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CHEMISTRY

TEACHER’S GUIDE

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CHEMISTRY TEACHER’S GUIDE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 2

Course Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 10

Unit Overviews ............................................................................................................................................ 12

Unit 1: Atoms and the Periodic Table ..................................................................................................... 12

Unit 1 Focus Standards ....................................................................................................................... 13

Unit 1 Common Misconceptions......................................................................................................... 14

Unit 2: States and Properties of Matter ................................................................................................. 15



Unit 3: Chemical Bonding ........................................................................................................................ 18



Unit 4: Chemical Reactions ..................................................................................................................... 21



Unit 5: Stoichiometry and the Gas Laws ................................................................................................. 24



Unit 6: Energy and Chemical Reactions .................................................................................................. 27



Unit 7: Reaction Rates and Equilibrium .................................................................................................. 30



Unit 8: Mixtures, Solutions, and Solubility .............................................................................................. 34



Unit 9: Acid-Base Reactions .................................................................................................................... 37





Unit 10: Redox Reactions ........................................................................................................................ 40

Unit 10 Focus Standards ..................................................................................................................... 41

Unit 10 Common Misconceptions....................................................................................................... 42

Unit 11: Organic Chemistry ..................................................................................................................... 43



Unit 12: Nuclear Reactions ..................................................................................................................... 46



Strategies for Fostering Effective Classroom Discussions ........................................................................... 49

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 49

Promoting Effective Discussions ............................................................................................................. 49

Suggested Discussion Questions For Chemistry ..................................................................................... 51

Unit 1: Atoms and the Periodic Table ................................................................................................. 51

Unit 2: States and Properties of Matter.............................................................................................. 52

Unit 3: Chemical Bonding .................................................................................................................... 53

Unit 4: Chemical Reactions ................................................................................................................. 54

Unit 5: Stoichiometry and the Gas Laws ............................................................................................. 55

Unit 6: Energy and Chemical Reactions .............................................................................................. 56

Unit 7: Reaction Rates and Equilibrium .............................................................................................. 57

Unit 8: Mixtures, Solutions, and Solubility .......................................................................................... 57

Unit 9: Acid-Base Reactions ................................................................................................................ 58

Unit 10: Redox Reactions .................................................................................................................... 59

Unit 11: Organic Chemistry ................................................................................................................. 60

Unit 12: Nuclear Reactions ................................................................................................................. 61

Course Customization ................................................................................................................................. 62

Supplemental Teacher Materials and Suggested Readings ........................................................................ 65

Unit 1: Atoms and the Periodic Table ..................................................................................................... 65

Unit 1: Additional Teaching Materials ................................................................................................ 65

Unit 1: Additional Readings................................................................................................................. 65

Unit 2: States and Properties of Matter ................................................................................................. 67





Unit 3: Chemical Bonding ........................................................................................................................ 70



Unit 4: Chemical Reactions ..................................................................................................................... 72



Unit 5: Stoichiometry and the Gas Laws ................................................................................................. 75



Unit 6: Energy and Chemical Reactions .................................................................................................. 77



Unit 7: Reaction Rates and Equilibrium .................................................................................................. 79



Unit 8: Mixtures, Solutions, and Solubility .............................................................................................. 81



Unit 9: Acid-Base Reactions .................................................................................................................... 84



Unit 10: Redox Reactions ........................................................................................................................ 86

Unit 10: Additional Teaching Materials .............................................................................................. 86

Unit 10: Additional Readings .............................................................................................................. 86

Unit 11: Organic Chemistry ..................................................................................................................... 88



Unit 12: Nuclear Reactions ..................................................................................................................... 90





Writing Prompts, Sample Responses, and Rubrics ..................................................................................... 92

Writing Prompts ...................................................................................................................................... 92

Unit 1: Atoms and the Periodic Table ................................................................................................. 92

Unit 2: States and Properties of Matter.............................................................................................. 92

Unit 3: Chemical Bonding .................................................................................................................... 93

Unit 4: Chemical Reactions ................................................................................................................. 93

Unit 5: Stoichiometry and the Gas Laws ............................................................................................. 93

Unit 6: Energy and Chemical Reactions .............................................................................................. 93

Unit 7: Reaction Rates and Equilibrium .............................................................................................. 94

Unit 8: Mixtures, Solutions, and Solubility .......................................................................................... 94

Unit 9: Acid-Base Reactions ................................................................................................................ 94

Unit 10: Redox Reactions .................................................................................................................... 95

Unit 11: Organic Chemistry ................................................................................................................. 95

Unit 12: Nuclear Reactions ................................................................................................................. 95

Student Writing Samples and rubrics ..................................................................................................... 96

Narrative/Procedural Writing Student Sample ................................................................................... 97

Expository/Informative Writing Student Sample .............................................................................. 100

Argumentative Writing Student Sample ........................................................................................... 103

Rubrics................................................................................................................................................... 106

Narrative/Procedural Writing Rubric ................................................................................................ 107

Expository/Informative Writing Rubric ............................................................................................. 108

Argumentative Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................... 108

Vocabulary ................................................................................................................................................ 109

Unit 1: Atoms and the Periodic Table ................................................................................................... 109

Lesson 1: The Historical Development of Atomic Theory ................................................................. 109

Lesson 2: The Modern Atomic Theory .............................................................................................. 109

Lesson 3: The Structure of the Atom ................................................................................................ 110

Lesson 4: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures ............................................................................... 110

Lesson 5: Atomic Numbers and Electron Configurations ................................................................. 111

Lesson 6: The History and Arrangement of the Periodic Table ........................................................ 111

Lesson 7: Electrons and the Periodic Table....................................................................................... 112

Lesson 8: Periodic Trends.................................................................................................................. 112



Unit 2: States and Properties of Matter ............................................................................................... 114

Lesson 1: Changes in Matter ............................................................................................................. 114

Lesson 2: Lab: Physical and Chemical Changes ................................................................................. 114

Lesson 3: Gases ................................................................................................................................. 115

Lesson 4: Liquids ............................................................................................................................... 115

Lesson 5: Solids and Plasmas ............................................................................................................ 116

Lesson 6: Phase Changes .................................................................................................................. 116

Unit 3: Chemical Bonding ...................................................................................................................... 118

Lesson 1: Types of Chemical Bonds .................................................................................................. 118

Lesson 2: Ionic Bonding ..................................................................................................................... 118

Lesson 3: Covalent Bonding .............................................................................................................. 119

Lesson 4: Lab: Ionic and Covalent Bonds .......................................................................................... 119

Lesson 5: Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds .................................................................................. 120

Lesson 6: Nomenclature of Covalent Compounds ............................................................................ 120

Lesson 7: Metallic Bonding ............................................................................................................... 121

Lesson 8: Intermolecular Forces ....................................................................................................... 121

Lesson 9: Molecular Geometry ......................................................................................................... 122

Unit 4: Chemical Reactions ................................................................................................................... 123

Lesson 1: Evidence of Chemical Reactions........................................................................................ 123

Lesson 2: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations ...................................................................... 123

Lesson 3: Types of Reactions ............................................................................................................ 124

Lesson 4: Lab: Types of Reactions ..................................................................................................... 124

Lesson 5: Percent Composition and Molecular Formula .................................................................. 124

Lesson 6: Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield ................................................................................. 125

Lesson 7: Lab: Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield .......................................................................... 125

Unit 5: Stoichiometry and the Gas Laws ............................................................................................... 127

Lesson 1: Molar Masses .................................................................................................................... 127

Lesson 2: Introduction to Stoichiometry .......................................................................................... 127

Lesson 3: Stoichiometric Calculations ............................................................................................... 128

Lesson 4: Gas Laws ............................................................................................................................ 128

Lesson 5: Lab: Charles’s Law ............................................................................................................. 129

Lesson 6: Lab: Boyle’s Law ................................................................................................................ 129



Lesson 7: The Ideal Gas Law .............................................................................................................. 129

Lesson 8: Gas Stoichiometry ............................................................................................................. 130

Unit 6: Energy and Chemical Reactions ................................................................................................ 131

Lesson 1: Heat ................................................................................................................................... 131

Lesson 2: Calorimetry ........................................................................................................................ 131

Lesson 3: Lab: Calorimetry and Specific Heat ................................................................................... 132

Lesson 4: Thermochemical Equations ............................................................................................... 132

Lesson 5: Enthalpy and Phase Changes ............................................................................................ 133

Lesson 6: Enthalpy of Reaction ......................................................................................................... 133

Lesson 7: Lab: Enthalpy ..................................................................................................................... 133

Lesson 8: Enthalpy, Entropy, and Free Energy .................................................................................. 134

Unit 7: Reaction Rates and Equilibrium ................................................................................................ 135

Lesson 1: Reaction Rate .................................................................................................................... 135

Lesson 2: Lab: Reaction Rate ............................................................................................................ 135

Lesson 3: Reaction Pathways ............................................................................................................ 135

Lesson 4: Catalysts ............................................................................................................................ 136

Lesson 5: Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium ............................................................................... 136

Lesson 6: Shifts in Equilibrium .......................................................................................................... 137

Unit 8: Mixtures, Solutions, and Solubility ............................................................................................ 138

Lesson 1: Mixtures and Solutions ..................................................................................................... 138

Lesson 2: Properties of Water........................................................................................................... 138

Lesson 3: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions ........................................................................................ 139

Lesson 4: Solutions and Solubility ..................................................................................................... 140

Lesson 5: Lab: Solubility .................................................................................................................... 140

Lesson 6: Measures of Concentration: Molarity ............................................................................... 141

Lesson 7: Measures of Concentration: Molality and Other Calculations ......................................... 141

Lesson 8: Colligative Properties ........................................................................................................ 142

Unit 9: Acid-Base Reactions .................................................................................................................. 143

Lesson 1: Properties of Acids and Bases ........................................................................................... 143

Lesson 2: Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis Acids and Bases ................................................... 143

Lesson 3: pH ...................................................................................................................................... 144

Lesson 4: Lab: Measuring pH ............................................................................................................ 144



Lesson 5: Neutralization Reactions ................................................................................................... 145

Lesson 6: Titration Reactions ............................................................................................................ 145

Lesson 7: Lab: Titration ..................................................................................................................... 146

Lesson 8: Buffers ............................................................................................................................... 146

Unit 10: Redox Reactions ...................................................................................................................... 147

Lesson 1: Oxidation-Reduction ......................................................................................................... 147

Lesson 2: Oxidizing and Reducing Agents ......................................................................................... 147

Lesson 3: Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations ........................................................................ 148

Lesson 4: Fuel Cells ........................................................................................................................... 148

Lesson 5: Voltaic Cells ....................................................................................................................... 148

Lesson 6: Electrolytic Cells ................................................................................................................ 149

Lesson 7: Lab: Electrolysis ................................................................................................................. 149

Unit 11: Organic Chemistry ................................................................................................................... 151

Lesson 1: Organic Compounds .......................................................................................................... 151

Lesson 2: Properties and Uses of Saturated Hydrocarbons .............................................................. 151

Lesson 3: Properties and Uses of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons ......................................................... 152

Lesson 4: Functional Groups ............................................................................................................. 152

Lesson 5: Organic Reactions ............................................................................................................. 153

Lesson 6: Metabolism ....................................................................................................................... 154

Lesson 7: Lab: Identifying Nutrients ................................................................................................. 154

Unit 12: Nuclear Reactions ................................................................................................................... 156

Lesson 1: The Nucleus ....................................................................................................................... 156

Lesson 2: Types of Radioactive Decay ............................................................................................... 156

Lesson 3: Balancing Nuclear Reactions ............................................................................................. 157

Lesson 4: Half-Life ............................................................................................................................. 157

Lesson 5: Lab: Half-Life ..................................................................................................................... 158

Lesson 6: Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion .................................................................................. 158

Lesson 7: Nuclear Energy .................................................................................................................. 159

Real-world Applications and Scientific Thinking ....................................................................................... 160


Unit 2: States and Properties of matter ................................................................................................ 160













Crosscutting Concepts .............................................................................................................................. 165


Unit 2: States and Properties of Matter ............................................................................................... 167













COURSE OVERVIEW

This twelve-unit Chemistry course engages students in the study of the composition, properties,

changes, and interactions of matter. This is a year-long course that covers the basic concepts of

chemistry coupled with interactive or hands-on experiences such as projects and laboratory

investigations that encourage higher-order thinking applications. The components of this course include

chemistry and its methods, the composition and properties of matter, changes and interactions of

matter, factors affecting the interactions of matter, electrochemistry, organic chemistry, biochemistry,

nuclear chemistry, mathematical applications to understand chemistry problems, and applications of

chemistry in the real-world.

The course includes the following:

• Developing scientific habits of mind, including the value of research to explore phenomena

through inquiry and communication

• Reading texts connecting chemistry concepts to real-world applications

• Following procedures and practicing inquiry skills and laboratory ethics in scientific

investigations

• Learning and applying academic vocabulary in context

• Applying scientific concepts to real-world situations and problems

• Writing accurate, well-developed lab reports

The course is aligned to the Chemistry course requirements and includes the following features:

To promote inquiry and a focus on big ideas, every lesson includes a guiding lesson question.

Each lesson begins with a thought-provoking warm-up activity to engage students and activate

or build on prior knowledge.

The course incudes an abundance of rich graphics, charts, diagrams, animations, and

interactives, which help students relate to and visualize the content.

To help students apply concepts, the course contains sixteen labs, with student guides, teacher

guides, and guidance for completing a lab report write-up and/or reflection activity. Lab reports

are intended to be teacher-scored.

The course includes an activity in which students can plan their own investigation.

Included in the course are seventeen projects that require students to apply their conceptual

knowledge to various situations, including real-world applications. In unit 3, students create

three-dimensional models of different molecules. Unit 11 includes a project where students

research the structure and properties of polypropylene and create a model of the substance.

Finally, in unit 12, students research and evaluate the pros and cons of using fission as an energy

source. These projects are intended to be teacher-scored.

Reading assignments expose students to models for scientific and technical writing.



Reading assignments use the CloseReaderTM tool, which enables students to interact with the

text by highlighting targeted words and phrases and adding purposeful sticky notes. Students

also probe vocabulary words, investigate elements and features of the text with careful

scaffolding, and benefit from auditory assistance.

An interactive periodic table equips students to solve chemistry problems and understand,

visualize, and describe matter.

A variety of graphic organizers helps students understand relationships between and among

concepts.

An emphasis on interpreting figures and data displays helps students read and understand

information the way scientists present it.

Real-world connections help students connect chemistry to their everyday lives.

Throughout the course, students meet the following goals:

Understand and apply the methods of chemistry: scientific thinking, measurements, and

using mathematics as a tool for logically solving chemistry problems.

