution when using sagas as historical

documents. Their biggest disadvantage lies within the fact that most sagas were

written down a century or more after the events that they describe. This

understandably raises questions about their accuracy, especially concerning

religiouscustomsthatwerenolongerperformedduringthetimeofthewriter.The

second caveat is the question of bias, which is the case for any literary source.

Naturally,anyinterpreterwouldbeconcernedaboutanypersonalorpoliticalbias

onthepartofthescribeorauthor,butasmostsagaswerewrittenanonymously,it

isoftendifficulttodiscernspecificbiasthescribeorauthormayhavehad,makingit

sometimesimpossibletodistinguishbetweenfactandfiction.Furthercomplicating

the situation is how different scribes changed some details when copying

manuscripts, not infrequently resulting in several versions of the same saga.

Unfortunately,asmanymanuscriptshavebeenlost,theextantmanuscriptsmaynot

represent a holistic picture of the saga. Lastly, there is geographic bias. The

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overwhelming majority of sagas were written in Iceland and concern events in

Iceland and Norway. While this is fantastic for Icelandic scholars, they are less

usefulwhenstudying, for instance,EasternSweden.Keepingthesepoints inmind,

boththelongersagasandtheshorterþættirwillbenotedinthefollowingsection.

FornaldarsögurNorðurlanda

One of themost famous fornaldarsögur, or legendary sagas, in existence is

surely theVǫlsungasaga. It illustrates a scenewith aharp thatbecameapopular

sourceofartisticdepictionaroundthetimeof theVikingAges(see fig12).Oneof

theheroesof the saga,Gunnar, is thrown into a snakepit,whereheplays aharp

withhisfeettocharmthesnakes.Thisworkssaveforonelargeadder,whichbites

andpromptlykillshim.64TheimageofGunnarstrummingaharpwithhistoesisa

recurrentone,appearinginmanydecorativecarvings.

Fig.12WoodcarvingofGunnarplayingaharpwithhistoesontheleftdoorplank

of Hylestad stave church in Setesdal, Norway. (Photo: Jeblad, “Gunnar insnakepitHylestad.”Setesdal,Norway.)

BósasagaokHerrauðsisremarkablenotonlyforactuallydescribingaharp

indetail(aregrettablyrareandpreciousoccurrence)butalsoformentioningwhat

songswereplayedonit:

64 Guðni Jónsson, and Bjarni Vilhjálmsson, eds., Völsunga saga (Reykjavík:BókaútgáfanForni,1943-4)ch.39.

38

Konungr spyrr nú, hvárt hann kann nokkut fleiri slagi, en hann segir eptirveranokkurasmáleikaokbaðfólkithvílastfyrst.Settustmennnútildrykkju.Sló hann þar Gýgjarslag okDrömbuð okHjarrandahljóð. Því næst kom innÓðinsminni.ÞálaukSigurðrupphörpunni.Húnvarsvástór,atmaðrmáttistandaréttrímaganumáhenni;húnvaröllsemágullsæi.Þartókhannupphvíta glófa gullsaumaða. Hann sló nú þann slag, sem Faldafeykir heitir, okstukkuþáfaldarnirafkonunum,oklékuþeirfyrirofanþvertréin.Stukkuþáuppkonurnarokallirmenninir,okengihlutrvarþásá,atkyrrþoldi.65Thekingnowasked,whetherheknewanymoretunes,buthesaidthattherewerecertainsmallonesandbadethepeopletorest first.Thensatthemendown to drink. He played the “Ogress-tune” and “The Dreamer” and“Plundering-song.” Next came a toast to Óðinn. Then Sigurðr took up theharp.Itwassobig,thatamancouldstanduprightinitsmiddle,anditwasallset in gold. Then he took up a white glove embroidered in gold. He nowstruckatune,which“Coif-Tosser”hight,andthecoifsjumpedoffthewomen,andtheydancedaroundabovethecrossbeams.Thenjumpedupthewomenandallmen,andnothingremainedinitsplace.

Fromthispassagewelearnthreeimportantthings:1)thepotentialsizeandvalueof

aharp,2)thatmusicwasplayedasentertainment,and3)therewereindeed“dance

music”, insofar as there was dancing with musical accompaniment. As no large

harpshaveyetbeen found in thearchaeological record, thisdescriptionofaharp

whereamancould“standuprightinitsmiddle”isstriking,evenifthewritingwere

slightlyhyperbolic.Thatmusicwasplayedasentertainmentmayseemobviousfor

us today, but as skalds and poetrywere clearly held in higher esteem thanwere

musicians before the later Middle Ages, and as there are relatively so few

descriptions of music in general, this account is valuable for confirming the

existenceofcommonlyknown“popularmusic”inearlyGermanicculture.Ofcourse,

BósasagaokHerrauðswaswrittencenturiesafterthemythictimewithwhichit is

concerned, but it does not seem unreasonable that there were musical

entertainmentwithinthedrinkinghallsoftimeslongpast.

65GuðniJónsson,andBjarniVilhjálmsson,eds.,BósaSagaOkHerrauðs.2nded.Vol.3.FornaldarsögurNorðurlanda(Reykjavik:Íslendingasagnaútgáfan,1954)ch.12.

39

YnglingasagacreditsÓðinnastheonewhobroughtsingingtoScandinavia.

“Hann ok hofgoðar hans heita ljóðasmiðir, því at sú íþrótt hófst af þeim í

norðrlöndum.”66(“He and his temple-priestswere called song-smiths, for that art

came from them into the northern lands.”) It also mentions a king, Hugleikr, as

havinghadmany instrumentalistsathis court, among themharpists, fiddlers,and

other string players, “Hann hafði mjök í hirð sinni allskonar leikara, harpara ok

gígjaraokfiðlara;hannhafðiokmeðsérseiðmennokallskonarfjölkunnigtfólk.”67

(“He had many in his court all sorts of players: harpists and gígja-players and

fiddlers; and he had with him magicians and all sorts of witchcraft-folk.”) While

Óðinniscommonlydescribedasthegodofpoetry, it isnotoftenthatheissaidto

have introduced Scandinavianswith the art of song, and the euhemeral Ynglinga

sagaisnotableinthisregard.

