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Chemistry in 21st Century
National Centre for Catalysis ResearchINDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MADRAS
APRIL 2010
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Coverage and ReasonsTitle
Periodic properties of elements
Nomenclature and isomerism of coordination compounds
Nuclear reactions and carbon dating
Types of hybridization and geometry of molecules
Chemical equilibrium – Le Chatliers principle
Colloids and applications
Faradays laws and Kohlrausch’s law
Extraction of Metals
Spontaneous and non spontaneous reactions
Corrosion and its prevention
Properties and packing in solids
Wave equation and its significance
Petroleum and Petro chemicals
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Bonding in molecules
Conventional concepts of bonding has to undergo change – Why?
Behaviour of molecules and reactivity of molecules – what is so special selectivity?
Geometry of the molecules, manifestations of molecules – functioning of molecules.
Architecture in solids – transport restrictions
Electrochemistry turns chemistry to be fully green
Behaviour of electrons – responsible for the science that is usually generated
Nuclear structure – evolution period and also energy conversion process
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20th Century Chemistry• It was a silent revolution• Ammonia synthesis provided a means for food• FCC operation brought engineering marvel• Zeolites and solid state materials –
revolutionized electronic industry• Super conductors – energy concept changed
colours• Water will it be another wonder molecule this
century
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WEAK INTERACTIONS
• Assembly appears to be the order these days – these assembly can arise out of weak interactions
• Weak interactions may be hydrogen bonding, van der waals forces and simple over lap of the least amount of charge cloud.
• Assembly assumes particular geometries, like helical structure, nano-coils, nano-twisted wires and many others – these resemble the bio-molecules
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What is Green Chemistry?
It is better to prevent wastethan to clear it up afterwards % Atom economy is the new % yield
The strive towards theperfect synthesis Benign by design
Environmentally friendlyand economically sound?!?
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The Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry
• It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is formed.• Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materialsused in the process into the final product • Wherever practicable, synthetic methodologies should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment• Chemical products should be designed to preserve the efficacy of function whilstreducing toxicity• The use of auxiliary substances (e.g. solvents) should be made unnecessarywherever possible and innocuous where used• Energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. Synthetic methods should be carried out at ambient temperature and pressure• A raw material of feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting wherever technically and economically possible• Unnecessary derivatization (e.g. protecting groups) should be avoided wherever possible• Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents• Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they do not persist in the environment and breakdown into innocuous degradation products• Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time inprocess monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances• Substances and the form of substances used in a chemical process should bechosen so as to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions and fires
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A Series of Reductions
Cost
Energy
Materials
Waste
Risk &Hazard
Nonrenewables
Reducing
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How Efficient is Chemical Manufacturing?
E-factors
Industry Product tonnage Kg by-products / Kg productOil refining 106 – 108 < 0.1Bulk Chemicals 104 – 106 1 - 5Fine chemicals 102 – 104 5 - 50+Pharmaceuticals 10 - 103 25 - 100+
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Industrial Ecology Goals for Green Chemistry
• Adopt a life-cycle perspective regarding chemical products and processes
• Realise that the activities of your suppliers and customers determine, in part, the greenness of your product
• For non-dissipative products, consider recyclability
• For dissipative products (e.g. pharmaceuticals, crop protection chemicals) consider the environmentalimpact of product delivery
• Perform green process design as well as green product design
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Some Barriers to Adopting Greener Technology
· Lack of global harmonisation on regulation / environmental policy
· Notification processes hinder new product & process development
· Lack of widely accepted measures of product or process “greenness”
· Lack of technically acceptable 'green' substitute products and processes
· Short term view by industry and investors
· Lack of sophisticated accounting practices focussed on individual processes
· Difficult to obtain R&D funding
· Difficult to obtain information on best practice
· Lack of clean, sustainable chemistry examples & topics taught in schools & universities
· Lack of communication / understanding between chemists & engineers
· Culture geared to looking at chemistry not the overall process / life cycle of materials
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The Chemical Industry in the 21st Century
Meeting social, environmental and economic responsibilities
• Maintaining a supply of innovative and viable chemical technology
• Environmentally and socially responsible chemical manufacturing
• Teaching environmental awareness throughout the education process
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Twilight Can Turn into ““A”” New Dawn
Twilight creates illusion of light getting stronger. Twilight then fades into a dark night. It is always darkest before dawn. If we solve our energy crisis, the 21stcentury will be our greatest dawn. If we fail, we will have a dark future.