Describe the composition and properties of matter as well as the changes that matter

undergoes.

Trace the development of the atomic theory.

Examine the relationships among the elements on the periodic table.

Describe chemical reactions, interactions, and their causes and effects in real-world

applications.

Apply critical thinking, reasoning, and decision-making skills to solve mathematical and

nonmathematical chemistry problems.

Appreciate how chemistry affects daily life and society.



UNIT OVERVIEWS

UNIT 1: ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Estimated Unit Time: 19 Class Periods (930 Minutes)

In this unit, students investigate the development of the atomic theory and examine the atom’s

structure. Through video-based instruction, students evaluate the scientific investigations that led to the

discovery of the structure of the atom and the development of the modern quantum atomic theory,

including those performed by Rutherford, Dalton, Thomson, and Bohr. Students compare and contrast

the properties, such as charge and size, of the subatomic particles and examine the forces that hold

protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Students investigate the relationship between atoms and the

periodic table to identify patterns. Students differentiate among elements, compounds, and mixtures.

Students apply graphical analysis to specific elements to create electron configurations and determine

quantum numbers for electrons using atomic orbitals, as well as number of valence electrons available

for bonding. Students examine the historical development of the periodic table and analyze the

arrangement of the periodic table to determine trends in properties such as electronegativity, ionization

energy, and atomic radius size for specific elements.

In the lesson The Modern Atomic Theory, students examine how the atomic theory continued to

develop after Rutherford’s gold foil experiments into the modern understanding of atomic structure.

First, students examine how Einstein’s and Rydberg’s experiments with the photoelectric effect and

quantization of energy led to a greater understanding of the behavior of subatomic particles. Students

then examine the relationship between the Bohr model of the atom and emission spectra and how it led

to the electron cloud model of the atom that is the currently accepted model.

In the lesson The History and Arrangement of the Periodic Table, the on-screen teacher helps students

examine how the arrangement of the periodic table has changed over time into its modern structure,

including how the modern arrangement relates to the electron configuration and chemical properties of

individual elements. Students compare the properties of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids, as well as

examine how an element’s properties can be predicted by its period and/or group in the periodic table,

such as the characteristics of alkali and alkaline earth metals, halogens, and noble gases.



Unit 1 Focus Standards

The following focus standards are intended to guide teachers to be purposeful and strategic in both

what to include and what to exclude when teaching this unit. Although each unit emphasizes certain

standards, students are exposed to a number of key ideas in each unit, and, as with every rich classroom

learning experience, these standards are revisited throughout the course to ensure that students master

the concepts with an ever-increasing level of rigor.

Develop models to illustrate the changes in the composition of the nucleus of the atom and the energy released during the processes of fission, fusion, and radioactive decay. HS-PS1-8.

Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level and the composition of the nucleus of atoms. HS-PS1-1.

Construct and revise an explanation for the outcome of a simple chemical reaction based on the outermost electron states of atoms, trends in the periodic table, and knowledge of the patterns of chemical properties. HS-PS1-2.

Synthesize information from a range of sources (e.g., texts, experiments, simulations) into a coherent understanding of a process, phenomenon, or concept, resolving conflicting information when possible.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.11-12.9

Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.1

Introduce precise, knowledgeable claim(s), establish the significance of the claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that logically sequences the claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.1a

Define appropriate quantities for the purpose of descriptive modeling. HSN-Q.A.2



Unit 1 Common Misconceptions

The most current model of the atom replaces all previous models.

■ The information provided by the atomic models is cumulative, and scientists

may use the two most current models (the Schrodinger model and the Bohr

model) for different purposes, such as predicting chemical bonding vs.

predicting the location of electrons in electron orbitals.

The atomic models are the same as the experiments that led to the creation of the individual

models.

■ The implementation of different experimental methods and/or procedures can

increase scientific knowledge, leading to changes in scientific models and

theories. Atomic models are not necessarily the same as the experiments that

led to their creation.

The atomic radius gets larger within the periods and smaller within the groups of the periodic

table.

■ Atomic radius decreases as you move from left to right across the periods of the

periodic table due to the increase in the strength of attraction of the nucleus for

the valence electrons in individual atoms. Conversely, atomic radius increases as

you move down each group in the periodic table because the strength of

attraction of the nucleus for the valence electrons in the atom decreases.

Electron affinity is identical to ionization energy.

■ Ionization energy is the energy that is needed to remove an electron from a

neutral atom. Electron affinity is the energy change that occurs when a neutral

atom attracts an electron and becomes a negative ion. Students should also

understand that the amount of energy that is released when an atom gains a

new electron is the same as the amount of energy required to remove that

exact electron from an ion of the original atom.

Electron affinity is the same as electronegativity.

■ Electronegativity is a measurement of how easily an atom can attract electrons

to itself when it is bonded to another atom. The greater the electronegativity

value of an atom, the more it will attract the electrons in a chemical bond. If an

atom has a very high electronegativity, it will have a strong enough attraction

for the shared electrons that it creates an ionic bond.



UNIT 2: STATES AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER


In this unit, students investigate the four states of matter and the ways their properties differ between

phases. Students analyze the kinetic-molecular theory and its impact on the properties of each of the

individual states of matter. Students also examine applications of plasmas in real-world scenarios.

Students describe how energy changes during phase changes and apply graphical analysis to investigate

the impact of change in temperature over time on states of matter. Students further develop scientific

literacy skills through written analysis of the various properties of states of matter and real-world

applications of those properties. In addition, students complete a laboratory activity to gain an

understanding of the relationships between physical and chemical changes of matter, and they further

develop scientific literacy skills by completing a lab report for the activity.

In the lesson Lab: Physical and Chemical Changes, students conduct a series of experiments with

substances such as calcium carbonate, hydrochloric acid, potassium iodide, and metal shavings to

differentiate between physical changes and chemical changes in materials. Students examine the impact

of factors such as physical agitation, temperature, and combination of solutes/solvents on changes of

matter. They also record qualitative observations of each experiment and use the observations to

construct explanations of each result. Students then use this knowledge to analyze physical and

chemical changes of matter in real-world scenarios, and they communicate the results of the laboratory

investigation in a written lab report.

In the lesson Liquids, students examine how the kinetic molecular theory affects the movement of

particles in liquids, including its impact on specific properties of liquids such as melting and boiling

points and viscosity. Students also examine the behavior of particles in liquids, including how they affect

the properties of liquids. Students understand through video-based instruction how intermolecular

forces affect the interaction of particles within liquids and affect a liquid’s ability to change states.

Students examine unique properties of liquids, such as surface tension and incompressibility, and the

ways they are used in real-world applications. Upon completion of the lesson, students read a scientific

article discussing various real-world applications of surfactants, then apply knowledge from the article to

assess how the behavior of surfactants is demonstrated in additional real-world scenarios. Finally,

students, create written arguments regarding the effects of surfactants on surface tension and viscosity

in different liquids.









Plan and conduct an investigation to gather evidence to compare the structure of substances at the macroscale to infer the strength of electrical forces between particles.

HS-PS1-3.

Communicate scientific and technical information about why the atomic-level, subatomic-level, and/or molecular level structure is important in the functioning of designed materials.

HS-PS2-6.

Analyze how the text structures information or ideas into categories or hierarchies, demonstrating understanding of the information or ideas.



Choose a level of accuracy appropriate to limitations on measurement when reporting quantities.

HSN-Q.A.3




Gases have no weight.

■ Even though gases are invisible, they do still have weight. One way that this can be

demonstrated is by filling a balloon with air and hanging it on a balance stick. The

stick will tip to the side containing the balloon and show that the air inside does

have weight.

Liquids that have a high viscosity will always have a high density.

■ Viscosity and density are not related to each other. Density measures the mass

per unit of volume of a substance, while viscosity is a measure of the resistance

of a liquid to flow. While generally liquids with high densities have high

viscosities, there are substances (such as mercury) that have high density and

low viscosity.

“Thick” liquids always have higher densities than water.

■ While many “thick” liquids will have greater densities than water, some oils and

other liquids have lower densities than water, even though they are “thicker”

than water.

Molecules, compounds, and elements are all the same.

■ Elements are pure substances that consist of one kind of atom, such as

hydrogen, nitrogen, or oxygen. Molecules are groups of two or more atoms that

are bonded together chemically. They may consist of one or more types of

elements, but an individual molecule will retain all of the properties of the

substance it composes. Compounds are pure substances that are composed of

two or more different elements. Compounds are always molecules, but

molecules are not always compounds.

Physical changes are always reversible.

■ While many physical changes are reversible, there are some physical changes

that are either difficult to reverse or irreversible. For example, it is very easy to

reverse the physical change of turning water into ice, but the physical change of

tearing apart a piece of paper is difficult to reverse and the physical change of

breaking an egg is irreversible.

The boiling point of a material varies with the amount of material (i.e., if there is more of a

material, the boiling point will be higher).

■ While the time it takes for a material to boil will increase with a greater amount

of material (due to the need for more energy to increase the temperature of the

material), the temperature at which the material will boil (its boiling point) does

not change regardless of how much material is involved.



UNIT 3: CHEMICAL BONDING


In this unit, students investigate the most common types of chemical bonds and the way they affect the

molecular properties of matter. Students analyze ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds and investigate the

impact of electronegativity and ionization energy on bond formation. Students also apply graphical

analysis to develop electron-dot structures for given elements and determine how an element’s electron

configuration affects bond formation. In addition, students complete a laboratory activity to gain an

understanding of the properties of ionic and covalent compounds, and they further develop scientific

literacy skills by completing a lab report for the activity. Students examine less-common types of

chemical bonds and their impacts on molecular properties. Students acquire conceptual knowledge on

the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory through video-based instruction and use

graphical analysis to predict the molecular shape of various substances. In addition, students further

develop scientific literacy skills through analyzing a technical reading on intermolecular forces and

writing about specific applications of intermolecular forces in real-world scenarios.

In the lesson Lab: Ionic and Covalent Bonds, students investigate how the chemical properties of

substances can be used to identify the types of bonds they contain using oil, cornstarch, sodium

chloride, and sodium bicarbonate. Students make qualitative observations of each substance. Then they

test the solubility and electrical conductivity of each to determine which substances contain ionic bonds

and which contain covalent bonds. Students then use this knowledge to analyze applications of ionic and

covalent bonds in real-world scenarios. They further develop scientific literacy skills by creating a lab

report of the experimental results, including an analysis of possible errors.

In the lesson Metallic Bonding, students examine unique properties of metals that enable them to

create specialized metallic bonds, including how delocalization of electrons causes multiple electrons to

flow between metal nuclei and share charges in metallic bonds. Students also identify how the

molecular orbitals of metals create bonds between which electrons travel. Students investigate how

roaming electrons in metallic bonds affect properties of metals such as conductivity and malleability.

Additionally, students conduct scientific research to apply their understanding of alloys to a real-world

materials-science problem. By studying the nature of metallic bonds and the electron configurations of

metallic compounds through video-based instruction, students understand how the properties of alloys

are determined by the different kinds of metallic bonds present. Through an analysis of alloy

composition, students describe how the ratio of metals in an alloy affects its ability to function in a

specific technological or industrial application. Then, students predict how a change in the ratio of

metals would alter different properties to varying degrees. At the end of the project, students offer a

way to improve the efficiency or usefulness of an alloy by increasing or decreasing the amount of metal

atoms relative to the amounts of atoms of the other metals present in the alloy.









Construct and revise an explanation for the outcome of a simple chemical reaction based on the outermost electron states of atoms, trends in the periodic table, and knowledge of the patterns of chemical properties.

HS-PS1-2.


HS-PS1-3.

Develop a model to illustrate that the release or absorption of energy from a

chemical reaction system depends upon the changes in total bond energy.

HS-PS1-4.

Use mathematical representations to support the claim that atoms, and

therefore mass, are conserved during a chemical reaction.

HS-PS1-7.

Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question

(including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden

the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject,

demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.

CCSS.ELA-

Literacy.WHST.11-

12.7


Reason abstractly and quantitatively. MP.2




Ionic bonds form only between metals and nonmetals and covalent bonds form only between

nonmetals.

The type of chemical bond that is formed between two elements is

dependent upon the electronegativity of the individual elements. In most

cases, elements that have an electronegativity difference of two or more

between them will form ionic bonds, and elements that have an

electronegativity difference of less than two between them will form

covalent bonds.

Electrons are shared equally in all covalent bonds.

Depending on the electronegativity differences between the atoms in a

covalent bond, the bonding electrons may be shared equally or unequally.

The element in the substance that has the greater electronegativity value

will have a stronger attraction for the shared electrons. Covalent bonds may

be either non-polar (bonding electrons are shared equally) or polar (bonding

electrons are shared unequally).



UNIT 4: CHEMICAL REACTIONS


In this unit, students examine physical and chemical properties and changes of matter and how both

types of properties are affected by chemical reactions. Students also explore types of chemical reactions

and how balancing of chemical equations demonstrates conservation of mass. Furthermore, students

evaluate reactions by calculating percent composition of compounds and identifying the limiting

reactant in a given chemical equation. Students also practice calculating percent yield by comparing the

experimental yield of a reaction and the theoretical yield. In addition, students complete a laboratory

activity to gain a comprehensive understanding of the relationships between physical and chemical

changes of matter, and they further develop scientific literacy skills by completing a lab report for the

activity. Finally, students develop technological design skills through the development of a device that

can regulate the release of energy in a chemical reaction.

In the lesson Lab: Types of Reactions, students conduct a series of experiments with substances such as

copper (II) sulfate, lead (II) nitrate, and sodium carbonate to classify types of chemical reactions.

Students are provided the reactant, product, and/or reaction type for four separate experiments. They

then must determine the missing pieces of each experiment utilizing the given information. Students

also record qualitative and quantitative observations for each experiment and evaluate the data to

construct explanations of the results. Students then apply knowledge to analyze and classify chemical

reactions in real-world scenarios.

In the lesson Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations, students examine the components of a

chemical equation, the way to balance chemical equations, and the way equation components are used

to represent what is occurring in a chemical reaction and exhibit conservation of mass. Students also

analyze word equations and learn how to translate them into formula equations and vice versa after the

on-screen teacher models the process. In addition, students use specialized symbols to better depict

what is occurring in a chemical reaction, such as to designate the state of reactants and products,

conditions under which the reaction is occurring, and whether a catalyst is being use to drive the

reaction. Then, students apply the lesson concepts by developing and analyzing models of chemical

reactions. The models consist of gumdrops and toothpicks, representing the atoms and the bonds

between them. Students create models of reactants and products in a chemical reaction and determine

how the models exemplify the law of conservation of mass.










HS-PS1-2.

Refine the design of a chemical system by specifying a change in conditions that would produce increased amounts of products at equilibrium.