Norna-Gestsþáttrisaþáttr,orashortstory,andthereforenotasaga,butwill

bementionedinthissectionasitscontentismostalikeafornaldasaga.Itmentions

harpplayingtwice:thefirstwhenthekingasksGestrwhetherhehadanyskills,to

whichthelatteranswers,“Hannkvaðstleikaáhörpueðasegjasögur,sváatgaman

at”68(“Hesaidheplaystheharporrecitessagas,sothatpeoplearepleased.”).The

secondisofGestrplayingtheharp:

Tekr Gestr hörpu sína ok slær vel ok lengi um kveldit svá at öllum þykkirunað í á at heyra, ok slær þó Gunnarsslag bezt. Ok at lyktum slær hannGuðrúnarbrögð in fornu.Þauhöfðumenneigi fyrrheyrt.Okeptirþatsváfumennafumnóttina.69TookGestuphisharpandplayedwellandlongintotheevening,sothatallweredelighted tohear it, andheplayedGunnars-tune thebest.Andat theendheplayedtheancientGuðrúnarbrögð[Guðrún’strickery].Theyhadnotheardthatbefore.Andafterthat,themenwenttosleepforthenight.

66 Bjarni Aðalbjarnarson, ed., Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, Ynglinga saga I.(Reykjavík:Hiðíslenzkafornritafélag,1979)ch.6.67Ibid.ch.25.68SigurðurNordal,Norna-Gestsþáttr. InFlateyjarbók I(Akranes: Flateyjarútgáfan,1944)ch.1.69Ibid.ch.2.

40

Thispassage,liketheonefromBósasagaokHerrauðs,isusefulforitsdescriptionof

whattheharpistplayed.Thenames“Gunnar”and“Guðrún”arestronglyindicative

of the characters fromVǫlsunga saga, although it is possible that the songswere

referring to other people who happened to share those names. If the songs did

concerntheeventsofthesaga,however,itwouldimplytheexistenceofagenreof

musicregardinglegendsandepics.

Konungasögur

Konungasögur, or Kings’ sagas, are sagas about the lives of (sometimes

legendary)Scandinaviankings,oftencomposedbetweenthe12thto14thcenturies,

many years after the kings’ deaths. Morkinskinna, named after the rotting

manuscript parchment onwhich itwas preserved, is one suchKings’ saga. In the

sectiondetailinghisexploits,KingHaraldrharðráðiclaimstohavemasteredharp-

playingandpoetry:

Íþróttirkannkátta AccomplishmentshaveIeight Yggsfetklíðatsmíða Ygg’swine[skaldicpoetry]canIforge fœrremkhvasstáhesti skilledamIattravellingswiftlyonhorseback hefksundnumitstundum: Ihavepracticedswimmingonoccasion

skríðakannkáskíðum slidecanIonskisskýtkokrœksvátnýtir Ishootandrowsothatitcountshvártveggjakannkhyggja bothcanIunderstandharpsláttokbragþáttu.70 harp-playingandpoems.

In Orkneyinga saga, Earl Rögnvaldr Kali Kolsson likewise claims to have

mastered music and verse, and gives a near identical boast to that of Haraldr

harðráði:

Taflemkǫrratefla, ReadyamItoplaychess,íþróttirkankníu, accomplishmentshaveInine,týniktrauðlarúnum, rarelydoIforgetrunes,tíðerumbókoksmíðir, booksIreadanddosmith,skríðakankáskíðum, slidecanIonskisskýtkokrœksvátnýtir; Ishootandrowsothatitcounts

70Morkinskinna,U16.

41

hvárttveggjakankhyggja, bothcanIunderstandharpsláttokbragþáttu.71 harp-playingandpoems.

Theseboastsgivetheimpressionthatplayingtheharpwasheldinenoughesteem

thatitwasworthbraggingasanaccomplishment.However,instrumentplayersand

entertainersthemselvesseemtohavebeenregardedinalowlight.InSagaSverris

konungs, the Icelandic skald Máni has a competition with two jesters whose

entertainment includedvarious instrumentalplayingand lowbuffoonery.72Máni’s

victorysymbolizesskaldicpoetry’splaceashavingahigherrankthaninstrumental

playinginWestNorsesocietyatthetime.(Thistrendwillreverseitselfduringthe

Late Middle Ages, when music and jesting become more popular in courts than

skaldicpoetry.)

Íslendingasögur

Truetoitsname,Íslendingasögur––sagasofIcelanders––narratethelivesand

events of Icelandic history that generally took place between the 9th to early 11th

centuries.Ashasbeennotedpreviously,Brennu-Njálssaga,oneofthemostfamous

Icelandicsagasinhistory,containstheskaldicpoemDarraðarljóð.73Itisaneleven-

stanzapoemdescribingtwelvevalkyriesweavingandchoosingthefatesofwarriors

inbattle.HjálmarH.Ragnarssonarguesthat itmightinfactbetheremnantsofan

old weaving song.74Aside from this possible musical material, Brennu-Njáls saga

illustrates Christian mass being sung.75 While singing mass is unquestionably

Christian,othersagasoftenmentionchanting,sometimesfordivination.Eírikssaga

rauða has the famous scene where Guðriður Þorbjarnardóttir helped a völva by

singingtheappropriatechant:

71FinnbogiGuðmundsson,Orkneyingasaga(Reykjavík:Hiðíslenzkafornritafélag,1965),ch.49.72ÞorleifurHauksson,Sverris saga (Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 2007) ch. 85.73EinarÓl.Sveinsson,ed,Brennu-NjálsSaga(Reykjavík:Hiðíslenzkafornritafélag,1954)ch157.74HjálmarH.Ragnarsson,“AShortHistoryofIcelandicMusic”,Introduction.75Brennu-NjálsSaga,ch.124.