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Aggregation is it universal?
• Having seen single molecules and their behaviour one has to turn the attention to aggregates.
• Why aggregates, it appears it is the natures way of preserving and fostering things – trees, plants, animals, human beings everything live as aggregates and care for the total aggregated assemblies and not for the individual species.
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Aggregation
• The existence of single molecules can be understood from the point of view of minimization of free energy
• Aggregates how do they minimize the energy?• What is the driving force for this aggregation?• What is the type of interactions present in
aggregation?
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Weak bonding is the cause for aggregation?
• What are weak bonding and how do they cause the aggregation?
• What are the energies involved in these weak forces?
• Are there a variety of these weak forces?• Do they have any constraints in geometry,
functionality, and electronic configuration?• How these weak forces account for the stabilities
observed
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How Universal are aggregates?
• Many bio-molecules are aggregates • Materials are always aggregates but the
dimensionality ( uni, bi and tri dimensions) impart unique properties Why?
• Not only dimensions but also size in nanoscale and bulk scale they are different – shows aggregation has a role to play even in terms of the number of species aggregating?
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Geometry has this a role in Aggregation
• This is a question one has to ask at this time• It is known that the helical structure of vital species
like DNA, collagen and other species? Why helical structure why not strings and wires and ropes?
• Twisted configurations why are they more stable than strings and wires?
• Nano coils and nano architectures how are they become more stable?
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Some examples of aggregates in molecular systems• Water when aggregated becomes less dense
than water in liquid state but for all others the density increases when solidification – to show that both directions the change can take place on aggregation.
• Some time back people talked on “poly water” a concept which has been subsequently discarded – Why and why poly water cannot exist – any concept has evolved
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Assembly why this is universal?
Directed Assembly addresses the fundamental scientific issues underlying the design and synthesis of new nanostructured materials, structures, assemblies, and devices with dramatically improved capabilities for many industrial and biomedical applications.
It focuses on discovering and developing the means to assemble nanoscale
building blocks with unique properties into functional structures under well-controlled, intentionally directed conditions.
Directed assembly is the fundamental gateway to the eventual success of technology.
It is based upon well-integrated research efforts that combine computational design with experimentation to discover novel pathways to assemble functional multiscale nanostructures with junctions and interfaces between structurally, dimensionally, and compositionally different building blocks. These efforts are leading to new methodologies for assembling novel functional materials and devices from nanoscale building blocks that will lead to novel applications of nanotechnology to spur industry into the 21st century.
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Control of Polymer Supermolecular MorphologyControl of Polymer Supermolecular Morphology
A collaborative effort between L.S. Schadler, R.W. Siegel, Y. Akpalu (RPI) and ABB focuses on using nanoparticles to control the supermolecular morphology of semicrystalline polymers and their properties. The figure shows the effect of 20 nm diameter TiO2 nanoparticles dried or coated with N-(2-aminoethyl)3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane (AEAPS) on low-density polyethylene (LDPE). There is no change in unit cell dimension, degree of crystallinity, average lamellar thickness, or average spherulite size. The supermolecular structure, however, is impacted. Neat LDPE and the dried sample exhibit a well-defined, impinging, banded spherulite structure. The nanoparticles are embedded between the lamellae. In great contrast, no well-developed banded spherulites are observed in the AEPS sample, in which nanoparticles segregate to inter-spherulitic regions. This supermolecular structure is critical in controlling electrical breakdown strength in LDPE.
0 2.5 5
5
2.5
0 m m m
Figure: AFM tapping mode images of the supermolecular structures of (a) neat LDPE (b) LDPE filled with more compatible dried TiO2 nanoparticles and (c), LDPE filled with non-compatible AEAPS coated TiO2 nanoparticles.
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Some examples of aggregation
In the next few slides ( mostly reproduced from literature and none of them are our own) we demonstrate how aggregated systems are relevant, perform and exhibit unusual properties.
These are chosen randomly and no specific significance to be attached to the choice.
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What is the aggregation that we talk about?