HS-PS1-6.

Use mathematical representations to support the claim that atoms, and therefore mass, are conserved during a chemical reaction.

HS-PS1-7.

Rearrange formulas to highlight a quantity of interest, using the same reasoning as in solving equations.

HAS-CED.A.4

Use units as a way to understand problems and to guide the solution of multi-step problems; choose and interpret units consistently in formulas; choose and interpret the scale and the origin in graphs and data displays.

HSN-Q.A.1

Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/experiments, or technical processes.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.2

Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation provided (e.g., articulating implications or the significance of the topic).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.2b




Empirical and molecular formulas are the same.

■ Empirical formulas are used to describe the simplest atomic ratio between the

elements in a compound. Molecular formulas are used to describe the actual

numbers of atoms of each element that occur in the smallest unit of a

compound. In some cases, the empirical and molecular formulas for a

compound may be identical, but in most cases, the molecular formula will be a

multiple of the empirical formula for a compound. For example, the compound

acetylene has a molecular formula of C2H2, which shows that each molecule of

acetylene has 2 carbon atoms and 2 hydrogen atoms. However, the empirical

formula for acetylene, which shows the simplest ratio between the elements in

this compound, is CH.

A true chemical reaction will produce all four signs of a chemical change: a temperature change,

a gas, a color change, and a precipitate.

■ While all four signs of chemical changes may be demonstrated in some chemical

reactions, there are many chemical reactions where only one or a few of the

signs of a chemical change will be seen. The atoms of the reactants of a chemical reaction are transformed into other atoms.

■ While new substances are formed in the process of chemical reactions,

individual atoms within substances remain the same. For example, in the

chemical reaction that occurs between HCl and NaOH, the new substances NaCl

and H2O are formed. The individual atoms in each of these substances remain

the same, even though the compounds change in the reaction (i.e., all hydrogen

atoms remain hydrogen atoms, all oxygen atoms remain oxygen atoms, etc.).



UNIT 5: STOICHIOMETRY AND THE GAS LAWS


In this unit, students examine the mole concept and its applications to stoichiometry. Students review

the importance of significant figures and dimensional analysis in performing calculations. Then they

apply mathematical analysis to determine values of molecular formulas, to find percent composition, to

determine molar masses, and to convert between moles and mass of reactants and products. Students

also examine the factors that affect gas behavior and how they relate to the gas laws. Students explore

the relationship among pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas. They also study how gas behavior

can be determined through various gas laws, including the combined gas law, Boyle’s law, Charles’s law,

and Gay-Lussac’s law. Students then apply the ideal gas law to determine how these factors would affect

the behavior of an ideal gas. Students also complete two separate laboratory activities to gain a

comprehensive understanding of Boyle’s law and Charles’s law.

Within the lesson Stoichiometric Calculations, students examine the importance of molar mass and mole

ratios in calculating the amounts of reactants needed and products made in a chemical reaction.

Students calculate the mass of substances using mole-to-mass conversion factors, and they calculate

moles of substances using mass-to-mole conversion factors after the on-screen teacher models how to

complete and give strategies for stoichiometric calculations. In addition, students use balanced chemical

equations to calculate the mass of a product given the mass of a reactant in a given chemical reaction.

They also calculate the mass of a reactant given the mass of a second reactant.

In the lesson Lab: Charles’s Law, students investigate the relationship between temperature and volume

of a gas using a capillary tube with trapped oil. Students immerse the capillary tube in a water bath, then

periodically increase the temperature of the bath and observe the impact of the change in temperature

on the volume of gas in the tube. They then perform mathematical and graphical analysis of the data to

determine if there is a direct relationship between the temperature and volume of gases. In addition,

students identify potential sources of error in the experiment and further develop scientific literacy skills

through completing a lab report.










HS-PS1-6.


HS-PS1-7.

Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/ experiments, or technical processes.


Introduce a topic and organize complex ideas, concepts, and information so that each new element builds on that which precedes it to create a unified whole; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension.



HSN-Q.A.1


HSA-CED.A.4

Model with mathematics. MP.4




Stoichiometric conversions can be completed without accounting for units of measurement

and/or the ratio of substances reacting.

■ Stoichiometric calculation questions must be carefully read to determine what

value is being calculated and the units of measurement (i.e., is it calculating

mass, moles, or atoms). It is also important to make sure students understand

the importance of molar ratios in chemical reactions when calculating

stoichiometric values.

The mass ratio of a substance is the same as the molar mass ratio.

■ Mass ratio is the measure of the mass of one element in a chemical formula in

relation to the mass of another element in the formula. Molar mass is the mass

of one mole of a particular substance, and is calculated using atomic mass units

(amu) from the periodic table. Molar mass ratio is the measure of the molar

mass of one element in a chemical formula in relation to the molar mass of

another element in the formula.

Molar mass is not related to the coefficients in chemical equations.

■ The molar mass of a specific compound is calculated by adding the atomic

masses of all the elements in the compound together, and then multiplying or

dividing the calculated value by the coefficient of the compound seen in the

balanced chemical equation.

When we cannot feel pressure, there is not any pressure.

■ Even though we are unable to feel pressure most of the time, there are

situations in which we can feel differences in air pressure that occur. For

example, the difference in air pressure can be felt when traveling in an airplane,

particularly during take offs and landings. When opening a soda can, the change

in pressure as the gas escapes can be heard as a hissing sound.

The particles of a gas will get larger when the gas expands.

■ The molecules of a gas sample stay the same size, but distances between the

molecules get larger when the sample expands.

The Celsius or Fahrenheit scales can be used for temperature in the gas laws.

■ While Celsius and Fahrenheit are the common temperature scales used for

many scientific calculations, any gas law problems that involve temperature

must use the Kelvin scale when calculating values. For example, if a gas law

problem gives an initial temperature in Celsius and asks for the final

temperature, the value must be converted to Kelvin and then back to Celsius

during the calculation process. The values cannot be calculated directly by using

Celsius temperatures.



UNIT 6: ENERGY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Estimated Unit Time: 21 Class Periods (1,020 Minutes)

In this unit, students examine the characteristics of energy and heat involved in chemical reactions and

thermochemical equations. Students explore energy transformations and the law of conservation of

energy. They then apply this knowledge to gain a conceptual understanding of how heat flow

demonstrates these principles within chemical reactions. Next, students investigate how calorimetry

can be used to calculate the heat of a chemical process and determine specific heat of materials through

a laboratory investigation. They further develop scientific literacy skills by completing a lab report.

Additionally, students identify the relationship of enthalpy to chemical reactions and phase changes.

Students analyze the flow of energy in phase changes using molar enthalpies and they calculate

enthalpy changes in chemical reactions and determine chemical equations from intermediate reaction

steps. Finally, students complete a laboratory activity where they collect, analyze, and construct

conclusions to gain a comprehensive understanding of Hess’s law and its relationship to enthalpy.

In the lesson Lab: Calorimetry and Specific Heat, students assemble and use a coffee cup calorimeter to

measure the specific heat of several metals and determine which is the most appropriate for making

cookware. Students heat each metal sample (aluminum, iron, copper, and lead) to 100 °C. Then, they

collect data on the temperature change of the metal when it is placed in the calorimeter. After collecting

all quantitative data, students perform mathematical analysis to calculate the specific heat of each

metal and determine which would make the most cost-effective, efficient, and safe cookware. In

addition, students apply their knowledge to analyze the effectiveness of other cooking materials in real-

world scenarios.

In the lesson Enthalpy, Entropy, and Free Energy, students examine the characteristics of spontaneous

reactions, including the roles of entropy and enthalpy in the spontaneity of reactions. Through video-

based instruction, students develop the understanding that the amount of entropy in a system affects

overall system order. Students also compare open, closed, and isolated systems, and they explain the

relationship between entropy and the second law of thermodynamics. Students apply mathematical

skills to calculate changes in entropy and free energy in a given chemical reaction. Students explain how

the change in free energy in a chemical reaction affects its spontaneity and describe the relationship

between temperature and reaction spontaneity. Additionally, students apply their conceptual

knowledge of bond energies and related intermolecular and intramolecular forces to model and analyze

a simple chemical reaction. Students model the reaction using the ball-and-stick method, write an

analysis of the reaction, and examine the bonds of each molecule in the reaction. Finally, students

calculate the total bond energy for the reaction.









Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that the transfer of thermal energy when two components of different temperature are combined within a closed system results in a more uniform energy distribution among the components in the system (second law of thermodynamics).

HS-PS3-4.

Develop a model to illustrate that the release or absorption of energy from a chemical reaction system depends upon the changes in total bond energy. HS-PS1-4.

Create a computational model to calculate the change in the energy of one component in a system when the change in energy of the other component(s) and energy flows in and out of the system are known. HS-PS3-1.




HSN-Q.A.1


HSN-Q.A.3




Adding heat to a substance will always cause a chemical change.

■ While adding heat to a substance can cause chemical changes in some

circumstances, there are many changes that involve heat that are physical and

not chemical. For example, the melting of ice into water when heat is added is a

physical change rather than a chemical change.

Energy is released when chemical bonds are broken and absorbed when chemical bonds form.

■ When a chemical bond is broken, energy is required from the environment to

cause that change to occur, so energy is absorbed when chemical bonds are

broken. When a chemical bond is formed, it releases energy back to the

environment.

True chemical reactions will always produce heat.

■ While there are many chemical reactions that do produce heat, there are also a

variety of chemical reactions that require heat to occur. Exothermic reactions

are heat-releasing, while endothermic reactions are heat-absorbing.

Entropy always increases in chemical reactions.

■ Entropy will increase in chemical reactions that occur within an isolated system.

There are many chemical reactions, such as the reaction of hydrogen gas and

oxygen gas to form liquid water, which will decrease the entropy of the system.

The enthalpy of a reaction is the same as molar enthalpy.

■ Enthalpy of a reaction is the amount of energy absorbed in a chemical reaction.

Molar enthalpy is the amount of energy needed to form 1 mol of a reactant in

its standard state of matter.

The reaction components that are part of a chemical system are always part of the

surroundings.

■ A chemical system is the part of the chemical universe that a scientist is

studying. The surroundings are the portions of the chemical universe that a

scientist is not interested in studying.



UNIT 7: REACTION RATES AND EQUILIBRIUM


In this unit, students investigate various factors that affect reaction rate and chemical equilibrium,

including temperature, concentration, and pressure. They examine the impact of catalysts and

activation energy on overall reaction rates and conduct graphical analysis of reaction pathways to

determine the type of reaction depicted. Students also learn through video-based instruction the

dynamic equilibrium and how it is related to Le Chatelier’s principle. In addition, students complete

laboratory activities to gain a comprehensive understanding of the impact of temperature and particle

size on reaction rates, and they further develop scientific literacy skills by completing a lab report for

each activity.

In the lesson Lab: Reaction Rate, students investigate the impact of temperature and particle size on the

overall rate of the chemical reaction between water and a sodium bicarbonate tablet. They conduct a

series of experiments in which they change the water temperature to observe its effect on reaction rate,

and they break the tablet into different particle sizes to observe how it affects the reaction rate.

Students then perform mathematical analysis of the collected data to determine which factor has the

greatest impact overall. In addition, they analyze collected data to determine the relationship between

temperature and reaction rate, to determine the relationship between particle size and reaction rate,

and to identify potential sources of error.

In the lesson Shifts in Equilibrium, the on-screen teacher helps students examine the factors that cause

disruptions—such as changes in concentration, temperature, or pressure—in a chemical system that is

in equilibrium. Students also analyze Le Chatelier’s principle and the way it applies to chemical systems

in dynamic equilibrium. Students use data about changes in a chemical system to calculate the

equilibrium constant and reaction quotient for specific reactions, and they make predictions about how

equilibrium will shift in the system. Additionally, students complete a project where they use the

periodic table to analyze a simple chemical reaction and predict the physical and chemical properties of

the elements involved. Students consider the equilibrium of the reaction as it occurs and discuss what

factors would shift the equilibrium of the reaction to the right. Finally, students research the reaction,

revise their predictions, and explain the revisions based on how the reaction actually occurs in real-

world situations.










HS-PS1-2.

Develop a model to illustrate that the release or absorption of energy from a chemical reaction system depends upon the changes in total bond energy.

HS-PS1-4.

Apply scientific principles and evidence to provide an explanation about the effects of changing the temperature or concentration of the reacting particles on the rate at which a reaction occurs.

HS-PS1-5.


HS-PS1-6.


HS-PS1-7.



Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events,

scientific procedures/experiments, or technical processes.

CCSS.ELA-

Literacy.WHST.11-

12.2

Introduce a topic and organize complex ideas, concepts, and information so that each new element builds on that which precedes it to create a unified whole; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension.


Use technology, including the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products in response to ongoing feedback, including new arguments or information.


Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.





HSN-Q.A.1



HSN-Q.A.3

Reason abstractly and quantitatively.

MP.2




The limiting reagent in a chemical reaction is the one present in the smallest amount.

■ The limiting reagent in a chemical reaction is the one that is completely

consumed when the chemical reaction is complete. In some cases, this reagent

is the one present in the smallest amount, but not in all cases.

A chemical reaction can go to completion only if it has a high enough reaction rate.

■ The rate of a reaction does not affect whether a reaction will go to completion;

rather, it indicates the speed at which a reaction occurs. The reaction rate also

does not indicate how much reactant will be used up during the course of the

reaction. Some reactions may appear to be complete after very little of the

reactants are used, while others may have a very slow rate but eventually turn

all reactants into products.

The activation energy of a reaction can be lowered if the temperature of the reaction is

increased.

■ The temperature of a chemical reaction does not have an effect on the

activation energy of the reaction. Temperature affects the rate of a chemical

reaction by increasing the amount of collisions that occur between the atoms

involved. The activation energy can only be changed by adding a catalyst to the

reaction that can lower the energy needed for a reaction to occur.

Chemical reactions cannot be reversed.

■ There are many examples of chemical reactions that are reversible. For

example, the reaction that occurs between water (a weak acid) and ammonia (a

weak base) is a reversible reaction.

When a chemical reaction is in equilibrium, the reaction rate is zero.

■ When a chemical reaction is in equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is

equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.

When a chemical reaction is in equilibrium, the reaction has stopped.

■ When a chemical reaction is in equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is

equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.



UNIT 8: MIXTURES, SOLUTIONS, AND SOLUBILITY


In this unit, students examine the types and properties of mixtures and solutions. Students explore the

various properties of water and its importance in chemistry and biological systems and explore reactions

in aqueous solutions. In addition, students investigate the factors that affect the solubility of a

substance. Students complete a laboratory activity to gain a comprehensive understanding of the

relationship between temperature and solubility, and they further develop scientific literacy skills by

completing a lab report for the activity. Students examine through video-based instruction the different

ways to express solution concentration. They then apply mathematical analysis to calculate solution

concentrations in units of molarity, molality, and parts per million. They also determine solution

dilutions. Finally, students learn about colligative properties and investigate how a solution’s

concentration affects other properties of the solution, such as freezing point and boiling point.