42

Súkonavar í bygð, erÞorbiörghét; honvar spá-kona;honvarkölluð lítil-völua…Baðhonfásérkonurþær,semkynnifroeðiþat,erþyrftitilseiðinnatfremiaokVarðlokkurheita.Ennþærkonurfunduzeigi.Þávaratleitatatumboeinn,efnökkurkynni.ÞásvararGuðríðr:hvárkiemfilkunnignévísenda-kona,enþókendiHalldís,fóstramín,méráÍslandiþatfræði,erhonkallaðiVarðlokkur. Þorbiörg svaraði: þá ertu fróðari enn ekætlaði. Guðríðr segir:þettaerþesskonarfroeðiokatferli,atekætlaíöngumatbeinaatvera,þuíatekemkonakristin…ÞorkellherðirnúatGuðríði,ennhonkveðzmundugera,sem hann vildi. Slógu þá konur hring umhverfis, en Þorbjörg uppi áseiðhiallinum. Kvað Guðríðr þá kvæðit svá fagrt ok vel, at engi þóttiz fyrrheyrthafameðfegriraustkveðit,sáerþarvar.Spákonaþakkarhennikvæðitokkvaðmargarþærnáttúrurhingatathafasóttokþótti76

Therewasawomandwellingthere,namedÞórbjörg;shewasaseeress;shewascalledLittle-Völva…Sheaskedforthosewomen,whoknewthewisdom(chant),whichwasnecessaryforseiðrandwascalledVarðlokkur[Warlock-song].Butthosewomencouldnotbefound.Thenthosedwellingtherewereasked, if anyone knew it. Then answered Guðríðr, “Neither am Imagicallyskilled nor a wise-woman, but Halldís, my foster-mother, taught me thatchant in Iceland,whichshecalledVarðlokkur.”Þorbjörgreplied:“Thenyouaremore learned than I had thought.” Guðríðr replied, ‘This is the sort ofknowledge and proceeding, that I want nothing to do with, for I am aChristianwoman."…ÞórkellnowpressuredGuðríðr,andsheconsentedtodoashewished.Madethenthewomenaringaround,andÞórbjörgsatupontheseið-platform.ThenGuðríðrrecitedthechantsobeautifullyandwell,thatnoonethoughtthattheyhadheardthechantspokenwithafairervoicethanwasthere.Theseeressthankedherfortherecitalandsaidthatmanyofthepowerswerenowpleased

Laxdælasagaalsofeatureschanting,77butreligionandprophesywerenotthe

onlyreasons forsinging.Egilssagamakes itapparent thatpeoplecomposed love-

songsaswell,asAulvirdoesforhissweetheart,Solveig.78Inotheroccasions,music

76Einar Ól. Sveinsson andMatthias Thordarson, ed, Eiríks saga rauða (Reykjavík:Hiðíslenzkafornritafélag,1935)ch.4.77EinarÓl.Sveinsson,ed,Laxdælasaga(Reykjavík:Hiðíslenzkafornritafélag,1934)ch.37.78SigurðurNordal,ed.,EgilssagaSkalla-Grímssonar(Reykjavík:Hiðíslenzkafornritafélag,1956)ch.2.

43

was played simply for personal entertainment, as is the case in Bárðar saga

Snæfellsáss,whereHelgaplaysharptoherselfallnightinherbed.(“Húnslóhörpu

nær allar nætur því að henni var þá enn sem oftar ekki mjög svefnsamt.”79“She

struck theharpnearly everynightbecause shewas still oftennot able to sleep.”)

Grettis saga is full of singing: from an old woman chanting, to performing evil

spells,80to Grettir singing in order to keep his spirits up while in captivity in

Byzantium.81InViglundarsaga,EarlEiríkurentertainsKingHaraldurwith singing

andvarious instruments: “Ogaðenduðumgjöfumlét jarl framberaeinahörpu.”82

(“And at the end of [this] gift-giving, let the earl bear forth a harp.”) Meanwhile,

Vatnsdælasagaincludesararesceneinvolvinghornswhenlúðrhornsareblownto

callmentobattle.83Whilenotthemostreliablehistoricalresource,Íslendingasögur

areneverthelessvaluablefordepictingabroadrangeofscenarioswhereinsinging

andmusicalinstrumentswereperformed.

Íslendingaþættir

Íslendingaþættir, or Short Tales of Icelanders, are similar in content to

Íslendingasögur, with the main difference being that þættir are shorter in length

thansagas.Morkinskinna(writteninIcelandc.1220andpreservedinamanuscript

fromc.1275)containssuchashorttalecalledHreiðarsþáttrheimska,andfromthis

we can gather that hornswereused to signalmeetings and ship launches. In this

þáttr,theprotagonistHreiðarraccompanieshisbrotherÞórðrtoNorway,wherehe

hears a hornblástr. When Hreiðarr asks what it means, Þórðr answers, “Blásit er

jafnantilmótseðatilskipdráttar.”84(“Ablastisalwaysforameetingorforaship-

79ÞórhallurVilmundarson,ed.,BárðarsagaSnæfellsáss(Reykjavík:Hiðíslenzkafornritafélag,1991)ch.7.80GuðniJónsson,GrettissagaÁmundarsonar,(Reykjavík:Hiðíslenzkafornritafélag,1936)ch.81.81Ibid.ch.90.82JóhannesHalldórsson, ed.,Viglundarsaga(Reykjavík:Hið íslenzka fornritafélag,1959)ch.4.83Einar Ól. Sveinsson, ed., Vatnsdæla saga (Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag,1939)ch.9.84Ármann Jakobsson, andÞórður Ingi Guðjónsson, eds.,Morkinskinna. (Reykjavík:

44

levy.”)Anotherþáttrthatincludesinstruments,JökulsþátturBúasonar isuniquein

statingthattheprotagonistJökullentertainedwithsongsandbassoonmusicwhile

visitingSoldaninthelandoftheSaracens.85

Conclusion

This chapter has discussed some of the types of Old Norse sources that

mentionOldNorsemusic, includingrunicwriting,skaldicandEddicpoetry,sagas,

andþættir.Whilethesearewritingsfromwithinthesameethnographictraditionas

themusicoftheso-calledVikings,itmustberememberedthatthesewritingswere

written down sometimes centuries after their events, necessitating one to be

cautiouswhenusing themashistoricalsources. It isevendifficult tosaywithany

conviction that these literary sources truly follow the same cultural tradition, as

culture issomethingthat isconstantlyevolving. Itcertainlychangesaftermultiple

decades, as is the timebetweenmanyof the sagas’ events and theirwrittendate.

Finally, the conversion to Christianity and increased cultural influence from the

European mainland undeniably impacted Norse culture, causing some previous

traditions to becomediscontinued or greatly changed.What the extantOldNorse

writtenmaterialsgiveusregardingNorsemusicarecolorfulillustrationsofagreat

varietyofmusicbeingplayedindiversesettings,indicatingthattherewereindeed

multiplestylesandpurposesformusicduringtheVikingAge.