Molecule of DNA Protein moleculeCarbon nanotube
water molecule
Water molecules – 3 atomsProtein molecules – thousands of atomsDNA molecules – millions of atomsNanowires, carbon nanotubes – millions of atoms
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What are Nanostructures?At least one dimension is between 1 - 100 nm2-D structures (1-D confinement):• Thin films• Planar quantum wells• Superlattices1-D structures (2-D confinement):• Nanowires• Quantum wires• Nanorods• Nanotubes0-D structures (3-D confinement):• Nanoparticles• Quantum dotsDimensionality, confinement depends on structure:• Bulk nanocrystalline films• Nanocomposites
Si0.76Ge0.24 / Si0.84Ge0.16 superlattice
2 m
Si Nanowire Array
Multi-wall carbon nanotube
http://www.aip.org/mgr/png/2003/186.htm
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Thin FilmsNanoscale Thin Film• Single “two dimensional” film, thickness < ~100 nm• Electrons can be confined in one dimension;
affects wavefunction, density of states• Phonons can confined in one dimension; affects thermal
transport• Boundaries, interfaces affect transport
Bulk crystal
a
Free standing thin film
d
Thin film
Substrate
http://scsx01.sc.ehu.es/waporcoj/charlas/cursodoctorado/12
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Nanowires• Solid, “one dimensional”• Can be conducting, semiconducting, insulating• Can be crystalline, low defects• Can exhibit quantum confinement effects (electron, phonon)• Narrowing wire diameter results in increase in
band gap• Narrowing wire diameter can result in
decrease in thermal conductivity• New forms include core-shell and superlattice nanowires
2 m
Si Nanowire Array
Nanotube defined – a long cylinder with inner and outer nm-sized diameters Nanowire defined – a long, solid wire with nm diameter Si/SiGe NanowiresAbramson et al, JMEMS (2003)
Wu et al, Nanoletters, Vol. 2, 83 – 86 (2002)
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Carbon NanotubesCarbon nanotube properties: • One dimensional sheets of hexagonal network of carbon rolled to form tubes• Approximately 1 nm in diameter• Can be microns long• Essentially free of defects• Ends can be “capped” with half a buckyball• Varieties include single-wall and multi- wall
nanotubes,ropes, bundles, arrays• Structure (chirality, diameter) influences properties:
– Semiconducting vs. metallic– Thermal, electrical conductance– Mechanical strength, elasticity
Multi-wall carbon nanotube
http://www.aip.org/mgr/png/2003/186.htm
Armchair
Zigzag
Chiralhttp://physicsweb.org/article/world/11/1/9/1
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Other Nanotubes…Boron nitride nanotubes• Resistance to oxidation,
suited for high temperatures• Young’s modulus of 1.22 TPa • Semiconducting• Predictable electronic
properties independent of diameter and # of layers
SiC nanotubes:• Resistance to oxidation• Suitable for harsh
environments• Can functionalize surface Si
atoms
Boron nitride nanotubes
adopt various shapes
(red=boron, blue=nitrogen):
http://pubs.acs.org/cen/topstory/7912/7912notw1.html
SiC nanotubes grown at NASA
Glenn:
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT2002/5000/5510lienhard.html
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Energy Applications: Conversion, Generation and Storage
Metal organic framework for
hydrogen storage
Replace conventional material with nanocomposite
to enhance performance
I
Cold
Hot2 m
Abramson et al, JMEMS, in review.Rosi et al, Science, Vol. 300, pp. 1127 -1129 (2003).
Dresselhaus group, MIT
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Energy Applications: CatalysisOil refinement: zeolites are nanoporous (pores 3 – 10 Å) crystalline solids with well-defined structures (“molecular sieves”) used in oil refinement – increases gasoline yield from each barrel of crude oil by 50% Porous zeolite structure
2 atomic layer thick Au nanoclusters on TiO2
http://www.bza.org/zeolites.html
http://www.iaee.org/documents/p03eagan.pdf
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Energy Applications: LEDsChange the nanostructure of Si (a very cheap material) to become nanoporous and visible light is emitted!