In the lesson Lab: Solubility students investigate the relationship between temperature and the

solubility of a solute using sugar and water. After reviewing the procedures and goals of the lab through

a video-based tutorial, students carry out their own procedure. Students measure how many teaspoons

of sugar dissolve in cold water. Then they change the temperature of the water and observe how much

additional sugar dissolves before the solvent becomes saturated. Through a series of three additional

experiments, students test the effects of three different temperature changes on the dissolution of

sugar. Students then perform mathematical and graphical analysis of the data to determine if there is a

direct relationship between the temperature and solubility of a solute. In addition, students apply their

knowledge to analyze solubility in real-world scenarios.

In the lesson Measures of Concentration: Molality and Other Calculations students investigate methods

other than molarity to express concentration. Students examine how molality, grams per liter, percent

concentration, and parts per million can be used to indicate concentration of a solution. They then apply

the mathematical analysis demonstrated by the on-screen teacher to calculate solution concentration in

these different units. In addition, students perform dimensional analysis to convert concentration units

from mole-based to mass-based values or from one unit of concentration to a different unit of

concentration.










HS-PS1-2.


HS-PS1-3.

Apply scientific principles and evidence to provide an explanation about the effects of changing the temperature or concentration of the reacting particles on the rate at which a reaction occurs.

HS-PS1-5.

Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/ experiments, or technical processes.


Use precise language, domain-specific vocabulary and techniques such as metaphor, simile, and analogy to manage the complexity of the topic; convey a knowledgeable stance in a style that responds to the discipline and context as well as to the expertise of likely readers.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.2d

Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.



HSN-Q.A.1


HSA-CED.A.4




Solutions are made only of liquids.

■ A solution is a special type of homogeneous mixture that contains two or more

substances. Solutions may be composed of combinations of all three states of

matter, including multiple solids, solids and liquids, solids and gases, multiple

liquids, liquids and gases, or multiple gases.

The mass of the solute disappears when it is mixed with a solvent to form a solution.

■ When a solution is formed, one substance (the solute) dissolves into a second

substance (the solvent). When this occurs, the mass of the solute is conserved,

and the overall mass of the solution will be equal to the mass of the solute and

the mass of the solvent.

Air is not a mixture.

■ A homogeneous mixture is a mixture composed of solids, liquids, and/or gases

that has the same proportions of all the components it contains in any given

sample of the mixture. In many cases, it may be difficult to tell that a

homogeneous mixture contains different components. Air is an example of a

homogenous mixture.

Solids dissolve into liquids because there are gaps between the liquid molecules that are filled

by the solid.

■ Within a solution, solutes dissolve into a solvent due to the polarity of the

components. Solutions that are composed of polar solutes and solvents, or non-

polar solutes and solvents will combine much more easily than solutions that

contain one non-polar component and one polar component (i.e., like dissolves

like).



UNIT 9: ACID-BASE REACTIONS


In this unit, students examine and identify properties of acids and bases and their real-world

applications. Students classify acids and bases as Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, or Lewis acids/bases.

Students then explore pH and the way it is affected by hydrogen and hydroxide ion concentration. They

also apply logarithmic functions to solve pH problems. Students complete a laboratory activity to gain a

comprehensive understanding of how pH is determined using indicators and meters, and they further

develop scientific literacy skills by completing a lab report for the activity. Students examine the

interactions of acids and bases in chemical reactions through video-based instruction. Students

differentiate between neutralization and titration reactions. They also predict the products that will be

formed in specific acid-base reaction scenarios. Students develop an understanding of the titration

process and how titration principles can be used in food testing in a laboratory investigation. They then

explore the role of buffers in acid/base reactions and the applications of buffers within the human body.

In the lesson Lab: Measuring pH, students investigate the pH of a variety of acids and bases using both a

universal pH indicator and a red cabbage pH indicator. Students initially collect data from several

solutions composed of various concentrations of hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, and/or distilled

water by performing mathematical analysis to calculate the pH of each and then testing the individual

solutions with pH indicator paper. Students then retest the solutions using the red cabbage indicator to

confirm it is calibrated correctly, and they lastly use the red cabbage indicator to conduct pH tests on

several common household acids and bases. Students collect qualitative and quantitative data on each

household solution to determine the acidity or basicity of each.

In the lesson Lab: Titration, students investigate how titration can be used to determine the

concentration of an unknown acid. Students use a known concentration of sodium hydroxide and titrate

it into an unknown concentration of hydrochloric acid containing phenolphthalein indicator to show

when the amounts of acid and base in the titrated solution are equivalent. After they have performed

the titration trial three times, students then conduct mathematical analysis of the values obtained to

determine the average concentration of the hydrochloric acid. In addition, students identify potential

sources of error and further develop scientific literacy skills by completing a lab report on the

experiment.









Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level and the composition of the nucleus of atoms.

HS-PS1-1.


HS-PS1-2.





HSN-Q.A.1


HSN-Q.A.3




Neutralization is caused by the breakdown of an acid.

■ Neutralization is a chemical reaction that occurs when a strong acid combines

with a strong base. In a neutralization reaction, the acid and the base each

dissociate (breakdown) into their individual components, then recombine to

form a salt and water.

A strong acid will eat away a substance faster than a weak acid.

■ The strength of an acid is dependent on how it reacts when combined with

water, not on how quickly it dissolves another substance. Strong acids will

completely ionize (dissociate) when added to water, while weak acids will only

partly ionize (dissociate).

The strength of an acid or base is the same as its concentration.

■ The strength and concentration of an acid or base are not the same. The

strength of an acid or base relates to how much of the acid or base will ionize

(dissociate) when it is added to a solution. Strong acids and bases are referred

to as such because they will almost completely ionize (dissociate) in a solution.

Weak acids and bases will only partly ionize (dissociate) in a solution. The

concentration of an acid or base relates to how many moles of the acid or base

are found in a liter of a given solution.



UNIT 10: REDOX REACTIONS


In this unit, students examine chemical reactions involving the oxidation and reduction of compounds.

Students identify oxidation-reduction reactions and assign oxidation numbers to atoms to determine

oxidized and reduced species within individual compounds. They then examine the relationships

between oxidizing and reducing agents and apply mathematical concepts to write and balance redox

half-reactions. In addition, students explore the use of redox reactions in fuel cells to provide energy and

in voltaic cells to generate an electric current from a chemical reaction. Then, they examine the process

by which electrolytes conduct electricity in electrolytic cells. In a lab activity, students construct an

electrolytic cell and explore how electrolysis can be used to separate water into hydrogen gas and

oxygen gas. Students also further develop scientific literacy skills by writing an analysis of the

applications of oxidation-reduction reactions in fuel cells to real-world energy needs.

In the lesson Fuel Cells students explore the structure of fuel cells and the process fuel cells use to

produce energy. Students also compare the efficiency of different types of fuel cells and the amount of

power produced by fuel cells to regular car batteries. In addition, students examine various real-world

applications of fuel cells described by the on-screen teacher, such as in technology and transportation,

and they analyze the benefits and disadvantages of fuel-cell cars. Upon completion of the lesson,

students create a written argument either for or against the immediate introduction of fuel-cell cars,

including information on environmental and economic effects, possible points of objection, and

counterarguments to the objections.

In the lesson Voltaic Cells, students explore the electrochemical processes which produce current in a

voltaic cell. Students apply a video-based tutorial to breakdown how an electrochemical cell is

constructed and practice identifying the different parts of a voltaic cell. Then, students compare

different types of voltaic cells and fuel cells. Additionally, they classify batteries as types of

electrochemical cells and discover how batteries can be manipulated to produce an increase in electrical

output. At the end of the lesson, students interpret the application of a voltaic cell in the real-world

example of a car, analyzing the benefits and limitations of implementing large fuel cells in practical

situations. Then, in their assignment, students interpret a passage about homemade voltaic cells to

create their own sketch of a lemon battery.










HS-PS1-2.

Design, build, and refine a device that works within given constraints to convert one form of energy into another form of energy.

HS-PS3-3.


HS-PS2-6.


HS-PS1-7.

Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.



Develop claim(s) and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying the most relevant data and evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both claim(s) and counterclaims in a discipline-appropriate form that anticipates the audience’s knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.WHST.11-12.1b



HSN-Q.A.3




Oxidation occurs when an atom gains electrons, while reduction occurs when an atom loses

electrons.

■ Reduction of an atom occurs when it gains electrons, while oxidation occurs

when it loses electrons. Gaining additional electrons will cause an atom to

become negatively charged, while losing electrons will cause an atom to

become positively charged. The mnemonic “OiL RiG” (Oxidation is Loss,

Reduction is Gain) may help students to better remember the differences

between these two processes.

An element in a redox reaction can only be oxidized or reduced.

■ While many elements are only be able to be oxidized or reduced, there are

some elements that can participate in specialized reactions called

disproportionation reactions. These elements will undergo both oxidation and

reduction in the same chemical reaction. Thus, some elements are able to have

more than one oxidation number.



UNIT 11: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY


In this unit, students examine the properties of carbon and its essential role in the creation of organic

compounds. Video-based instruction introduces models of organic compounds, including structural

formulas and ball-and-stick models. Students differentiate between alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes, and

practice naming saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Instruction segues to exploring functional

groups and their effects on the properties of organic compounds. Students determine real-world

applications of hydrocarbons, and they examine the role of organic compounds in living organisms and

in organic reactions. Students compare the four main types of organic compounds found within the

body and explore their roles in processes such as energy storage and regulation of chemical reactions.

They then differentiate between types of organic reactions, such as polymerization and condensation. In

addition, students examine the processes of metabolism and cellular respiration. Students conclude the

unit with a laboratory investigation where they identify nutrients in foods necessary for metabolism by

using indicator solutions.

Students begin a detailed study of organic compounds in the lesson Properties and Uses of Unsaturated

Hydrocarbons. Video-based instruction examines the characteristics and real-world applications of

unsaturated hydrocarbons. Students differentiate between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

and compare and name alkenes and alkynes. Students also describe cis- and trans- isomers, and they

identify the properties of aromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, students analyze graphs to determine

trends in properties such as boiling points and vapor pressure of unsaturated hydrocarbons. Students

also identify applications of unsaturated hydrocarbons in areas such as food, medicine, and

transportation.

Students further explore the characteristics of organic compounds in the lesson Functional Groups.

Video-based instruction begins with an examination of the types of functional groups and how they

affect the properties of compounds containing them. Students differentiate between alkyl halides,

alcohols, ethers, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, esters, and amines. They apply rules for naming

compounds and comparing structures of each. Students also investigate real-world applications of

different functional groups and identify properties of compounds containing them.










HS-PS2-6.


HS-PS1-2.

Develop a model to illustrate that the release or absorption of energy from a chemical reaction system depends upon the changes in total bond energy.

HS-PS1-4.

Analyze how the text structures information or ideas into categories or hierarchies, demonstrating understanding of the information or ideas.


Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., quantitative data, video, multimedia) in order to address a question or solve a problem.







HSN-Q.A.3




Living organisms contain only organic compounds.

■ Many compounds found within living organisms, such as carbon dioxide, water,

salts, and many minerals are not organic.

Hydrocarbons contain water.

■ The prefix “hydro” in hydrocarbons describes the presence of hydrogen in these

compounds, not water. Hydrocarbons are made of only hydrogen and carbon

atoms.



UNIT 12: NUCLEAR REACTIONS


In this unit, students gain a comprehensive understanding of basic concepts related to nuclear physics,

including radioactivity and half-life. Video-based instruction introduces the properties of the nucleus of

the atom, and students analyze nuclear forces and processes. Next, students compare three types of

radioactive decay and differentiate between chemical and nuclear reactions. They then apply

mathematical concepts to balance nuclear equations using mass and atomic numbers. Students

investigate the process of half-life in a laboratory activity, using simulation and calculation. The video-

based tutorial then segues to a discussion of fission and fusion, and it gives applications of nuclear

phenomena in everyday scenarios. Students examine the role of nuclear fusion in producing energy in

stars—including the Sun—as well as in the creation of elements heavier than helium. Students also

explore the role of nuclear radiation in various real-world applications, including applications in

medicine and industry. Students analyze the advantages and disadvantages of the use of nuclear energy

as a resource.

Students investigate radioactive decay in the lesson Lab: Half-Life. Students use modeling with everyday

objects to study the effects of half-life on the radioactivity of a sample element. Students begin with 100

“radioactive” objects, and simulate eight half-life cycles by removing items that have become “stable.”

Students then conduct mathematical and graphical analysis to determine how radioactive decay affects

the overall amount of radioactive material remaining, and the number of stable atoms created from an

initial sample over time. Students analyze their data and draw conclusions in a complete lab report.

Students end the unit with the lesson Nuclear Energy, where they apply scientific literacy skills to create

a written argument establishing their position on the use of nuclear power. They will defend this

argument with clear reasons and supporting evidence from resources provided in the lesson on the

benefits and disadvantages of nuclear power as an energy source. Students also identify issues related

to disposing of nuclear waste and compare the use of nuclear energy to other resource options.









Develop models to illustrate the changes in the composition of the nucleus of

the atom and the energy released during the processes of fission, fusion, and

radioactive decay.

HS-PS1-8.


HS-PS1-7.

Evaluate the validity and reliability of claims in published materials about the viability of nuclear power as a source of alternative energy relative to other forms of energy (e.g., fossil fuels, wind, solar, geothermal).

HS-PS3-6.



Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks; analyze the specific results based on explanations in the text.





Model with mathematics. MP.4





An atom of an element cannot be changed into another element.

■ The addition or subtraction of a proton can change an atom from one element

into another. Protons are added to or subtracted from elements during the

processes of radioactive decay, nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion.

Nuclear fission always releases more energy than nuclear fusion.

■ Both nuclear fission and nuclear fusion generate massive amounts of energy

from atoms. Nuclear fusion reactions are typically more powerful than nuclear

fission reactions, but are much more difficult to sustain over long periods of

time. Therefore, nuclear fission reactions are used in nuclear reactors to

produce energy.

Beta particles are released by a change in an atom’s electron shells.

■ Beta particles are released when a neutron changes into a proton during

radioactive decay. Beta particles are produced from changes in the nucleus of

an atom, rather than the electron shells that surround the nucleus.

When an element undergoes radioactive decay, its nucleus will eventually disappear.

■ When an element undergoes radioactive decay, its nucleus becomes more

stable due to the loss of unstable matter in the atom. The nucleus does not

disappear, but rather, the element changes from one type into another more

stable element.