Hiðíslenzkafornritafélag,2011)153.85 Jóhannes Halldórsson, ed., Jökuls þáttr Búasonar (Reykjavík: Hið íslenzkafornritafélag,1959)ch.3.

45

Chapter5

ReconstructingMusicintheVikingAge

With the exceptionof runestones and runic inscriptions, Scandinaviansdid

not have a widespread writing tradition during the Viking Age. Therefore, the

majority of surviving sources in theOldNorse languagewerewritten down after

1100 CE, often well after the events that they describe. This inevitably presents

severalproblemswhenusingthemashistoricalsources,buttheproblembecomes

evenmorepronouncedwhenturningtowardsthemforinformationonmusic.It is

comparable to seeking information from a concert review that was written two

hundredyearsaftertheconcerthadtakenplace,fromareviewerwhoisnotamusic

criticandwhohadnevergonetoasimilarconcert.Thismightmakethetaskofthe

music historian seemquite futile–howaccurately canwe really evendescribe the

musicfromseveraldecadesago, letalonecenturiesago?Thischapterwillattempt

to reconstruct Viking Age Scandinavian music by combining archaeological and

literary sources with later medieval melodies, musical styles, and contemporary

musictheory.

Variousmethodsforwritingdownmusichaveexistedforthousandsofyears

intheNearEast,India,China,andGreece,butthepracticeofnotatingbothpitchand

rhythminthefamiliarstaffnotationthatisstandardtoday(seefig.13)beganwith

Guido d’Arezzo (c. 991–1033 CE), a Benedictinemonk in Italy.While his lifetime

correspondstothedatesoftheVikingAge,musicoftheGermanicpeopleswerenot

written down in thisway (indeed, theywere notwritten down at all) presenting

considerablechallengestothetaskofrecreatingmusic.

Fig.13ExampleofstandardWesternmusicnotationusing5staves(lines)onwhich

the notes are placed based on pitch. Here it shows the theme fromBeethoven’s 5th Symphony, 1st movement. (Photo: Jobrahms, “Beethovensymphony5opening.”Wikipediacommons.)

46

EarlyMelodies

ThereareseveralworksofmusictheorydatingtotheVikingAgesthatdetail

how instrumentswere tuned in continentalEurope,but it isuncertainas towhat

extentthisinformationisapplicabletoGermanicmusic.TheFrankishmusictheorist

and Benedictine monk Hucbald (c. 840/850–930 CE) records in his work De

HarmonicaInstitutione(c.880CE)thatthesix-stringedlyrewastunedC-D-E-F-G-A,

i.e. the first 6 notes of the Cmajor scale, when the first stringwas tuned to C.86

However,hisexplanationreferstohowtheclassicallyrewastunedduringthetime

ofthelateRomansenatorandphilosopherAniciusManiliusSeverinusBoëthius(c.

480–524 CE), who in turnwroteDe institutionemusica, amajorwork describing

howGreekmusicfunctioned.Thus, it isentirelyuncertainwhetherGermaniclyres

weretunedinthismanner.

TheearliestrecordedScandinavianmusicisthemelodyfromCodexRunicus

(see ch. 4). Thismelody is the basis of the popular Danish song “Drømtemig en

drøminat”(seefig.14),whichhasmanyvariations,butthearrangersofthistune

havetakenamplelibertieswiththemusicwritteninthemanuscript,andthemost

well-knownversionsofthissongarenotaccuratetranscriptionsofthemanuscript.

Fig.14ThepopularDanishsong“Drømtemigendrøminat”,basedonthemelody

fromCodexRunicus.(Photo:“Drömdemigendröminatt.”Folkwiki.)

86PeterCHorn,"TheSoundoftheSuttonHooHarp."ThaEngliscanGesithas-TheEnglishCompanions.

47

Unlike inmodernscores,medievalmusicnotationdoesnothavea timesignature,

meaningthatthescoredoesnotindicatepreciserhythm.Whatitdoesindicateare

thepitchesandsequenceofthenotes(i.e. themelody),dependingontheclef.The

markingthatresemblesa“C”atthebeginningofthescoreistheCclef(seefig.15).

Theplacementof theC clefdetermineswhere theC is on the staves. In figure15

below, theplacementsof theCclefs indicate that thestartingnotesof themelody

are A and F. This earlymelody, called “Nobilis, humilis”, is preserved in late 13th

centurymanuscripts,amongthemtheCodexC233inUppsala,Sweden(seefig.15).

Written for twovoices, it is ahymnof sorts for St.Magnus, and consistsof seven

strophes.Thetwopartsarewritteninparallelthirds,withtheuppervoicestarting

onanAandthelowervoicestartingonanF(seefig.16).Itmaythenbepresumed

thatthosenoteswerepartofanearlymedievalScandinavianmode.

Fig.15“Nobilis,humilis”onCodexUpsaliensisC233.(Photo:“Nobilis,humilis.”

Liturgia.)

Fig.16Modernstaffnotationof“Nobilis,humilis.”(Photo:“Nobilishumilis.”The

VikingAnswerLady.)

48

Parallel third chords, as exhibited in this manuscript, are either major or

minor thirds.Amajor third is amusical interval of twopitches separatedby four

half steps, or semitones (e.g. C andE, etc.), as opposed to aminor third,which is

separatedby threehalf steps,or semitones (e.g.CandE-flat).Although themajor

third is common and sounds pleasing today, that is greatly due to the fact that

westerninstrumentssincethe20thcenturyusetheequaltemperedtuningsystem,

wherethereisanequalintervalbetweeneachsemitoneandwherethefrequencyof

asinglenotedoublesperoctave.Themajorthirdwasconsidereddissonantduring

theearlymedievalperiod,whenPythagoreantuningwasusedandwhichresultsin

ratherdispleasing-soundingharmonies.WhilethetuningsystemofearlyGermanic

music is uncertain, “Nobilis, humilis” was very likely performed according to the

non-equal tempered tuningsystemthatwasused inmainlandEuropeat the time.

Thehymnisbelievedtodatefromtheearly12thcentury87(thoughitispreservedin

13th centurymanuscripts) both for its unusual harmonies and its subjectmatter,

whichiswritteninpraiseofSt.Magnus,whowasmartyredinOrkneyin1117.