Use quantum dots (quantum confinement) for light emission
Cross-hairs of p-type and n-type nanowires (to get a p-n junction)
http://www.trnmag.com/Stories/2002/103002/Nanoscale_LED_debuts_103002.html
Quantum dot layers
Network of nanowires
http://www.trnmag.com/Stories/011701/Crossed_nanowires_make_Lilliputian_LEDs_011701.html
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Energy Applications: LEDsQuantum dots/ nanocrystals are smaller than the wavelength of light, so they do not scatter light; scattering can reduce optical efficiency by up to 50%!
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Energy Applications: BatteriesChange electrode materials by nanostructuring (texturing) to improved electrical performance; nanoscale particles boost energy storage and power delivery by reducing the distance Li ions travel during diffusion
Nanobattery: Fill a nanoscale membrane with an electrolyte, cap with electrodes; contact with a probe tip
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Energy Applications: SolarSolar cells integrated into roof shinglesNanoscale crystals of semiconductor coated with light-absorbing dye emit electronsNanostructured diamond solar thermal cells capture light, which heats the lattice, which emits electrons; small tip gives high energy electrons
Tetrapods (the light absorbing materials) double the efficiency of plastic solar cells because they always point in the right direction
http://www.spacer.com/news/solarcell-01b.html
Nanostructured diamond solar thermal cells
Branched tetrapod
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Dendritic Macromolecules as Unimolecular Micelles for Organic Solutes
(Stribaet al. 2002, Angwate. Chemie. Int. Ed., 41 (8), pp 1329-1324)
MD Simulations of the Meijer Dendrimer Box Mikliset al. 1997, JACS, 131, 7458
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Catalytic DendriticMacromolecules(AstrucD. and Chardac, F. Chem. Rev. 2001, 101, 2991-3023)
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Dendrimer-Encapsulated Zero Valent Metal Clusters(Scott et al. J. Phys. Chem. B. 2005, 109, 692-704)
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Bioactive Dendritic Macromolecules(Chen et al. 2000, Biomacromolecules,1 (3): 473-480)
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Fate, Transport and Toxicity of Dendritic aggregates
• Numerous dendrimers their toxicity and bio-distribution studies have carried out during the last 5 years
• –The effects of dendrimer core and terminal group chemistry, size, shape, hydrophobicity on dendrimer interactions with cell membranes and toxicity are becoming known and understood.
• •Only a limited number of studies have been published on the fate and tranport of dendrimers in the environment
• –Sorption of dendrimers onto mineral surfaces
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Basic Research Needs to Assurea Secure Energy Future - Role of aggregates
Materials Research to Transcend Energy Barriers Energy Biosciences Research Towards the Hydrogen Economy Energy Storage Novel Membrane Assemblies an example of
aggregates Heterogeneous Catalysis- aggregate site density Energy Conversion- Energy Utilization Efficiency Nuclear Fuel Cycles and Actinide Chemistry Geosciences
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Some concepts already in vogue• The concept of “ensemble effect” in catalysis is well known – this is a
form of the aggregates that we call.• The concept of “active site” is known in catalysis but these are not
single atom site but some sites in particular locations with definite neighbours this is another version of aggregated sites.
• The concept of metal support interaction or as a matter of fact SMW interactions always imply an aggregated site – therefore the concept of aggregation and they behaving differently is known. SMSI and other interactions do not involve specific bonds and should be involving weak interactions.
• Weak interactions and its manifestations are therefore already known but has not been specifically indicated or identified.
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Energy Source
% of U.S. Electricity
Supply
% of Total U.S. Energy
SupplyOil 3 39Natural Gas 15 23Coal 51 22Nuclear 20 8Hydroelectric 8 4Biomass 1 3Other Renewables 1 1
Drivers for the Hydrogen Economy:Drivers for the Hydrogen Economy:
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Mill
ions
of B
arre
ls p
er D
ay
Domestic ProductionDomestic
Production
Actual Projected
Light Trucks
Heavy Vehicles
Year
Air
MarineMarine
RailOff-roadOff-road
Cars
Pass
enge
r Ve
hicl
es
• Reduce Reliance on Fossil Reduce Reliance on Fossil Fuels Fuels
• Reduce Accumulation of Reduce Accumulation of Greenhouse GasesGreenhouse Gases
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The Hydrogen Economy
solarwindhydro
fossil fuelreforming
nuclear/solar thermochemical
cyclesH2
gas orhydridestorage
automotivefuel cells
stationaryelectricity/heat
generation
consumerelectronics
H2O
production storage use in fuel cells
Bio- and bioinspired
9M tons/yr
150 M tons/yr(light cars and trucks in 2040) 9.70 MJ/L
(2015 FreedomCAR Target)
4.4 MJ/L (Gas, 10,000 psi) 8.4 MJ/L (LH2)
$3000/kW
$30/kW(Internal Combustion Engine)
H2
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Fundamental IssuesFundamental Issues The hydrogen economy is a compelling vision:
- It potentially provides an abundant, clean, secure and flexible energy carrier
- Its elements have been demonstrated in the laboratory or in prototypes However . . .