STRATEGIES FOR FOSTERING EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS

INTRODUCTION

Listening comprehension and speaking skills that are used in classroom discussions are crucial to

learning and to the development of literacy (Horowitz, 2015 citing Biber, 2006; Conley 2013; Hillocks,

2011; and Kellaghna, 2001). Classroom discussions help students become personally involved in their

education by helping both teachers and students achieve a variety of important goals. Effective

classroom discussions enhance student understanding by broadening student perspectives, adding

needed context to academic content, highlighting opposing viewpoints offered by other participants,

reinforcing knowledge, and helping establish a supportive learning community.

PROMOTING EFFECTIVE DISCUSSIONS

Edgenuity lessons set the foundation for rich, in-depth student discussions that can be facilitated by a

classroom instructor and directed using the guidelines that follow. Excellent discussions often begin with

well-planned questions that students personally connect to and are engaging or capture students’

imaginations.

1. As the class begins, use material that is familiar or comfortable for students personally, and then

progress toward ideas central to course content.

2. If a question fails to garner a response or doesn’t seem to gain the interest of your students,

trying rephrasing or provide an example. Even the best instructors ask questions that go

nowhere; the trick is to keep trying.

3. Encourage students to create and ask their own discussion questions, gradually shifting the

responsibility for moving discussions forward from the instructor to the students as students

demonstrate readiness.

4. Support students who struggle with articulating and supporting their views by providing some of

the discussion questions to them beforehand. The opportunity to process the question and

make notes can help reticent students participate more readily.

5. Use questions that draw upon knowledge (Remembering)

o Use Blooms verbs to develop questions that allow students to demonstrate

understanding at multiple levels. For example:

Questions that ask students to demonstrate comprehension:

o What is meant when the author writes…?

o Will you state or interpret in your own words…?

Questions that encourage reasoning or analysis of an idea or text:

o I wonder why…?

o What would happen if…?

o What could have been the reason…?

o What conclusions can you draw . . . ?



Questions that promote evaluation of a process or idea:

o What might be better…?

o Would you agree that…?

Questions that promote synthesis of a concept:

o Can you propose an alternative…?

o How could you change (modify) the process (plan)?

o What can you infer from…?

o Can you make the distinction between…?

Questions that promote application of a concept:

o How could this idea be applied to…?

o How could you use this information to…?

Effective discussions usually begin with clear ground rules. Make sure students understand your

discussion guidelines. For example:

• Allow students to challenge one another, but do so respectfully. Participants may

comment on the ideas of others, but must refrain from criticizing individuals.

• Encourage students who are offended by anything said during discussion to

acknowledge it immediately.

• Encourage students to listen actively and attentively.

• Do not allow students to interrupt one another.

• Do not allow students to offer opinions without supporting evidence.

• Make sure students avoid put-downs (even humorous ones).

• Encourage students to build on one another’s comments; work toward shared

understanding.

• Do not allow one student or a small number of students to monopolize discussion.

• Some instructors ask each class to develop its own rules for discussions. The instructor

must then take care to honor those rules and to make sure students honor them as well.



SUGGESTED DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR CHEMISTRY

Research supports building in time for students to talk about texts after they read them. This time

should enable readers to recompose, self-reflect, analyze, and evaluate the meaning of the text

(Cosent Lent & Gilmore, 2013; Horowitz, 2015). Please use the questions located below to guide your

Chemistry in-class discussions.

Unit 1: Atoms and the Periodic Table

1. Why are models helpful in studying atoms? With what other ideas or concepts are models

helpful?

2. Suppose you are making chicken soup. The soup has chicken broth, carrots, onions, celery,

chicken, and salt (NaCl). Is chicken soup an element, compound, heterogeneous mixture, or

homogeneous mixture? How do you know? Which ingredients in chicken soup (or another

food) would be an example of an element? A compound? A mixture? Explain why these

ingredients fit the different categories.

3. When Dmitri Mendeleev organized the periodic table, there were missing elements. How do

you suppose this helped scientists find new elements?

4. Scientists reorganized the periodic table when new information and patterns appeared. Why is

it important to rethink or revise ideas with new information? How effective would scientific

practices be if ideas were not revised?

5. “Fool’s gold” is a mineral that can be mistaken for gold if one does not know the properties of

the element. If there was a piece of gold and a piece of “fool’s gold” in front of you, how might

you test them to see which was the real element? Use the properties of the periodic table to

help you.

6. Distinguish the properties of the different groups on the periodic table. What characteristics of

each group’s structure help us predict the properties of elements in these groups?

7. How do the atomic structures of elements support the idea that halogens are highly reactive

and noble gases are not?

8. Carbon is an element found in all living things. Looking at the periodic table, what do we know

about carbon? Why might this element be useful as a building block for life?

9. How might life be different if it was silicon based instead of carbon based? Think about the

properties of the elements and the article “Looking for Silicon-Based Alien Life?” when forming

your answer.

10. Thinking about the article, “The Lead Poisoning Symptoms Everyone Should Know” by

Jacqueline Andriakos, what precautions should be taken when using the element lead?



Unit 2: States and Properties of Matter

1. In the news article, “So How Exactly Does It Help to Put Brine and Sand on Icy Roads?” what

explanation does the author give for the melting effects of salt on icy roads? How does this

compare to the effects of sand on icy roads?

2. Distinguish the properties of ideal gases from nonideal gases. How does the study of ideal gases

relate to real-world characteristics of gases? How do the theoretical behaviors of ideal gases

help people predict the actual properties of gases?

3. In the Physical and Chemical Changes lab, you made qualitative observations about the

properties of matter and its changes. What are the limitations of qualitative data? Describe why

qualitative observations were a useful form of data collection for the purposes of the lab.

4. Consider the article on metallic hydrogen. The article discussed the existence of a special state

of matter that has to be artificially created on Earth. How would you assess the relationship

between this unusual state of matter and the states that you have studied—liquid, gas, solid,

and plasma?

5. Plasmas rarely exist on Earth, but they are the most common state of matter in the universe.

What are the conditions on Earth that make plasmas so rare?

6. As water freezes, the thin surface of water begins to freeze first. Scientists have tried to study

this phenomenon to determine whether the thin layer of ice is more like a solid or a liquid.

Applying your knowledge of intermolecular forces, predict why this occurs. What properties

would make the freezing layer of ice more like a liquid?

7. Based on the article, “What Causes Humidity,” from Scientific American, how does temperature

affect the humidity in the air? How can you relate humidity to the properties of partial pressures

in the air? What other properties of gases affect relative humidity?

8. Common items such as shaving cream, mayonnaise, and chocolate mousse are examples of

amorphous solids because they are resistant to movement, like solids, but lack a crystalline

structure, like liquids. How would these amorphous solids be changed by heating or freezing

them? Predict and describe the changes in intermolecular forces that would occur. Consider the

effects of extremely high and low temperatures.

9. Recall the phenomenon of water illustrated in the article and accompanying video “Water’s Big

(and Then Bigger) Bounce.” What engineering applications could this phenomenon of super

repellent surfaces have? Determine how it could be used to solve a real-world problem.

10. According to “What causes humidity,” scientists use dew point temperature as a measure of the

moisture content of air. Dew point is the temperature below which dew forms. What do you

think this temperature can describe about the amount of water vapor in the air? Infer the

differences in moisture content between air with a low dew point and air with a high dew point.

11. Geysers experience eruptions of steam generated by the heating of groundwater. What

environmental conditions contribute to this rapid phase change? What would happen if the air

was at freezing temperature as a geyser erupted?



12. Olympic swimmers wear swim caps and bodysuits to move faster through the water, which is an

application of hydrodynamics. Hydrodynamics is the branch of science that deals with the

motion of objects through a fluid. What forces affect how quickly a swimmer can move through

pool water? Examine the effects that swim caps and bodysuits have on these interactions

between a solid and a liquid.

Unit 3: Chemical Bonding

1. Lattice energy is a measure of the bond strengths in a crystalline structure. How can you predict

the physical properties of an ionic crystal based on its lattice energy? Compare the properties of

two hypothetical crystals with different lattice energies.

2. Based on the article “Hydrogen Bonds Directly Detected for the First Time,” how does an atomic

microscope differentiate hydrogen bonds from other intermolecular forces?

3. Many kinds of jewelry oxidize and turn green or bluish-green. This can stain skin in the process.

How do you think this affects the health of people who wear jewelry these types of jewelry?

What are some ways that the metal composition of jewelry could be changed to decrease

oxidation?

4. Super absorbent polymers (SAPs) are specialized compounds that are designed to absorb

extremely large amounts of liquid, sometimes up to 300 times their own weight. Using scientific

evidence, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using these materials in practical

applications.

5. The models of molecular geometry are useful for predicting the structures of molecules. Do you

think there are limitations when applying the concepts of molecular geometry to real-world

molecular structures? Explain.

6. Amines are commonly found in household bases, such as cleaning supplies, and are highly

reactive with water. What might be some health hazards of amines when they come into

contact with human skin or other parts of the body?

7. As explained in the reading about helium’s “nanny” role in stabilizing mineral compounds,

helium is not as unreactive as researchers previously thought. Interpret how these new findings

could affect our understanding of the noble gases. Do you think other noble gases would react

as helium does when under high pressure? What are the implications of this discovery?

8. Consider the article from the New York Times about an engineered plastic that could improve

the functionality of plastic bottles in consumer products. Do you think the new bottles could

have any negative effects on human health? Determine what steps and precautions people

should take before widely implementing a new technology such as this plastic.

9. Geckos have microscopic hairs on their feet that create hydrogen bonds with surfaces, allowing

geckos to walk up walls. Suggest a way that this phenomenon could help to design and engineer

a useful product or technology that people could use in their daily lives. What problem would

this proposed invention help solve?



10. Stainless steel is an alloy consisting mainly of iron, carbon, and chromium and is valued for its

resistance to rusting. You probably know that iron reacts with air and water over time, resulting

in rust. Can you predict what properties of stainless steel enable it to resist rusting? Why do you

think this characteristic of stainless steel is so valuable?

11. In cooking, chefs commonly use foods such as flour or cornstarch as thickening agents in sauces

and soups. How might the properties of these compounds make them suited for this purpose?

Support your answer with appropriate scientific evidence.

12. Dentists use a variety of different materials in tooth fillings, including alloyed combinations of

metals such as silver, tin, and mercury, or composite resins made up of plastic and glass

particles. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using each of these materials for this

purpose.

Unit 4: Chemical Reactions

1. Consider the article “Novel Chemical Reaction” by Tracey Bryant about the development of a

high-efficiency catalyst, which could increase the percent yield of many chemical reactions. Why

do you think this technology could be important for such a wide range of industries, from

agriculture and alternative energy to pharmaceuticals and plastics?

2. Refer to the reaction described in “Novel Chemical Reaction.” Why do you think it took more

than 20 years for scientists to increase the percent yield of the carbon-hydrogen reaction from

less than 50 percent to nearly 100 percent? Can you predict some investigative methods the

scientists may have used to come up with a way to increase the reaction’s efficiency?

3. Based on the article “Fireworks” from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, why is it

important that experienced chemists are in charge of designing the fireworks commonly used

throughout the country? How do you think pyrotechnic chemists develop new kinds of

fireworks?

4. Different metallic compounds produce various effects during the combustion process of a

firework. Can you predict what factors might affect the color, light, and sound of a firework

explosion?

5. Catalysts are used in many chemical reactions to lower activation energy and increase reaction

rates. Scientists are currently investigating ways to use electrocatalysts (catalysts involved in

electrochemical reactions) to cause a decomposition reaction of greenhouse gases, converting

them into renewable fuel resources. What are the implications associated with this research?

Refer to the article “Electrocatalysis can advance green transition” to support your argument

with scientific evidence and examples.

6. As explained in the article “Best of both worlds: Combining two skeleton-building reactions,”

biochemists have devised ways to more efficiently create new types of drugs, from potential

pain medications to blood pressure medicine. How does the molecular structure of drugs like

these determine their functions and properties?

7. Think about naturally occurring chemical reactions in nature and the patterns of energy transfer

which happen all around us. Which type of reaction occurs spontaneously, exothermic or

endothermic? Think of some examples of each from everyday life and compare.



8. Polymerization is process by which small identical molecules are covalently bonded to form long

molecules called polymers. Some examples of polymers include wool, nylon, and plastics. How

would you describe the multistep reaction which forms a polymer? What type of reaction is

this?

9. Runaway polymerization is a dangerous reaction in which products, such as plastic, form at a

very high rate of reaction. Because polymerization is a highly exothermic process, industrial

manufacturers have to take precaution to prevent runaway polymerization. Can you infer some

of the potential dangers of runaway polymerization? What steps might manufacturers take to

control or slow down polymerization?

10. Why do most chemical reactions result in a yield much less than the theoretical yield? Explain

using scientific evidence and common examples of reactions you witness in your daily life.

11. Many engineers focus their research on alternative forms of energy, such as solar and wind

energy. How are these energy sources different from the energy obtained through the

combustion of fossil fuels? What are the benefits and limitations of each?

12. When you burn a piece of wood, the resulting ash weighs a lot less than the original piece of

wood. This is due to the oxidation of carbon and sulfur and because other elements in the wood

release gaseous compounds into the air. How could you design a lab experiment to demonstrate

the conservation of mass when burning a piece of wood or other material?

Unit 5: Stoichiometry and the Gas Laws

1. Consider the explosions that launch and control the direction of a space shuttle. Using your

understanding of the properties of gas, explain how the thrusters on a spacecraft operate.

2. The action of a piston is very similar to the system created and observed in the Lab: Boyle’s law.

A steam engine has a piston that transforms combustion into power. Determine how this

process might work, based on your understanding of the lab or your prior knowledge of similar

engines.

3. Hydraulic engines are similar to steam engines, but hydraulic engines use fluid pressure and flow

instead of gas pressure to produce movement of a vehicle. Compare both engine types. Which

type do you think is more efficient? Explain.

4. The eruption of gases from Lake Nyos in Cameroon caused a large cloud to settle over the

surrounding region. Many people had difficulty breathing as a result of the gaseous mixture’s

presence. What properties of gases could explain this occurrence?

5. Based on your reading about air bags in “Gas Laws—Real-Life Applications,” analyze and discuss

the energy transfers that occur in the deployment of an air bag.

6. In your lab exploration of Charles’s Law, you analyzed how a hot-air balloon rises due to the

expansion of air. How do you think hot-air balloons stay in the air? Does the heated air maintain

its high kinetic energy? How is energy added to or lost by the balloon system? Evaluate the

transfers of energy that occur.

7. Can you predict why real gases sometimes behave differently than ideal gases? Summarize the

causes of these differences. Consider how the identity of a gas and its position on the periodic

table affect its behavior.