MedievalBallads&theGymel

Despite having changed from earlymedieval times, certain styles ofmusic

maygiveglimpsesintolateVikingAgeScandinavianmusic.Onesuchstyleisaform

ofsingingcalledgymel.Agymelisatypeofpolyphonicvocalmusicwhereinavocal

part––usuallytheuppervoice––isdividedintotwopartsofequalrange,witheach

part singing independently until they both converge in unison at the end of the

piece. According to Giraldus Cambrensis (c. 1146–1223 CE), this vocal style was

popularinnorthernEngland,whichwashistoricallyoccupiedbyScandinavians.He

suggeststhatassuchpolyphonicsingingwasnotcommoninnativeEnglishmusic,it

wastheScandinavianswhoinfluencedthisstyle.88Ifthiswasthecase,thenitwould

87Philip Pulsiano and Kirsten Wolf,Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia (NewYork:GarlandPublishing,1993),422.88Dom Anselm Hughes, New Oxford History of Music: Early Medieval Music Up to1300.Vol.2(Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press,1954)315-317.

49

furthersupportthetheorythatearlyScandinaviansingingincorporatedpolyphony,

thelikesofwhichisubiquitousintheparallelthird-dependent“Nobilis,humilis.”89

Othermusical stylesmay also give clues as to their possible Scandinavian

ancestors.AmongthesearetheNorwegianmedievalballad,middelalderballade––a

genre of surviving folk songs that reflect mythological themes. The content and

structureof these songs indicate thepossibility that someof themmaydate from

actual medieval times. Within middelalderballader are categories reminiscent of

genres of sagas, such as legendeballader(legendballads), ridderballader(chivalric

ballads),andnaturmytiskeballader(naturemythicalballads).Thislastcategoryhas

its own subcategory ofbergtakingsvisene, themost famous ofwhich is the ballad,

“MargitHjukse.”Balladsarestoriestoldthroughsong,and“MargitHjukse”tellsthe

tragic tale of a young maiden who was abducted by and forced to wed the

“Bergekongen”(mountainking).Itssimplemelody,mythologicalsubjectmatter,and

refrain structure of the lyrics is strongly evocative of medieval styles, making it

quite probable that it is old, perhaps even stemming from motifs in medieval

ballads.

FolkSongs

At first it might seem preposterous to attempt to gain any knowledge of

VikingAgemusic from folkmusic thathavesurviveduntil recent times.However,

folk music is typically conservative by nature, and can preserve extremely old

melodies foraremarkably longtime.MusichistorianNilsGrindeput itbest inhis

writingaboutNorwegianfolkmusic:

Folkmusic is often closely tied to itsmilieu, and it is preserved primarilythrough so-called “oral” transmission. That is to say, this music, whethervocalorinstrumental,originallywaslearnedandpreservedfromgenerationtogenerationsimplybyhearing,withoutthehelpofnotationorothermeans.

89Itmustbementioned,however,thatpolyphonicmusicbegintoappearinFrenchmanuscripts from the 10th century. During the lifetime of Giraldus Cambrensis,polyphonic music, particularly polyphonic organum, flourished in France.Nevertheless, it isstillcuriousthatpolyphonicsingingwasastylethatsurfacedinthepreviouslyScandinavian-occupiedpartsofEngland,andnotelsewhere,whichislikelytohaveoccurredhadgymelbeenprimarilyinfluencedbyFrenchsinging.

50

Onlyinmoderntimeshasthischanged.90

Methods of oral transmission often produce variations of the original, and is

particularly vulnerable tobecoming lost.As themethodofworking that a song is

tied to is discontinued, the songs may also become extinct. Such is the case, for

instance,withtheherdingcalls,kulning,inNorway,whicharewaningastheherding

lifestyle disappears. Sadly, unwritten oral traditionsmay be nearly impossible to

recoverafterlivingmemoryofthemdies.However,itisimportanttoacknowledge

thetenacityoffolksongsingeneral.Thelongestlingeringmelodiesofanytradition

tendtobelullabiesandfolksongs,followedbydomesticsongs(songsforweaving,

drawingwater,etc.).Again,thislastcategoryisdependentuponthecontinuationof

thedomestictaskwithwhichthesongconcerns;yettheymaycontinuetoexistas

folkmusic even after the task itself is no longer performed (e.g. pastoral herding

songssunginurbanenvironments).Suchsongsmayhavelinkstothedistantpast.

Understandably,historians jumptoanymoderntraditionsthatmaybetied

to the remote past for direction. As Iceland lay farther away from mainland

European influence and maintained the clearest linguistic link to the Old Norse-

speaking peoples, it is natural to once again turn to Iceland for musical clues,

although there is little evidence of an unbroken Icelandic musical tradition

harkening back to the Viking Ages. Among known recorded Icelandic melodies

include five set to Old Norse texts, recorded in Jean-Baptiste de la Borde’s 1780

book,EssaisurlaMusiqueAncienneetModerne.91DelaBordereceivedinformation

regarding these songs from the German-Danishmusician Johann Ernst Hartmann

wholivedinCopenhagen(thenalsothecapitalofIceland).Supposedly,thesesongs

were sung in Iceland at the time, and Hartmann learned of them from visiting

IcelandersinCopenhagen.Whilethisisslightlydubious,thesubjectmattersofthese

songsareundeniablyintriguing.Amongthefivesongsaretwothataresettopoems

90NilsGrinde.AHistoryofNorwegianMusic.(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1991)73.91Jean-BaptistedelaBorde,Jean-Baptiste,EssaisurlaMusiqueAncienneetModerne.Paris:Del’Impr.deP.D.Pierres,1780.

51

fromthePoeticEdda,andanotherthatisalsoapoem.Thesesongs’lyricsarefrom

Vǫluspá(seefig.17),Hávamál,andKrakamál,respectively.