- It does not operate as an integrated network- It is not yet competitive with the fossil fuel economy in cost, performance, or reliability- The most optimistic estimates put the hydrogen economy
decades away Thus . . . - An aggressive basic research program is needed, especially in gaining a fundamental understanding of the interaction between hydrogen and materials at the nanoscale
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Hydrogen Production versus other fuel sourcesHydrogen Production versus other fuel sources
Current status: • Steam-reforming of oil and natural gas produces 9M tons H2/yr• We will need 150M tons/yr for transportation• Requires CO2 sequestration.Alternative sources and technologies: Coal:
• Cheap, lower H2 yield/C, more contaminants• Research and Development needed for process development, gas separations, catalysis, impurity removal.
Solar: • Widely distributed carbon-neutral; low energy density.• Photovoltaic/electrolysis current standard – 15% efficient• Requires 0.3% of land area to serve transportation.
Nuclear: Abundant; carbon-neutral; long development cycle.
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Fossil Fuel Reforming Intermediate TermMolecular level understanding of catalytic mechanisms, nanoscale catalyst design, high temperature gas separation
Solar Photoelectrochemistry/PhotocatalysisLight harvesting, charge transport, chemical assemblies, bandgap engineering, interfacial chemistry, catalysis and photocatalysis, organic semiconductors, theory and modeling, and stability
Bio- and Bio-inspired H2 ProductionMicrobes & component redox enzymes, nanostructured 2D & 3D hydrogen/oxygen catalysis, sensing, and energy transduction, engineer robust biological and biomimetic H2 production systems
Nuclear and Solar Thermal HydrogenThermodynamic data and modeling for thermochemical cycle (TC), high temperature materials: membranes, TC heat exchanger materials, gas separation, improved catalysts
Priority Research Areas in Hydrogen ProductionPriority Research Areas in Hydrogen Production
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
Ni surface-alloyed with Au to reduce carbon poisoning
Synthetic Catalysts for H2 Production
Thermochemical Water Splitting
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Current Technology for automotive applications • Tanks for gaseous or liquid hydrogen storage. • Progress demonstrated in solid state storage materials.System Requirements• Compact, light-weight, affordable storage. • System requirements set for FreedomCAR: 4.5 wt% hydrogen for 2005, 9 wt% hydrogen in the near future. • No current storage system or material meets all targets.
Hydrogen Storage PanelHydrogen Storage Panel
Gravimetric Energy DensityMJ/kg system
Volu
met
ric
Ener
gy D
ensi
tyM
J / L
sys
tem
0
10
20
30
0 10 20 30 40
Energy Density of Fuels
proposed DOE goal
gasoline
liquid H2
chemicalhydrides
complex hydrides
compressed gas H2
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Ideal Solid State Storage Material• High gravimetric and volumetric density (9 wt %)• Fast kinetics• Favorable thermodynamics• Reversible and recyclable• Safe, material integrity• Cost effective• Minimal lattice expansion• Absence of embrittlement
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Fuel Cells and Novel Fuel Cell Materials Panel
Current status: Limits to performance are materials, which
have not changed much in 15 years.
Challenges: Membranes Operation in lower humidity, more strength, durability and higher ionic conductivity.
Cathodes Materials with lower overpotential and resistance to impurities. Low temperature operation needs cheaper (non- Pt) materials. Tolerance to impurities: S, hydrocarbons, Cl.
Anodes Tolerance to impurities: CO, S, Cl. Cheaper (non or low Pt) catalysts.Reformers Need low temperature and inexpensive reformer catalysts.