8. What can you infer about the relationship between the molecular arrangement of a gas and its

properties? Compare and contrast gas behavior with the behavior of liquids under changes in

temperature and pressure.

9. Compressed air often comes in canisters that can be used to quickly accelerate air, which is

often used for dusting and other cleaning products. What can you infer about the energy

transfer that occurs when you spray a canister of compressed air? How do you think the

pressure on the gas inside the canister compares to atmospheric pressure?

10. Can you justify the use of standard temperature and pressure for stoichiometry of gases? Why

do you think the assumption of STP is critical when determining stoichiometric relationships?

11. Can you predict why gases do not behave ideally at extreme temperatures and pressures?

Explain how the intermolecular interactions of gases under these conditions are different from

those of gases under standard conditions.

Unit 6: Energy and Chemical Reactions

1. List the factors that contribute to the amount of heat transferred between two substances.

Explain how these factors affect the amount of heat transferred.

2. Why is it useful to create prototypes? What factors should someone consider when testing a

prototype? How does one evaluate a prototype?

3. How is the process of adding thermal energy to a solar cooker different from adding thermal

energy to a conventional oven?

4. What is calorimetry? What is the purpose of calorimetry? In your lab, you used calorimetry to

determine the best metal to use for cookware. Describe at least two other ways calorimetry can

be used.

5. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of an aluminum, iron, copper, and lead pan. Which

type of pan would you recommend? Why?

6. What happens to chemical bonds in exothermic and endothermic reactions? How can these

concepts be used to benefit society?

7. After reading “The Big Reveal: What’s Behind Nutrition Labels” by Michael Tinnesand in

ChemMatters, think about why studying the chemistry of calories is important in our daily lives.

How do we study calories? Why are there several methods for studying energy in food?

8. Look at a phase-change graph. Explain what is happening at the horizontal parts of the line.

Why does the temperature remain constant at the points? What is the science word for these

parts of the graph?

9. Design an experiment that would help you determine whether a reaction is spontaneous. What

information do you need? What equations are useful? Why does it matter if a reaction is

spontaneous?

10. Digestion requires the breaking down of food. Sugars are broken down for energy in the body.

Explain the flow of energy involved in the digestion of food.



Unit 7: Reaction Rates and Equilibrium

1. Use your knowledge of mathematics to explain why gases and aqueous species always appear in

an equilibrium expression, while pure solids and pure liquids never do.

2. What is equilibrium? Compare how this concept appears in several chemical and nonchemical

real-world examples. Classify your examples into reversible and nonreversible reactions.

3. What kind of stresses on a system can cause disequilibrium?

4. Predict what happens if either reactant or product concentration decreases.

5. Explain three ways catalysts work to increase reaction rates.

6. How are enzymes used in our everyday lives? Use the information in the article “Enzymes” to

explain why enzymes are valuable ingredients in laundry detergents, fruit juices, and other

common products.

7. Why are spontaneous reactions said to be self-sustaining?

8. What causes a reaction to stop?

9. Compare and give at least four examples of reactions and classify them as exothermic or

endothermic. Defend your classifications.

10. Define dynamic equilibrium and describe how it reflects Le Chatelier’s principle.

11. Apply the process of dissociation and its release of energy to materials in the construction

industry.

12. Read the article “The Chemical Reactions That Make Food Taste Awesome” and note specific

examples of chemical reactions with various reaction rates. How do these reactions affect the

color, taste, and texture of food?

Unit 8: Mixtures, Solutions, and Solubility

1. Based on the reading about water-soluble plastic bags in Chile from The Santiago Times, why do

you think the developers chose a carbon-based plastic to create the new bag? What effects do

you predict large amounts of water-soluble bags would have on oceans and other bodies of

water?

2. In the National Geographic article “Cracking the Secrets of Old Faithful’s Geyser Eggs,” one

scientist compares the formation of geyser eggs to making rock candy. How do you think these

two processes compare? Analyze the similarities and differences between the processes.

3. Based on your understanding of the water cycle and the unique properties of water, how does

industrial pollution affect the water cycle? Explain how the solubility of chemical wastes is

important for understanding how pollution interferes with the water cycle.

4. Why are stock solutions useful for conducting experiments in a lab setting? Summarize some

ways that a stock solution can be useful in testing different properties of reactions in aqueous

solution.

5. How does desalination change the concentration of salt water? Why is this an especially

important process for populations in the aftermath of a natural disaster?

6. Describe the membrane process and thermal distillation process of desalinating water, based on

your understanding of the New York Times article about desalination. Compare and contrast the

benefits and disadvantages of implementing each technology to help populations affected by

natural disasters.



7. Based on the New York Times article “New Technology Could Make Desalination More

Accessible,” how can membrane and thermal distillation processes be combined to produce a

more effective desalination method? Think of your own design for a desalination device or

process and describe how the device would work.

8. Recall the article, “Eating with Your Eyes: The Chemistry of Food Colorings.” Explain the

differences between artificial and natural food colorings. What solubility properties affect the

ability of each type to dissolve in foods? How do you think oil-based food colorings are

processed to enable them to dissolve in water?

9. If you stir sugar into boiling water, pour the solution into a jar, and then insert a wooden stick

into the solution, rock candy will form on the stick within a couple of days. Use your knowledge

of concentrated solutions to predict how this process occurs. Describe a procedure which you

could use to test how much sugar is required for rock candy to form.

10. Why is osmosis an important part of biological functions? Based on your knowledge of cellular

hydration, what effects does lotion have on dry skin? Predict what types of chemicals in lotions

enable them to protect and hydrate skin cells.

11. Sports drinks usually contain electrolytes and sugars to help people rehydrate after exercising.

How do you think these drinks interact with the human body to deliver nutrients? How do these

drinks compare with pure water? How do you think high concentrations of sugar affect the

effectiveness of the drink in rehydrating the human body?

12. In cooking, people often boil pasta in water with small amounts of salt added to it. Why do you

think this is common? What effect would this have on the boiling process? Interpret how this

would be beneficial for cooking pasta.

Unit 9: Acid-Base Reactions

1. Why is it important to closely monitor a titration? Explain why it would be disadvantageous to

increase the volume of the titrant in large increments.

2. For a given chemical equation, how can you use the three different theories of acids and bases

to predict the behavior of a reactant? Describe which types of acids and bases are most

effectively described by each theory—Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis.

3. Consider the properties of bromothymol blue, a chemical indicator of pH. It is blue as an acidic

solution. It turns green between pH 6 and pH 7, and it turns yellow above a pH of 7. Design an

experiment in which bromothymol blue could be used to test changes in acidity or alkalinity of a

reaction in aqueous solution.

4. Based on the article “Ocean Acidification,” what are some of the main concerns associated with

ocean acidification? Propose and explain two possible solutions to these problems.

5. Differentiate between dissociation, ionization, and dissolution. How are all these processes

related to each other?

6. Consider the phenomenon of thirdhand smoke, as described in the article “‘Thirdhand’ Smoke

Can Hitchhike to Non-smoking Sites.” Summarize the processes by which nicotine and other

chemicals produced by a burning cigarette move between nonsmoking locations. Discuss the

concerns presented by the discovery of these properties of “thirdhand” smoke.



7. Enzymes facilitate reactions in biological systems under specific environmental conditions.

Buffer systems play an important role in regulating these conditions. Interpret and explain the

importance of buffers in this context. What effect do they have on enzymatic processes? Predict

what might happen if a buffer was removed from the reaction system of an enzyme.

8. Recall the article “Soil Starts Comeback after Acid Rain Damage.” Why do you think acid rain is a

big concern for farmers and other people in the agricultural industry?

9. Organic chemicals are used in the food and agricultural industries to aid in pest control.

However, there is considerable discussion over the possible effects of pesticides on humans and

other organisms as a result of runoff into water supply. What can you infer from this about the

mechanisms by which pesticides come into contact with people and organisms?

10. Would you agree that ocean acidification is the most important reason that pollution should be

stopped or decreased? Incorporate knowledge from your readings and unit lessons to support

your response.

11. Bases are effective cleaning agents in common household products such as bleach and laundry

detergent. Acidic cleaning products include toilet bowl cleaners and mold removers. Recall the

properties of acids and bases and assess how those properties relate to the effectiveness of

each type of cleaning product.

Unit 10: Redox Reactions

1. Can you describe some ways that electroplating is used to alter common objects? Why do you

think some substances are coated with a metal through electroplating before being used or

sold? Why do companies use this technique instead of using pure metals?

2. The author of “Electroplating: What Every Engineer Needs to Know” describes gold as an

excellent electrical conductor. Can you propose an instance in which this property of gold could

enhance the performance of another substance through electroplating?

3. What effects could widespread use of fuel-cell vehicles have on a society? Predict how using

these vehicles in the place of traditional gasoline-powered cars would change how people travel

and how they refuel their cars.

4. Why do you think hydrogen vehicles are not used more often in the United States?

5. Recall that the author of “Where Are All the Hydrogen Cars?” states that “hydrogen cars are

electric cars.” Can you explain the reasoning behind this statement? Why do you think the

author emphasized this concept?

6. Think about the statement “While most Americans have never seen a fuel-cell vehicle, a

hydrogen fueling station will be built near you someday” from the article “Where Are All the

Hydrogen Cars” in Popular Mechanics. Examine the validity of this statement. Is this statement

factually correct or wishful thinking? Support your explanation with scientific evidence.

7. Flameless ration heaters (FRHs) are small water-activated chemical heaters that use oxidation-

reduction reactions to provide heat energy for use in preparing prepackaged meals. Based on

your knowledge of hand warmers from “The Chemical Reactions That Make Hand Warmers Heat

Up,” describe how a redox reaction could be exothermic. How could this energy be harnessed to

heat food?



8. Voltaic cells powered by stomach acid can provide enough energy for noninvasive medical

procedures involving drug delivery and medical imaging. Analyze the limitations and benefits of

this technology.

9. Recall the article, “Engineers Create Voltaic Cell Powered by Stomach Acid.” Tell how engineers

came up with a stomach acid-powered voltaic cell based on inspiration from a lemon battery.

10. Illustrate a situation in which batteries in a series could better fulfill a purpose than individual

batteries. Consider specific real-world examples as you decide on a situation.

11. Use your understanding of galvanic cells to formulate a lab procedure in which a galvanic cell

could be used to electroplate a substance.

12. Analyze the similarities and differences between fuel cells and voltaic cells. How are they

related? How are they different? Utilize the additional readings on electric cars in addition to

your knowledge of the unit concepts to explain.

Unit 11: Organic Chemistry

1. Why is carbon such an important element in living things?

2. How are the structure and functions of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons similar? What

are some differences?

3. You’ve researched the structure and uses of polypropylene. Why is this hydrocarbon used so

often in industry?

4. How can a change in one atom or group of atoms change the properties of a hydrocarbon?

5. What are the four main types of organic reactions? How are they different?

6. What are some organic reactions that are essential to maintaining living things? Why are they

essential?

7. Some people believe they gain weight because they have slow metabolism. Based on what you

know about cellular metabolism, what advice would you give them?

8. Radiocarbon dating is a process of measuring the proportions of different isotopes of carbon in

organic matter. After an organism dies, the radioactive carbon isotope decays. This loss can be

compared to the amount of stable carbon that has remained the same. Scientists can use

radioactive carbon dating to determine the age of items. What might be some limitations of this

process?

9. In the article “This Plastic Can Be Recycled Over and Over and Over” by Laurel Hamers, how did

scientists use the properties of polymers to develop a new type of plastic?

10. In the article “Olympic Ski Racers Use Chemistry to Enhance Their Performance” by Eric Niiler,

how are advanced polymers changing sports competition? Do you think there should be

regulations for the materials used in sporting equipment for competition? Why or why not?



Unit 12: Nuclear Reactions

1. How do chemical reactions differ from nuclear reactions? How are they the same?

2. How does the structure of the nucleus contribute to atomic stability? In other words, what

makes atoms stable?

3. What causes radioactivity?

4. Based on what you know about half-life, how can radiometric dating be used to determine the

age of rock? How accurate is this method?

5. Many household appliances emit radiation. How might these affect the human body?

6. How can you reduce the amount of radiation you are exposed to?

7. What kind of health effects due to radiation might Moon and Mars explorers experience?

8. Read the article “Photons Map the Atomic Scale to Help Medicine and More” by Kathiann

Kowalski. How are photons able to map the atom? What information does this give scientists?

9. In the article “To Witness Maximum Pressure, Peek inside a Proton,” Emily Conover discusses

the forces within the nucleus. Why do you think the pressure inside a proton is so high?

10. Nuclear fusion would be a source of unlimited energy. Why is fusion not being used? Do you

think it ever will be? Why or why not?



COURSE CUSTOMIZATION

Edgenuity is pleased to provide an extensive course customization toolset, which allows permissioned

educators and district administrators to create truly customized courses that ensure that our courses

can meet the demands of the most rigorous classroom or provide targeted assistance for struggling

students.

Edgenuity allows teachers to add additional content two ways:

1. Create a brand-new course: Using an existing course as a template, you can remove content,

add lessons from the Edgenuity lesson library, create your own activities, and reorder units,

lessons, and activities.

2. Customize a course for an individual student: Change an individual enrollment to remove

content, add lessons, add individualized activities, and reorder units, lessons, and activities.

Below you will find a quick start guide for adding lessons in from a different course or from our lesson

library.



In addition to adding lessons from another course or from our lesson library, Edgenuity teachers can

insert their own custom writing prompts, activities, and projects.



SUPPLEMENTAL TEACHER MATERIALS AND SUGGESTED READINGS


Unit 1: Additional Teaching Materials

Build an Atom

This simulation allows students to manipulate the building blocks of atoms (protons, neutrons, and

electrons) to observe and differentiate between elemental structures. Students can make any element

or ion and represent it with electron cloud and orbital models. The simulation also reports atomic

charge and mass. Once students are familiar with the atomic models and element properties, they

engage in a game where they practice using the periodic table to identify elements.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/build-an-atom/latest/build-an-atom_en.html Properties of Matter: Macro to Nano In this engaging lesson, students explore how properties of certain elements, like gold and aluminum,

differ from one atom to many. The resource includes a student guide that helps students organize their

ideas as they observe properties by watching short video clips and performing hands-on activities. The

resource includes teacher instructions, links to videos, material lists, and suggested discussion questions.

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/activity/properties-matter-macro-nano-scale/

Unit 1: Additional Readings

Looking for Silicon-Based Alien Life?