Fig.17Völuspásong,asrecordedbydelaBordein1780.(Photo:“ScoreforVôluspá

Tune.”TheVikingAnswerLady.)Therecordedmelodiesofthesethreesongsareextremelysimilar,suchthat

theycouldhavebeenbasedoffofonemelodythatwasadaptedfordifferenttexts:

Theyall arebuiltovera flexible song formulawhichwithminorvariationsareadaptedtodifferentmetres.Suchasongformulathatcanbeadaptedtoalmostanytext,maywellderivefromancientoraltraditions.Andevenmorestrange - these tunes seem to circle around the major third. This is thecentralinterval92

That the songcentersaroundamajor third is interesting, as it tiesdirectly to the

centralfeatureof“Nobilis,humilis.”SinceatleasttheendoftheRenaissanceperiod

(c. 1400–1600 CE) and possibly previously, it is customary for westernmusic to

beginandendinthesamekey(e.g.DmajorpiecesendinD).Folkmusic,withlinks

tooldertraditions,oftendeviatesfromthesesetsofrulesandissometimeswritten

inoldermodes,asopposed to themajorandminorscalesused inmostEuropean

music since the 1600s. This is clearly the case in the Vǫluspá song, which defies

structuralrulesofmusictheoryfromeithertheClassicalPeriod(c.1730–1820CE)

duringwhichtimethebookwaspublished,orthatoftheprecedingBaroquePeriod

92 Kåre A. Lie, Spor Av Vikingenes Sanger: Sanger Og Danser Fra Vikingtid OgMiddelalder=TracesoftheSongsoftheVikings(Borre:MidgardForl.,2009).

52

(c.1600–1750CE).Unlessthissongwasarandompost-1600compositionthatjust

happenedtodefyallmusicalconventionsof its time, it is likelythat ithas linksto

priormelodies.

AnotherofthefiveOldNorsesongsrecordedinEssaisurlaMusiqueAncienne

et Moderne is one about Haraldr hardráði, and is therefore also thematically

concerned with the Viking Ages. Unlike the melodies of the three previously

mentioned songs, theHaraldrhardráðimelodybeginsandendson the samenote

(see fig. 18). Although the surviving record only shows it as having beenwritten

with one vocal line, themelody curiously functions perfectlywellwhen a second

partisaddedinparallelthirds,93exactlylikein“Nobilis,humilis.”

Fig.18SongofHaraldrHardráða,asrecordedbydelaBordein1780.(Photo:“Score

forHaraldrHardraðaTune.”TheVikingAnswerLady.)ThelastOldNorsesong,titled“Lilja,”issomethingofanoddity.Thelyricsof

the song are based on the skaldic poem of the same name that was supposedly

composedbyBrotherEysteinn.94Themelodyfor“Lilja”iscompletelydifferentfrom

93Christie L. Ward, “Viking Age Music.” Viking Answer Lady Webpage. AccessedDecember01,2016.http://www.vikinganswerlady.com/music.shtml.94ErikaSigurdson,TheChurchinFourteenthCenturyIreland:TheFormationofanEliteClericalIdentity(Leiden:KoninklijkeBrillNV,2015)56.

53

thoseof theother four,andcentersaroundminor thirdsand fifths(see fig.19). It

wouldnotbehyperbolictodescribeitassoundingquitecreepy.Thethematicuseof

minorthirdsishighlyevocativeofByzantinechantsandMiddleEasternmusic,and

onewonderswhetherthistunecouldhavebeenaforeignimportfromtheEast.

Fig.19Thesong“Lilja”,asrecordedbydelaBordein1780.(Photo:“ScoreforLilja

Tune.”TheVikingAnswerLady.)

IcelandicRímurandTvísöngur

Onceagain,weturntoIcelandicmusicaltraditionsinthehopesofcatchinga

glimpse into its pre-Christian past. Two traditions that may be so linked are the

Icelandicrímurandtvísöngur.Rímurisaformofsungoralpoetry,withtheearliest

written poems harkening back to the 14th century. The poetic structure contains

alliteration and rhyme, and its contents include kennings, heiti, and other

characteristicsofskaldicpoetry.Asaformofpoetry,rímurhaveremainedpopular

overthecenturies,with78poemsfoundbefore1600,138,248,and505fromthe

seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries respectively, and 75 from the

twentieth century.95Sigurður Nordal has remarked upon the extremely change-

95FinnurSigmundsson,Rímnatal(Reykjavík:Rímnafélagið,1966).

54

resistant nature of rímur, calling them “probably the most absurd example of

literary conservatism that has ever been noted. It can be said that they remain

unchanged for fivewhole centuries although everything around them changes.”96

Anothermusical formwith long roots, tvísöngur is a type of singingwherein two

voicessinginparallelfifths.Itisespeciallytemptingtostudytvísöngur,asthisstyle

“is evidently a remnant of the parallel organum97of the 9th century andwas still

practiceduntilcomparativelyrecenttimes.”98Yetdespitethetemptationtoregard

rímurortvísöngurasevidenceofsomepure,unbrokentraditions,thiswouldbeas

foolhardy as thinking that themodern Icelandic Alþingi has remained completely

unchanged since its inception in 930CE.99 It is necessary to look to any of these

surviving traditions for inspirational purposes, and not as accurate historical

sources.

ReconstructingVikingAgeMusic

Certainmusicalgroupshavemademucheffortovertheyearstoreconstruct

VikingAgeScandinavianmusic,andthemorescholarly-mindedofthemhavetaken

inspiration from the aforementioned early medieval melodies and ballads, folk

songs,andIcelandicrímur.Sincetherearenorecordingsfromthistimeperiod,this

reconstructionbasedonahodge-podgeofvariousstylesmayappeartobeasgood

as itgets.Putmorebluntly, it is impossible toknowexactlyhowthemusicof the

GermanicpeoplesduringtheVikingAgesoundedwithoutatimemachine.Itisboth

thebeautyandthedepressingtruthofmusicthatnowordswilleverdo justiceto

captureit;athousandeloquentlywrittenaccountswillpaleinusefulnesstoasingle

sheetofmusicthathasnotatedthescore.However,thereisonemoremethodwith

whichwemightbeabletotakeonestepclosertounderstandingearlyScandinavian

96Daisy L. Neijmann, The Icelandic Voice in Canadian Letters: The Contribution ofIcelandic-Canadian Writers to Canadian Literature (Carleton, Ont.: CarletonUniversityPress,1997)28.97Aformofearlypolyphonicvocalmusic.98WilliApel,HarvardDictionaryofMusic(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,1969)400.99Asitstands,theAlþingiwasdiscontinuedfor45yearsbetween1799and1844.