2H2 + O2 2H2O + electrical power + heat
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Chemical Oxidation:
Liberates e-
Chemical Reduction:
Consumes e-
Anode (Oxidation)
Cathode (Reduction)
Ionic Conductor (Membrane)
e-’s
External LoadNOT TO SCALEOxygen (O2)Fuel:
Reaction Products
IonTransp.
Reaction Products
H2, CH4, CH3OH
Fuel Cell ModelTHE ISSUE: better, cheaper, more durable, impurity tolerant materials. Most must/will be structured on the nanoscale.
Frank DiSalvo (Cornell)
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Electrode/Membrane DesignVery challenging. Electrodes need to support three percolation networks: electronic, ionic, fuel/oxidizer/product access/egress.
2 –5 nm
20 -50 m
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Alloys vs. Ordered Intermetallics
(A) (B)
Alloy; e.g. Pt/Ru (1:1) Ordered Intermetallic e.g.
BiPt
“Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Formic Acid at an Ordered Intermetallic PtBi Surface”, E. Casado-Rivera, Z. Gál, A.C.D. Angelo, C. Lind, F.J. DiSalvo, and H.D. Abruña, Chem. Phys. Chem. 4, 193-199 (2003)
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Cyclic Voltammetry in 0.1 M H2SO4 + 0.125 M formic acid solution at a sweep rate of 10 mV/s
88
Enhanced Catalytic Activity for Formic Acid Oxidation
E(V) vs. Ag/AgCl
-0.2 0.20.0 0.4 0.6 0.8 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.063 mA/cm2 2.4 mA/cm2
Pt PtBi
Expanded
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Basic Research Needs for the Hydrogen EconomyBasic Research Needs for the Hydrogen Economy
Cross-Cutting Research Directions Nanoscale Materials and Nanostructured Assemblies Catalysis
- hydrocarbon reforming- hydrogen storage kinetics- fuel cell and electrolysis electrochemistry
Membranes and Separation Characterization and Measurement Techniques Theory, Modeling and Simulations Safety and Environment
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Hydrogen Studies
the hydrogen economy requires
breakthrough basic research to find new materials and processes
define a new state of the art
universal finding:
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Directed Assembly addresses the fundamental scientific issues underlying the design and synthesis of new nanostructured materials, structures, assemblies, and devices with dramatically improved capabilities for many industrial and biomedical applications.
It focuses on discovering and developing the means to assemble nanoscale
building blocks with unique properties into functional structures under well-controlled, intentionally directed conditions.
Directed assembly is the fundamental gateway to the eventual success of
nanotechnology. It is based upon well-integrated research efforts that combine computational design with experimentation to discover novel pathways to assemble functional multiscale nanostructures with junctions and interfaces between structurally, dimensionally, and compositionally different building blocks. These efforts are leading to new methodologies for assembling novel functional materials and devices from nanoscale building blocks that will lead to novel applications of nanotechnology to spur industry into the 21st century.
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Nanoparticle Control of Polymer Supermolecular Nanoparticle Control of Polymer Supermolecular MorphologyMorphology
A collaborative effort between L.S. Schadler, R.W. Siegel, Y. Akpalu (RPI) and ABB focuses on using nanoparticles to control the supermolecular morphology of semicrystalline polymers and their properties. The figure shows the effect of 20 nm diameter TiO2 nanoparticles dried or coated with N-(2-aminoethyl)3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane (AEAPS) on low-density polyethylene (LDPE). There is no change in unit cell dimension, degree of crystallinity, average lamellar thickness, or average spherulite size. The supermolecular structure, however, is impacted. Neat LDPE and the dried sample exhibit a well-defined, impinging, banded spherulite structure. The nanoparticles are embedded between the lamellae. In great contrast, no well-developed banded spherulites are observed in the AEPS sample, in which nanoparticles segregate to inter-spherulitic regions. This supermolecular structure is critical in controlling electrical breakdown strength in LDPE.
0 2.5 5
5
2.5
0 m m m
Figure: AFM tapping mode images of the supermolecular structures of (a) neat LDPE (b) LDPE filled with more compatible dried TiO2 nanoparticles and (c), LDPE filled with non-compatible AEAPS coated TiO2 nanoparticles.
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Thank you all for your patience