Carbon and silicon have many similarities; they are in the same group of the periodic table. Silicon is a

common element here on Earth; it makes up 30 percent of the Earth’s crust. It can be found in the

shells of sea organisms, glass, and computer chips. Although it is found all over Earth, it is not a common

element in life. Carbon, on the other hand, is the key ingredient for life on Earth. Could another element

play this role somewhere else in the universe? Kate Baggaley investigates by asking astrobiologists and

chemical engineers if it is possible. Properties of the periodic table give some hints as to the

commonalities between Carbon and Silicon.

https://www.popsci.com/bacteria-have-bonded-carbon-and-silicon-for-first-time-what-can-they-teach-

us

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/build-an-atom/latest/build-an-atom_en.html

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/activity/properties-matter-macro-nano-scale/

https://www.popsci.com/bacteria-have-bonded-carbon-and-silicon-for-first-time-what-can-they-teach-us

https://www.popsci.com/bacteria-have-bonded-carbon-and-silicon-for-first-time-what-can-they-teach-us



Where to Find Rare Earth Elements

Rare earth elements are difficult to extract from the earth, but very important in modern technology. A

Toyota Prius, for example, has almost 20 pounds of rare earth metals in its battery. Rare earths are also

found in cell phones, wind turbines, and solar cells. With rare earths in high demand, Ainissa Ramirez

reports on the demand for rare earth mines and possibilities to recycle old technology for rare earths.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/physics/rare-earth-elements-in-cell-phones/

4 New Super Heavy Elements Have Official Names

Super heavy elements, like element 113, 115, 117, and 118, don’t occur naturally but chemists can

create them in the lab. This article by Jeanna Bryner discusses the process involved in naming the

newest elements 113, 115, 117, and 118.

https://www.livescience.com/57050-4-new-superheavy-elements-names-approved.html

The Lead Poisoning Symptoms Everyone Should Know

Lead is an element. Being a metal it has many different useful properties; it conducts electricity and is

malleable and ductile. This makes lead a good component for the creation of products (such as pipes

and paints), but it is very dangerous when absorbed in the body. Early detection is quite important in

children because it interferes with important body systems. Jacqueline Andriakos discusses what

symptoms to look for, how lead poisoning is diagnosed, and how lead poisoning is treated.

https://www.health.com/news/lead-poisoning-symptoms-flint-michigan-water

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/physics/rare-earth-elements-in-cell-phones/

https://www.livescience.com/57050-4-new-superheavy-elements-names-approved.html

https://www.health.com/news/lead-poisoning-symptoms-flint-michigan-water





Surface Tension of Water

In pages 14–15 of this lesson plan resource, students can model the behavior of water’s surface tension

and then observe real-world examples of how everyday classroom objects interact with surface tension.

Students can use molecular models of water to predict how surface tension resists the penetration of an

object into a liquid. After modeling these interactions, students can perform lab activities using items of

varying masses—from paperclips to metal utensils—and a beaker of water. In addition, they can repeat

these activities with vegetable oil or another liquid with a much higher viscosity, and record their

hypotheses and observations. Instead of having students conduct the experiment on their own, teachers

may choose to perform a class demonstration of the activity, inviting students to engage in predicting,

observing, and discussing the demonstration as they watch. Select the WK Basic Lessons to access these

activities.

https://www.3dmoleculardesigns.com/Teacher-Resources/Water-Kit/Basic-Lesson-Plans.htm

Freezing Balloons: An Exploration of Gas Laws and Intermolecular Forces

In this demonstration, students use their knowledge of gas behavior and kinetic-molecular theory to

compare ideal gases and real gases. For this activity, several balloons are placed in liquid nitrogen, which

should cool the gas inside the balloon and result in a corresponding decrease in volume. Three balloons

are filled with air and one with helium. The balloon filled with helium “misbehaves” because it does not

contract nearly as much as the air-filled balloons. This is because the intermolecular forces of air are

strong, as air consists of a mixture of many different gases. Pure helium, on the other hand, behaves like

an ideal gas. This demonstration can be carried out by the teacher and used as a starting point for

discussions of ideal gas behavior and the effects of intermolecular forces on the experimental behavior

of a gas, in contrast with its theoretical behavior. Alternatively, students can watch a video of the

demonstration.

https://www.chemedx.org/blog/solution-chemical-mystery-4-case-misbehaving-balloon

https://www.3dmoleculardesigns.com/Teacher-Resources/Water-Kit/Basic-Lesson-Plans.htm

https://www.chemedx.org/blog/solution-chemical-mystery-4-case-misbehaving-balloon




So How Exactly Does It Help to Put Brine and Sand on Icy Roads?

This news article by Scott Berson from the Columbus Ledger-Enquirer summarizes the chemistry of

putting salt on icy roads. He explains how the ice lowers the freezing point of water by interfering with

the intermolecular forces of the water. Sand, on the other hand, does not chemically combine with

water molecules. Instead, sand provides traction for cars on ice. With this reading, students can identify

the differences between the two tactics for combating ice on the roads and analyze the properties of

water and ice that contribute to the phenomena discussed in the article.

https://www.ledger-enquirer.com/news/local/article195154664.html

What Causes Humidity?

In this article from Scientific American, Jeffrey Hovis, a science and operations officer with the National

Ocean and Atmospheric Administration’s National Weather Service, provides a brief overview of the

causes of humidity. He explains the relationships between humidity, temperature, and the nature of

gases in the air. This includes a discussion of the dew point, or condensation point, of air. By reading this

article, students identify the factors which affect phase changes of water and water vapor. Then, they

can write an informational text or have a group discussion about humidity and the effects of

temperature on the properties of water in the different phases discussed in the article.

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-causes-humidity/

Researchers Unravel More Mysteries of Metallic Hydrogen

According to a recent study published by Mohamed Zaghoo et al. in The Astrophysical Journal, scientists

from the University of Rochester have explored a phase of hydrogen which does not occur naturally on

Earth but is abundant on other planets, including Jupiter and Saturn. Metallic hydrogen is a rare form of

liquid hydrogen which resembles liquid mercury and behaves like a metal. This reading could be used for

a class discussion comparing liquid hydrogen to metallic hydrogen. Additionally, this could lead to a

discussion of ideal states of matter and their real-world examples, considering how gravity and

atmospheric conditions change the behavior of a liquid.

https://phys.org/news/2018-07-unravel-mysteries-metallic-hydrogen.html

https://www.ledger-enquirer.com/news/local/article195154664.html

https://e360.yale.edu/features/how-deforestation-affecting-global-water-cycles-climate-change

https://phys.org/news/2018-07-unravel-mysteries-metallic-hydrogen.html



Water’s Big (and Then Bigger) Bounce

As James Gorman explains in this article from the New York Times, water bounces in an unusual manner

on water-repellant surfaces. Researchers have found that water droplets can spontaneously bounce off

of a surface as a result of evaporation. As water begins to evaporate, or change from a liquid to a gas,

water vapor collects under the water droplets and then expands. This causes the liquid water above the

water vapor to levitate, or appear to hover slightly off the ground. The article touches on these phase

changes of water and briefly suggests the possibility of engineering applications for their discovery.

Students could discuss or write about other applications of this discovery and explain their reasoning,

identifying a problem and how this phenomenon could be applied to solve the problem.

https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/14/science/waters-big-and-then-bigger-bounce.html

https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/14/science/waters-big-and-then-bigger-bounce.html





Ionic Bonding Mates

In this engaging activity, students identify differences between cations and anions. Then students match

cations and anions and write the balanced chemical formula. Students collaborate with their peers as

they look to make bonds. Students complete a table on the properties of ions and discuss how to name

the ionic compounds. Students complete this activity with a greater understanding of the formation of

ionic bonds, determining which ions from a given group most easily form an ionic bond.

http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceLesson/Preview/132730

Covalent Bonding and Electrostatic Potential

In this activity, the teacher demonstrates a visual model of the electrostatic potential between two

atoms. By selecting and dragging atoms, the teacher can demonstrate how the electrical energy attracts

atoms. In a variety of modeled demonstrations and interactive videos, students learn how atoms pull on

each other and fight over shared electrons. Students engage with the demonstration to understand how

the distance between atoms affects their ability to form a covalent bond. Students also deepen their

understanding of nomenclature for covalent bonds.

https://thinktv.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.covalentbond/covalent-bonding/#.W2r4Y4gvyHs


New Research Explains Why Some Molecules Have Irregular Forms

In this article, Lorin Hancock explains the differences between molecular models and the real-world

structures of certain covalent bonds. Through a discussion of bonds between carbon and different

metals, the article explores the spectrum of covalent bonds, noting how some covalently bonded

molecules behave more like ionic compounds in terms of their arrangement of shared electrons. This

reading can be used in a class discussion of different kinds of covalent bonds and how the covalent

properties and dispersion forces determine molecular structure. Students can also infer how these

varying structures affect physical properties such as melting and boiling point.

https://phys.org/news/2018-07-molecules-irregular.html




https://phys.org/news/2018-07-molecules-irregular.html



Study Suggests Helium Plays a ‘Nanny’ Role in Forming Stable Chemical Compounds

As Charlotte Hsu describes in the article, researchers from California State University and SUNY-Buffalo

have found that helium may play a role in stabilizing uneven electrical forces in compounds. Helium has

long been known to be one of the most unreactive elements. However, under pressure, helium

combines with chemical systems to balance the distribution of negative and positive charges. The

research contends that helium may be more abundant than previously thought in the Earth’s mantle,

where it may combine with ionically bonded minerals under high pressure to create more stable bonds.

Students can use this information to model and discuss how helium would bond with ionic compounds

such as calcium fluoride and bauxite, which are both minerals found in the earth’s crust.

http://www.buffalo.edu/news/releases/2018/03/018.html

Hydrogen Bonds Directly Detected for the First Time

A team of researchers at the University of Basel in Switzerland has used an atomic force microscope to

observe the strength and length of hydrogen bonds. In the study published by Shigeki Kawai et al.,

hydrocarbons consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen were directly viewed and measured in terms

of the hydrogen bonds interacting between molecules. The high-resolution microscope enables

hydrogen bonds to be isolated from van der Waals interactions and differentiated from chemical bonds.

Students can discuss or write about the value and the possibilities of this technology, offering

suggestions of how this kind of research can deepen our understanding of intermolecular forces.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/05/170512221714.htm

Bottles That Could Make Every Drop of Shampoo Count

Engineers at Ohio State University have developed a super-repellant plastic which could improve the

efficiency and functionality of everyday plastic containers, writes Stephen Yin of the New York Times.

From food to shampoo, common items depend on plastic containers. The engineers have created a

cheap plastic that can better allow liquids and amorphous solids to flow through the bottle, which could

eliminate the problem of substances getting stuck to the bottom of a bottle. This reading can be used

for a discussion of the mechanisms and practical applications of the engineered plastic as well as the

forces interacting between the liquid molecules and the plastic bottle.

https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/27/science/shampoo-bottle-

nonstick.html?action=click&module=RelatedCoverage&pgtype=Article&region=Footer

http://www.buffalo.edu/news/releases/2018/03/018.html


https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/27/science/shampoo-bottle-nonstick.html?action=click&module=RelatedCoverage&pgtype=Article&region=Footer

https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/27/science/shampoo-bottle-nonstick.html?action=click&module=RelatedCoverage&pgtype=Article&region=Footer





Determining the Empirical Formula of Hydrates

This lesson activity explores the formation of hydrated metals in chemical reactions. Students learn

about hydrates and how they relate to concepts they have already covered in lessons, specifically in the

Lab: Types of Reactions and the Lab: Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield lessons. Students perform

additional experiments and practice calculating the percent composition of a compound. This activity

can be used to complement students’ understanding of the relationship between percent composition

and molecular formulas.


Double Replacement Reaction Lab

This lesson offers students additional practice to identify a specific type of chemical reaction and

compare and contrast different iterations of double-replacement reactions. In this lab activity, students

perform experiments and analyze the similarities and differences between expected outcomes of a

double-replacement reaction and the actual outcomes. Students can perform this lab in groups and

compare the results of these other double-replacement reactions to the double-replacement reaction of

potassium iodide and lead (II) nitrate, which they perform in the Lab: Types of Reactions. They can

expand upon their observations of that lab to deepen their understanding of double-replacement

reactions.







Fireworks!

In this article from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Kathy De Antonis explains the

combustion mechanisms of fireworks and the different effects resulting from the use of different

reactants, such as lithium salts and copper (I) chloride. The article describes the steps involved in igniting

a firework through two fuse mechanisms. One combustion reaction launches the shell of a firework into

the air, and a second combustion causes the explosion of the shell and produces varying colors, lights,

and sounds. Students can read the article and discuss the science of pyrotechnics and the implications of

firework safety. To access this resource, search for “fireworks” and then select the PDF document titled

“Fireworks!”

https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/articlesbytopic/oxidationandreduction/chemmatters-oct2010-fireworks.pdf

Electrocatalysis Can Advance Green Transition

Electrocatalysis, as this article describes, can facilitate reactions to form new products and energy

sources. In an interview with researchers from the Technical University of Denmark, they explain how

they have used electrocatalysis to convert basic molecules into useful fuels. Some examples include the

decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen, which can be used to power fuel cells in hydrogen

vehicles, and the reaction of hydrogen with carbon dioxide to produce ethanol, which can be used in

already-existing fuel mechanisms.

https://phys.org/news/2017-01-electrocatalysis-advance-green-transition.html

Best of Both Worlds: Combining Two Skeleton-Building Chemical Reactions

This article summarizes a study published by the Scripps Research Institute in which chemists figured out

how to combine two chemical reaction systems into a single, more efficient reaction. The biochemists

have begun to create new drugs by synthesizing multiple steps in a reaction. They construct molecular

base structures which can be compounded with other molecules and atoms to produce a variety of

complex molecules from just a few basic structures. Through a discussion of percent yield, students

understand a real-world application of making reactions more efficient.


https://phys.org/news/2017-01-electrocatalysis-advance-green-transition.html




Novel Chemical Reaction

This article by Tracey Bryant from the University of Delaware provides a real-world example of

maximizing percent yield. Bryant interviews a team of researchers who report a high-efficiency reaction

that converts carbon-hydrogen bonds to carbon-silicon bonds using a new palladium catalyst.

Historically, this specific reaction has been low-yield, but the catalyst has increased the percent yield

from less than 50% to more than 95%. The potential industrial applications for the palladium catalyst

system are promising, ranging from the production of pharmaceuticals to plastics. Students can discuss

possible applications of the high efficiency reaction.

http://www1.udel.edu/udaily/2012/apr/watson-chemical-reaction-041312.html

http://www1.udel.edu/udaily/2012/apr/watson-chemical-reaction-041312.html





Balloons and Buoyancy

In this lesson, students learn about the movement of gas-filled balloons through a virtual simulation.

