Chicken

(ABARE, 2002)

Economic value of Meat industry($ Million)

$11.6 million

$1.5 Billion

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

Beef

Sheepmeat

Pork

Chicken

Seafood

$millions

Com

mod

ity

$2,254

$1,052

$822

$1,419

$6,382

The Australian Poultry Industry

• Specialization– Egg production– Chicken meat (broilers) production– Game bird meat production: Turkey, ducks,

quail, pheasants, geese and pigeons

• No imports (AQIS) except cooked canned products

The Chicken Industry• Two large companies: Around 70% of the

Australian market– Inghams Enterprises (90,000 – 100,000

birds/day)– Steggles Ltd (80,000 – 90,000 birds/day)

• Other Companies: 30% of sales • Around 95% of all meat is sold as fresh

products

• Whole chickens and chicken pieces (30% of sales)

• Value adding– Boned out products– Coated products– Marinated/prepared

products

The Chicken Industry

The Australian Poultry Industry

• Growers: 1 day to 5 weeks

• The grower: A quality flock of birds, agreed weight, set number of days

• The processor: Required specifications

• Abattoir1. Processing2. Packing3. Chilling4. Freezing5. Dispatch

• Hatchery (produce day old chicks)

• Commercial broiler farm

• Breeding farm• Multiplication/breeding farm (7 in WA)

• Retail sales

Parent Company

Sub Contractors

• Feed supply

• EngineeringMaintenance

• Technical services Vet, Lab & QA

• Finance Accounts & computing

Breeder Farms• Start laying at 24 weeks • Peak at 30 weeks• Killed at 62 weeks

– “All in, all out” system– All sheds cleaned out

• Litter: garden mulch• Cages must be sterilised

• Consecutive killing and re-establishment of breeder farms maintains continuous flow of eggs to hatchery

Breeder Farms • Prevention of contamination with pathogens

– Isolated locations– Quarantine

• No visitors (or strict control)• Shower on entry and exit • Change clothes

– Eggs fumigated with formaldehyde to prevent contamination of hatchery

– Interior of egg is essentially sterile• Optimize lay rate not growth!!!

Hatchery

• Around 85% hatch rate• Can be stored at 17 ºC for 3 weeks to delay

hatching• Best if hatched at 5 day of storage

Hatchery• Warm and humid environment• Some egg breakage will occur• MICROBIAL HAZARD!!!!• Very strict hygiene regime

– Physical cleaning– Sanitization – Fumigation

Broiler Farms• Six cycles of around 60 days each/per year• Deep litter or free range• Starts with one day old chicks from hatchery• Day 34: start killing• Day 41: 70 -90% of chickens have been processed• Day 52: kill remaining chickens• Cleaning sheds up to Day 61• Start all over again• Follow animal ethics codes of practice

Broiler Farm• High density poultry sheds• Controlled environment• Heat waves: Depressed growth• Feed and environment impacts on growth

rate

Broiler Farms• GMO ingredients could be used as feed

– Soybean meal– Cottonseed meals– Etc.

• Focus is to increase growth rate– Breeding– Nutrition– Flock health

Broiler Farms

• Antimicrobial growth promotants– Modify the microflora of the gut – Assist in feed digestion – Overall health improvement– Do not affect the physiology of the chicken – Not absorbed from the chicken’s gut, NO

tissue residues• Hormones: Not Allowed

Broiler FarmsPrevention of contamination with pathogens is very important

• Strict quarantine of facilities at all times• Steel and concrete construction• Automatic feeder and water stations• Evaporative cooling of sheds to

maintain 22 oC which is the optimumtemp for growth

• Formaldehyde sterilization after kill out

AGE DESCRIPTION APPROX LIVE WEIGHT

APPROX PROCESSED WEIGHT

Hatching to 18 days

Brooding - placed in farm sheds under heater

n/a n/a

18-22 days Spatchcocks can be taken for processing

770-820 grams

500-550 grams

35-42 days Smaller birds taken for processing

1.85 kg 1.30 kg

42-49 days Average 'supermarket' whole bird taken for processing

2.40 kg 1.70 kg

49- 56 days Large birds for filleting and further processing

2.95 kg 2.15 kg

Factors Influencing Production

Factors Influencing Production

• Feed– Usually 21-23% crude proteins– Energy– Vitamins, minerals, etc.

• Light– 24 hours per day of light is okay– Some will use 23 Light : 1 Dark– Low level

Factors Influencing ProductionCont….• Air

– Temperature• Start at 30° and decrease to

18 – 25 ° by week 4• No drafts

– Ventilation• Provide fresh air• Remove CO2, ammonia, water

vapor, etc.• Poor ventilation

– Respiratory problems– Can contribute to parasites

Factors Influencing Production• Litter: Wet litter can increase

• Breast blisters• Foot infections• Coccidiosis• Ammonia production

• Water• Constant supply• Clean• Room temperature is probably best

Factors Influencing ProductionSpace

• Stocking density• Minimum requirements per bird

• Broilers 0.75 – 1 ft.2

• Roasters 1.5 – 2 ft.2

• Turkeys 3 – 4 ft.2

Stages of Chicken Processing

Summary • Transportation• Slaughter

– Stunning– Sticking– Bleeding

• Pluck– Scald – De-feathering

• Hocking• Evisceration

• Washing • Chilling • Grading

– Partitioning • Packaging• Storage

Transportation • Load out and transport at night• Crates• Risk of tissue damage e.g. bruising • Stress decreases meat quality• Upon arrival held in ‘quiet’ area• Wash immediately prior to slaughter