55

music:reconstructionviaelimination.Givenwhatweknowabout the instruments

andaccounts,itispossibletodoasortofreverseengineeringbyeliminatingwhatit

wasnot. As has been discussed earlier, Arab travelers and continental Europeans

wrote their impressions of Viking music, on the whole of which were

overwhelmingly negative, as they sounded overwhelmingly different from their

own.Luckily forhistorians, thesepeoplehavealsowrittenabouttheirownmusic,

making it possible to conduct a cross-cultural analysis of Greek, Western

Ecclesiastical,andArabicmusic,anddecidewhatScandinavianmusicmustnothave

soundedlikebyeliminatingtheseforeignstylesfromthelistofpossibilities.Itneeds

hardly be said that the negative accounts imply that themusic of the northwere

profoundlydifferentfromthatoftheirsouthernneighbors.Bycontrastingwhatthe

known musical styles sounded like, and therefore eliminating similar sounds, it

becomespossibletosaywithsomeconfidencewhatScandinavianVikingAgemusic

didnotsoundlike.

The current prevailing hypothesis is that Scandinavian music sounded

displeasing to Arabic travelers such as Ibn Fadlān and at-Tartushi because they

were unaccustomed to hearing anything like it. However, further analysis of 10th

centuryArabicmusicrevealsthatthismaynotnecessarilyhavebeenthecase.For

Arabicsources,wemayturntotheKitabal-Musiqaal-Kabir(“GreatBookofMusic”),

a treatise onmusic by the 10th century philosopherAl-Farabi (872–950/951 CE),

and to Abu-I-Faraj’smaster compendium,Kitabal-Aghani (“Book of Songs”). The

maqam (pl.maqamat),ormodesof traditionalArabicmusic, thatAl-Farabi lists in

his treatise are still influential today, as is hisArabian tone system.100Meanwhile,

Kitabal-Aghaniisinvaluableforcontainingnotjustthesongsandrelatedhistorical

information, but for also including early Islamicmusic theory and descriptions of

thesongs.Wemaygleanfrombothof thesebooksthat10thcenturyArabicmusic,

far from being unfamiliar with thirds, had in fact contained major, minor, and

100Habib Hassan Touma, The Music of the Arabs. Translated by Laurie Schwartz(Portland,Or.:AmadeusPress,1996)170.

56

neutral thirds.101Thiswas the typeofmusicplayed inBaghdad, the capital of the

AbbasidCaliphate fromthe late8th tomid-13thcenturies;assuch,amemberofan

embassyfromBaghdadsuchasIbnFadlānwouldcertainlyhavebeenfamiliarwith

thesechords.Andalusianclassicalmusic,whiledifferentfromthatofBaghdad,was

unmistakably influenced by the court music of the Abbasids, and also included

thirds.The foundingofAndalusianclassicalmusic in the9thcentury iscredited to

Ziryab (Abu I-Hasan ‘Ali IbnNafi’),whowas a pupil of the famousAbbasid court

musician Ishaq al-Mawsili, and whose own career first saw success in Baghdad

beforehemovedtoCórdoba.102

It cannot have been the case that the Baghdadian Ibn Fadlān or the

Andalusianat-TartushiweredispleasedbyNorsemusicbecauseitcontainedchord

intervalsthattheywereunfamiliarwith.Itismorelikelythatat-Tartushi’svisceral

dislikewaspreciselybecause themusic heheard contained familiar intervals, but

whichusedadifferenttuningsystem.ItisknownfromKitabal-Musiqaal-Kabirthat

Arabicmusiccontainedmicrotones––pitchesinbetweenthoseusedinEurope––and

therefore any Norse music such as those of the people in Hedeby must have

sounded constantly out of tune to Arab ears, causing a kind of musical uncanny

valley and making it sound all the more jarring. This foreign music, with

unintelligiblechanting,strangeinstruments,anddispleasingharmonies,musthave

soundedquitehorrifyingtoonesuchasat-Tartushiindeed.

Pulling together information from archaeology, contemporary and later

literarysources,andvariousmusicalstyles,thepictureofVikingAgemusicbegins

to show itself. Like themusic of any people, themusic of theOldNorse-speaking

peopleweremany, and undoubtedly had significant regional and local variations.

Theirrepertoireincludedsolovoice,acappella,orvocalsaccompaniedwithstring,

woodwind,brass,andpercussioninstruments.Mostoften,stringinstrumentswere

usuallyplayedindoorsatdrinkinghalls,accompanyingsongsofpraiseorthosethat

101Neutral thirds are intervals that arewider than aminor third, but less than amajorthird.102Olivia Remie Constable,Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, andJewishsources(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1997).

57

toldastory.Somerituals,suchasthoseinvolvingavǫlvaortheGothikadancewith

wolf skins that Anna Komnene describes, involved chanting or dancing. As with

everythingelse,theremusthavebeenvariationsonthesoundsofthesechants––itis

difficult to imagine that war chants and seiðr chants sounded the same. It is not

outrageous speculation to guess that chanting for battles or for frenzied religious

ceremoniesmust have involved producing different pitches in order to stimulate

adrenaline;themonotonous,consistentrhythmicchantinginthemannerofTibetan

Buddhism, for example, encourages thebrain toenteralphawaves,hasa calming

effect,andisgoodformeditation103––exactlytheoppositeofwhatonewouldwant

before a battle. On the other hand, this latter type of “droning” chantsmay have

beenperfectforavǫlva.

At-TartushidescribesDanishsingingasagutturalhummingandcomparesit

to dogs barking,104hinting that at least some kinds of voice productionwere not

melodic.FromArabicaccounts,wecangatherthatScandinavianinstrumentswere

nottunedinequaltemperamentandalmostcertainlydidnotuseanyoftheArabic

modes, of which we know very much about. Early medieval melodies such as

“Nobilis, humilis” and centuries old traditions such as tvísöngur strongly indicate

that polyphony, particularly the use of parallel thirds, might have been involved.

From Old Norse literary sources and later medieval musical styles, we learn the

suspected contents of these songs, and can gather that therewere likelydifferent

genres ofmusic. Therewere almost certainly songs of praise for chiefs,warriors,

andfallenheroes;songsaboutepicslikethestoryoftheVǫlsungasaga;lovesongs;

andlikelydomesticsongsinthelikenessofGrottaǫngr,Darraðarljóð-styleweaving

songs, or lullabies.While speculation, the lyrics of these songs probably included

alliteration,rhyming,repeatingrefrains,orotherpoeticfeaturesthataresharedin

survivingformssuchastheIcelandicrímurandtheNorwegianmiddelalderballader.

103MichaelWinkelman,“ShamanismastheOriginalNeurotheology,”Zygon:JournalofReligion&Science39,no.1(2004):193–217,doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2004.00566.x.104Georg Jacob,ArabischeBerichte vonGesandten anGermanische Fürstenhöfe ausdem9.und10.Jahrhundert(Berlin:DeGruyter,1927)29.

58

Conclusion

ThischapterhasattemptedtoreconstructVikingAgeScandinavianmusicby

combining archaeological and literary sources with later medieval melodies and

medieval music theories. On the one hand, archaeological records and foreign

sourcesprovide contemporary informationof the timeperiod,while on theother

hand,post-VikingAgeliteraryandmusicalsourcesdescribewhenandwhatkindof

musicwereusedandhowitmayhavesounded.Thetruthprobablyliessomewhere

inthemiddle.Nodoubtthetypeofinstrumentsfoundinthearchaeologicalrecord

wereplayed,butitwouldbefoolishtoassumethateveryinstrumentwasplayedfor

every occasion. There were likely many categories of Viking Age music, the way

there are multiple genres of sagas andmiddelalderballader, and literary sources

support this theory. Distant relations such as the gymel and tvísöngur combined

withearlymedievalmelodiesandfolksongsofferimportantharmoniccluesabout

how the songsmayhave sounded,whileArabic sources suggesthow theydidnot

sound.Allinall,itispossibletopiecetogetherquiteacompellingpictureofViking

Age Scandinavian music. It may not be a complete picture, but it is a picture

nonetheless.

59

Chapter6

Conclusion

Every major civilization has its own art, of which music is often a

cornerstone.Despitethis,musichasoftenbeenmissingfromdiscussionsregarding

VikingAgeScandinavianstudies.Whileitissadlyimpossibletoreproducethemusic

oftheNorsepeoplewhollyaccurately,itispossibletomakeacogentcase.Itisnever

easy toreconstructhistoricalmusic,butOldNorsemusic inparticularhasseveral

factorsthatmakeitparticularlydifficult.Thefirstisthegeneralreasonnotspecific

to Viking Age culture: music is ephemeral in nature. Music of the Viking Age

Scandinavians has the added complication of not having had any standardized

system of music notation, nor a writing culture with which they might have

described their ownmusic.Wemust then rely on biased descriptions from other

peoplesforprimarysources.

Second,themajorityofmusical instrumentsthatwemayhavebeenableto

usetogainabetterideaofearlyScandinavianmusichavebeendestroyed,lost,orin

mostcases,decayed.Itisentirelyprobablethatthesmallsampleofinstrumentsthat

havebeenexcavatedareheavilyskewedtowardswindinstruments,simplybecause

the commonmaterialsused forwindsaremetal andbone,which last longer than

thoseusedforstringsorpercussion,whichoverwhelminglytendtobecomposedof

organic,easilydecomposedmaterialssuchaswoodandanimalhides.

Third, unlike reconstructing continental European music from the Early

Middle Ages, music of the heathen Scandinavian peoples have been actively

suppressed and destroyed by the Church. While the Catholic Church was not as

powerfulanentityduringtheearlyVikingAgeasitwouldlaterbecomeduringthe

later Middle Ages, it was nonetheless able to accomplish its goal of persuading

ScandinaviatobecomeChristian.105Thus,themusicoftheso-called“Vikings”dieda

105Inactuality,itismoreapttosaythatthemajorityofScandinaviachosetoadoptChristianity, rather than it having been passively converted, but the end result ofChristianitytakingholdintheregionisthesame.

60

slower, insidious death, as it changed fromwithin.Music that is suppressedmay

findways tobekeptaliveby thepeoplewhostillhold themdear(e.g. thevibrant

musicanddance traditionsof theYorubaDiaspora throughout theAmericas),but

musicthatisforgottenorabandonedbyitsownpeoplefacesasadderend.Hence,

this combinationofunwrittenmusic, lost instruments,and transformed traditions

renderconstructingScandinavianmusicoftheVikingAgeverydifficultindeed.

Nevertheless,despite these challenges, thediscussion shouldnot restupon

theassumptionthat themusicof theNorsepeoplehadended.Weshouldalsonot

speakof“OldNorsemusic”as if itwereonemonolithicblock.Rather, itshouldbe

understood that there were multiple musical styles, such as military, religious,

praise, popular, and domestic music, with likely some crossover between similar

genres.Overthecenturies,certainstyles, if theyexisted,certainlycametoanend.

Among this number arenon-Christian religious chants andmilitary chants, as the

Scandinavian region changed its religion and modes of warfare. The styles most

likely to have survivedwere the simplemelodies of lullabies and domestic songs

thatwerepasseddownfromonegenerationtothenext,eventuallyturningintofolk

songs.Evenifanote-for-noteexactreproductionisimpossible,wecannevertheless

propose an extremely educated hypothesis based on examining melodies, songs,

andmusical styles from the High and LateMiddle Ages, and by searchingwithin

time-honoredmusicaltraditionswithpossiblelinkstothemedievalperiodforclues.

Examining and conducting cross-cultural comparisons betweenmedievalWestern

European, Byzantine, Abbasid, and Andalusian music theories aid reconstruction

work, and a methodology of reconstruction via elimination of known dissimilar

foreignstylesmayalsobeperformedforfurtheranalysis.Allofthiscombinedyields

awealthofinformationonVikingAgeScandinavianmusic.

Apeople’ssongsandmusicisjustasimportantapartoftheirculturalhistory

andheritageastheirlanguageandliterature.GiventhewealthofsourcesforViking

AgeScandinavianmusicandthe importanceof thesubject, it issilly to ignorethis

areaofstudyontheassumptionthatthereistoolittleevidence.Thequestionisnot

whether it ispossibleor impossible to studyVikingsAgeScandinavianmusic,but

ratherhowtostudyit.TheVikings,wemayconfidentlysay,hadplentyofmusic.

61

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