SlaughterStunning• <100V, 50 to 60 Hz, 0.25 A, 5 sec

– Prevent violent muscle contraction – Increases tissue damage

• Electrified water bath

• Facilitates – Blood flow out of carcass– Removal of the feathers– Tender meat

SlaughterBleeding - Incomplete bleeding

• Dark meat colour• Undesirable flavour• Decreased shelf life

PluckingScalding• Facilitates removal feathers• Dependant on Temperature and Time• Controlled conditions

– Age/condition birds – Further processing

• Example: Broilers: 30 sec at 50-54 °C

PluckingScalding• Soft

– 50 - 52 °C, 1.5 - 2 min (fresh chill)– Brds suitable roasting

• Intermediate – 54 - 58 °C, 1 - 2 min (frozen)

• Hard – >58 °C (ducks)– Chicken > 58 °C skin darkens, sticky, bacterial

penetration

PluckingDe-feathering• Rotating plucking fingers (rubber)• Risk of bacterial contamination• Feathers recycled: Feather meal for poultry feed

Hocking• Removal of head and feet

Evisceration• Remove vent and burse• Liver and giblets harvested• Neck removed• Control gut removal to prevent contamination

Washing• High pressure spray

ChillingRapid chilling

• Thermal shock – bacterial growth reduction• Increase shelf life

Methods• Air-Chill (evaporation = darker colour)• Spray cool • Immersion bath (counter-current)• Spin chiller (1°C, 1 hr)

• Cools carcass from ~ 41 °C to 4 °C.• Carcass absorbs 8-12 % H2O

Grading and Partitioning• Visual inspection• Specific requirements of buyer• A grade: E.g. No 10 = 1 kg

– Whole: Roasting or marinaded• B grade:

– Partitioning/De-boning– Pieces– Red or white meat

• Value Adding

Primal Chicken Cuts

http://www.olymel.com/en/img/consomm/poulet.gif

• Around 95% of chicken is sold as fresh meat cuts

• Variations– Diced– Sliced– Skin on– Skin off

Packaging• Trays, bags or boxes• Polyvinyl film: O2 impermeable • Gas flush: CO2 (Bulk packaging)• MAP: High CO2 (10-80%)• Vacuum

Storage• Cold storage: 1 - 2 °C• Frozen: Blast chiller -28 °C

Quality

Quality of Poultry Meat• Physical: No scratches, bruises and broken

bones

• Composition: E.g. Fat and protein contents• Related to breed• Feed• Age• Etc

• Microbiological – THE MOST IMPORTANT

Microbiological Quality

• The shelf life is determined by microbial load

• Most common bacteria– Listeria– Campylobacter– Salmonella - pathogenic

Microbiological Quality• Prevention of contamination at all points in the

process– Feed– Environment– Processing plant

• Prevent cross contamination

• SPEED!!!– Rapid processing– Rapid chilling

• Reduce microbial growth • Increase shelf-life

Microbiological Quality

• Fresh chilled: Around seven day shelf life

• Boned < whole carcass– Traditionally held for 24 hr @ 10 °C before

boning– Increased handling @10 °C = Increased

microbial load = Decreased shelf life

Meat Quality Ensure chickens are free of• Pesticides

– Screen feed to ensure pesticide contamination– Controlled use of pesticides around farms

• Antibiotics: Mainly used for breeder stock

• Hormones: Not used in Australia (since early 1970’s)

Processing Quality of Poultry MeatPre slaughter stress• Feed deprivation : Maximum of 8-10 h

recommended to reduce yield loss• Water ?• Dehydration: Broiler chicken decrease live wt 0.2

- 0.3% per hour• High Temperature increases loss• Dim quiet environment• Rapid transit

Processing Quality of Poultry MeatpH• Measurement made 15 min post mortem• pH is affected by

– Stress (bird struggle)– Temperature of scalding– Rate of carcass cooling

• Leg meat pH = 6.0• Breast meat pH = 5.6 - 5.8

Processing Quality of Poultry MeatAgeing• Ageing involves chemical/physical processes?• Age products before further processing

– 1 to 2 days before portioning

• Electrical stimulation decreases ageing time

Processing Quality of Poultry MeatFlavour• Cooked on bone large pieces retention chicken

flavour• Small particle size – less chichen flavour?• Flavouring/Seasoning• Injection oils and flavours into carcase• Example: KFC Tender Roast

Further Processing of Poultry

Further Processing of Poultry

• Chicken ham, meat loaves, etc. • Binding of small particles of deboned meat

– Extract soluble protein with 1.0 - 1.5% salt – Massage meat– Liquid protein fills extracellular spaces– Encase meat pieces– On cooking protein denatures (coagulation)

• Heat induced protein - rotein interaction: Matrix (binding pieces)

• Breast meat preferred

Further Processing of Poultry Meat• Processing Parameters: (Chicken ham, meat

loaves, etc.)

• Decrease WHC – NaCl and cooking conditions– Use sodium polytriphosphate

• Oxidative processes: Rancidity / Colour– Use sodium polytriphosphate, sodium ascorbate, etc.– O2 impermeable packaging

Micro Free guarantee

• Combination of cooking and packaging technology

• Sold specifically for chicken rolls and sandwiches

Regulation

• State Health Department• Meat Hygiene Regulations

– Compliance with Australian Standards Code:4465:1997, Hygienic production of poultry meat for human consumption.

• HACCP• SQF (Safe Quality Food 2000)

Research and Regulatory Bodies

• Australian Chicken Meat Federation Inc.(http://www.chicken.org.au/structure.html)

• Australian Chicken Growers Council Limited• Australian Poultry Industries Association• Stock Feed Manufacturers' Association • Poultry Meat Group• Rural Industries Research & Development

Corporation(http://www.rirdc.gov.au/programs/cm.html#newprojs)