The simulation of a balloon shows the particle distribution inside a spherical balloon. Students can

examine how different gases affect the ability of the balloon to float. This virtual manipulative allows

students to investigate various aspects of gases through virtual experimentation. Students can pump gas

molecules into a box and observe changes in volume, add or remove heat, change gravity, and more

(open the box, change the molecular weight of the molecule). Students also measure the temperature

and pressure, and discover how the properties of the gas vary in relation to each other. Through this

exploration students observe buoyancy in action, relating the movement of the balloon to the differing

pressures of gas within the system and outside the system.

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/balloons-and-buoyancy

Behavior of Gases: Disaster at Lake Nyos

The lesson plan contains an article reading about a gas explosion called Lake Nyos. Students learn how

the properties of gases are related to cloud formation and other natural phenomena and to the events

of the article in particular. Then, students perform many gas law-related activities for students to

observe the behaviors of different types of gases in different containers.



Real Life Applications for Gas Laws

Kevin Lee describes some simple examples of gas law behavior in everyday life. He applies Charles’s law

to the deflation of a football that occurs when it is cold outside. Then, Lee explains how the law of

partial pressures explains the difficulty of breathing at higher altitudes. Students should read and discuss

this article to understand common phenomena that operate according to the gas laws. Then, students

can offer their own ideas and examples of everyday gas law behavior.

https://sciencing.com/real-life-applications-gas-laws-5678833.html

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/balloons-and-buoyancy


https://sciencing.com/real-life-applications-gas-laws-5678833.html



Empirical Math Model: Ideal Gas Law

This article from the Office of Nuclear Energy explains the limitations of the ideal gas laws It begins with

a brief history of the development of individual gas law—Charles’s, Boyle’s Gay-Lussac’s, and

Avogadro’s. Then, the author relates an explanation of why the ideal gas law is not always correct.

Because the ideal gas law is based on experimental data, it does not incorporate the intermolecular

forces that vary greatly, depending on the type of gas and the environmental conditions. Due to this

fact, the ideal gas law is an example of an empirical math model. The empirical nature of the equations

suffices for many applications, but, at more extreme temperatures and pressures, the ideal gas law fails

to predict the behavior of real gases.

https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/empirical-math-model-ideal-gas-law-0

The Ideal Gas Law—Why Bubbles Expand if You Heat Them

In a history of the gas law equations, Alok Jha from The Guardian describes the development of the gas

laws and their interrelated principles. Jha includes a discussion of Gay-Lussac, Boyle, and Charles in

addition to lesser-known scientists important to the development of gas laws as we know them,

including Amontons and Clapeyron. Then, Jha goes on to explain how these gas principles operate in

refrigeration, gas tanks, and baking.

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/09/ideal-gas-law-expand-heat-pressure-temperature-volume

Gas Laws—Real-Life Applications

This article gives a brief overview of the behavior of gases that explain common occurrences, such as

opening a soda can, using a fire extinguisher, and using aerosol cans. The lengthier and more important

section of the article for students to read and discuss is the exploration of the gas reactions that move

and stop a car. In this section, the article provides thorough explanations for how a piston helps to

release exhaust gases and how gas pressure operates an air bag. Air bags have very specific response

mechanisms in which they rapidly inflate and immediately start to deflate before hitting a passenger.

Students can discuss the importance and safety of the air bag application and what kinds of tests and

methods might be used to ensure the proper air bag response in the event of a vehicular collision.

http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Physics-Vol-2/Gas-Laws-Real-life-applications.html

https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/empirical-math-model-ideal-gas-law-0



http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Physics-Vol-2/Gas-Laws-Real-life-applications.html





Slow Cooker Simulation

What materials will make the most effect slow cooker? Students manipulate different materials to

compare and contrast temperatures of slow cookers. As they design the cooker, students observe the

effects of different covers, reflectors, and insulator. This resource may be a useful resource for students

to explore as they design their prototypes for the solar cooker project in this unit.

http://www.pspb.org/e21/media/SolarCooker.html

Virtual Lab: Heats of Reaction - Hess’ Law

Students manipulate lab equipment to demonstrate Hess’s law in action. The virtual lab includes three

reactions: the solubility of NaOH in water, the solubility NaOH in HCl, and the reaction of a solution of

HCl and a solution of NaOH. The resource includes an introductory video to help students learn about

the lab and how to use the various aspects of the demo. Students set up lab equipment and manipulate

variables in the activity.

http://chemcollective.org/vlab/138


The Big Reveal: What’s Behind Nutrition Labels

In this article, Michael Tinnesand discusses calories through a nutrition lens. Calories are useful

measurements when it comes to nutrition; we all have experienced reading them on nutrition labels.

How do scientists calculate the calories in a food product? Michael Tinnesand explains different

methods for calculating the energy potential in certain foods. Figures, chemical equations, and data

tables are used to understand the methods used. Use the link below to find a copy of the article pdf.

https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/articlesbytopi

c/thermochemistry/chemmatters-dec2012-nutrition-labels.pdf

http://www.pspb.org/e21/media/SolarCooker.html

http://chemcollective.org/vlab/138



Cooking on the Sunny Side: How Solar Chefs Put Food on the Table

The article written by Hansi Lo Wang explores the practical side of using thermal energy from the sun to

cook food. Solar cookers may not look like traditional ovens, but with a little practice can be used to

cook meals with just sunlight. The article includes several different models of solar cookers, including

one made with car windshield shades and another using a parabolic shape to direct energy to a

teakettle. The article also includes a video that explores concepts important to making an efficient slow

cooker. Students can compare the solar cookers presented in the article with their final solar cooker

designs.

https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/07/05/156307615/cooking-on-the-sunny-side-how-solar-chefs-put-food-on-the-table

Carbon Dioxide: From Nuisance to Resource?

Humans produce a lot of carbon dioxide. In 2014, almost 40 billion tons were emitted. This article by

Scientific American adapted by the Newsela staff discusses the chemistry of reversing this process,

similarly to the way plants photosynthesize. In order for this process to be considered useful, you want

to get back more energy than you use. The article explores using aluminum as a reactant to achieve this

goal and some of the practical implications.

https://newsela.com/read/chemists-pollution-energy/id/20042/

Heat, Temperature, and Conduction

In this brief informative chapter about heat, temperature, and conduction, the American Chemical

Society explains the relationship between heat and changes in state. The article is written at a lower

reading level and uses common examples to explain the energy concepts. The models and images in the

text help connect how the interactions at the atomic level to events (e.g., seeing fog and ice) students

have experienced. The article can be found using the below link. Select the PDF link under the heading

“Student Readings” labeled chapter 2.

http://www.middleschoolchemistry.com/lessonplans/chapter2/lesson1



https://newsela.com/read/chemists-pollution-energy/id/20042/

http://www.middleschoolchemistry.com/lessonplans/chapter2/lesson1





Reaction Rates

In this simulation of a chemical reaction, students manipulate several variables that can affect the rate

of a chemical reaction. The simulation includes a visual of the behavior of the molecules on an atomic

level and a graphical representation of the reaction. Students can control the amount of concentration,

temperature, or surface area of the reactants and analyze the varied reaction rates on the line graph.

Students can also add a catalysis to the simulation to compare the effects of a catalyst on each reaction.

https://teachchemistry.org/periodical/issues/may-2018/reaction-rates

Biography of a Chemist For this project, the student will select a famous chemist from the given site or another appropriate

source. The chemist should be one who is noted for work in the field of chemical reactions and/or

equilibrium, such as Svante Arrhenius. After research, students find or create a combination of ten small

objects or original drawings to illustrate a characteristic or accomplishment of the chemist. Each object

will act as a hint to the audience to remember those facts. Then they will place the objects in a container

of their choice. After orally reporting on the chemist, the student will hold up one object at a time and

quiz the audience as to what the object represents about the chemist. Students can select the link of

the chemist’s name to access more information about the chemist.

http://famouschemists.org/


What’s So Equal About Equilibrium?

Michael Tinnesand breaks down the meaning of equilibrium in this article from ChemMatters. The

article starts with a basic definition and how the word “equilibrium” is used in different disciplines of

science as well as everyday life. Later in the article, students connect the idea of equilibrium to the

atmosphere by looking at maps of hydrogen chloride, chlorine monoxide, and ozone in the Earth’s

atmosphere. The article applies the concepts of reaction rate and equilibrium to answer the question of

why these gases are not “equal” in different parts of the atmosphere.

https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/articlesbytopi

c/equilibrium/chemmatters-sept2005-equilibrium.pdf

https://teachchemistry.org/periodical/issues/may-2018/reaction-rates

http://famouschemists.org/



Why Onions Make Us Cry

In this article, Lindsey Konkel explains how a catalyst in onions causes a chemical reaction that is the

underlying cause for why onions make us cry. When an onion is cut, it turns out two enzymes play a

role: alliinase and LF synthase. These enzymes lead to a chemical reaction that changes sulfoxides into

eye irritants. Scientists hypothesize that this reaction could be an adaptation that protects onions from

predators. The article includes a list of vocab words to help students access the article.

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/why-onions-make-us-cry

New Coating for Metals Could Cut Engine Wear

Sid Perkins discusses an innovative way to keep engines up and running. Oil keeps cars running

smoothly; it reduces friction and helps maintain proper engine temperatures. However, it breaks down

and must be replaced from time to time. A new technology would be “self-healing” coating on car parts.

It would act as a catalyst to break down oil to replace the film when it starts to wear. The article

includes a list of vocab words to help students access the article and the chemistry concepts.

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/new-coating-metals-could-cut-engine-wear

Enzymes

This is an informative article that describes the following characteristics of enzymes: function and

structure, how they work by the lock and key hypothesis or induced fit hypothesis, factors affecting

catalytic activity of enzymes, and immobilized enzymes. In an organized format, this article provides

excellent extensions to the information presented in the text lesson. Students might combine the

information in the article and text to create a set of enzyme flash cards or an enzyme game for the class

to use as review.

http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/enzymes.htm

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/why-onions-make-us-cry

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/new-coating-metals-could-cut-engine-wear

http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/enzymes.htm





What’s in My Water?

In this lesson, students expand upon their knowledge of reactions in aqueous solutions, using the

mineral content of tap water as an example. Then, students perform a lab activity in which they alter the

concentrations of aqueous solutions to determine the corresponding effects on a reaction system.

Students also apply their knowledge of precipitation and ionization to predict and analyze the reactions.

The lesson plan includes introductory materials and a virtual simulation to prepare students for the

guided investigation. Throughout the lesson, students also practice and apply their knowledge of

stoichiometric analysis to understand the reaction systems.


Osmosis Demonstration Lab

In this lab, students perform an experiment to understand osmosis through potato cells. Students use

different concentrations of salt solutions to explore how the mass of a potato changes as a result of

osmosis between the solution and the potato. After leaving pieces of potato in salt solutions overnight,

students determine the change in mass of each potato. Then, they plot this data on a graph and

interpret the trends in the data plots. At the end of part 1 of this activity, they answer questions about

the osmotic process and its applications in this and other real-world scenarios. Teachers should only

conduct the experiment in part 1 because part 2 of the lab involves more biology-based lab procedures,

using microscopes to observe osmosis in plant cells.

http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceUrl/Preview/31469


http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceUrl/Preview/31469




Eating with Your Eyes: The Chemistry of Food Coloring

In this article from the American Chemical Society, Brian Rohrig describes the chemical processes

involved in changing the color of different solutions. He explains the dissolution of food coloring into

liquids and the corresponding effects through a wide range of examples. Additionally, he breaks down

the interaction of particles at the molecular, atomic, and subatomic level to help readers understand the

solubility of materials as well as the absorption of different colors of light that occur as a result. The

discussion includes an analysis of food-coloring ions and their interactions in solutions. Students can

read this article and discuss the different substances used to dye foods different colors, including natural

as well as synthetic dyes.

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/past-issues/2015-2016/october-2015/food-colorings.html Chilean Company Creates Water-Soluble Bag to Fight Plastic Solution

The author of this article describes a newly engineered plastic bag which could help prevent pollution.

This plastic bag is immediately soluble in water and takes only a few minutes to break down, leaving

only carbon in the water. Medical test has shown that the remaining solution has no negative effect on

the human body and is actually drinkable. After reading this article, students can discuss the pros and

cons of this new technology and analyze its effects on the environment. Teachers may wish to have

students write an essay of the pros and cons or give a multimedia presentation evaluating the pros and

cons. In either the essay or presentation, students should include a researched explanation of their

opinion about the safety of these plastic bags when dissolved in drinking water, oceans, or other bodies

of water.

https://santiagotimes.cl/2018/07/27/chilean-company-creates-water-soluble-bag-to-fight-plastic-pollution/

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/past-issues/2015-2016/october-2015/food-colorings.html

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/past-issues/2015-2016/october-2015/food-colorings.html





New Technology Could Make Desalination More Accessible

Desalination is a process which removes salts from water, resulting in drinkable water. As Sonia

Kolesnikov-Jessop describes in this New York Times article, desalination is especially important after

natural disasters, when clean drinking water is not widely accessible. There are several methods of

desalination involving osmosis through membranous materials. Thermal distillation is another method in

which salt water is boiled, allowing purified vapor to be collected. Teachers may wish to share this

article with students to discuss how engineers use the properties of solutions to develop practical

technologies that improve people’s lives. Students can compare and contrast the different methods in a

short essay or group discussion and then offer up their own ideas for desalinating water. Groups may

present their idea to the class as a multimedia or informal presentation.

https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/22/business/energy-environment/22iht-rbog-technology-22.html Cracking the Secrets of Old Faithful’s Geyser Eggs

In this article, Maya Wei-Haas explains new research into the formation of small egg-like pebbles in

Yellowstone’s Old Faithful Geyser. Geyser eggs, as scientists are calling them, form as a result of the

cooling of thermal pools in geysers. As the mineral-rich solution cools, mineral compounds begin to

precipitate and fall out of the solution as smooth egg-colored pebbles. Students can read the article to

understand how solubility and temperature changes apply to fundamental geologic processes. In a

discussion, students can breakdown the process through which minerals dissolve in the geyser’s water

supply and later fall out of solution to form these “eggs.” Then they can offer ideas regarding what these

geyser eggs could tell researchers about the Earth and its geologic history. Teachers may wish to have

students do further research and write a short informative essay about the chemical processes that

form these eggs.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/08/news-old-faithful-geology-geyser-geothermal-

chemistry/

https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/22/business/energy-environment/22iht-rbog-technology-22.html

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/08/news-old-faithful-geology-geyser-geothermal-chemistry/

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/08/news-old-faithful-geology-geyser-geothermal-chemistry/





Using Acid/Base Neutralization to Study Endothermic vs Exothermic Reactions and Stoichiometry

In this lesson, students conduct an experiment to determine whether a neutralization reaction is

endothermic or exothermic. Students combine an unknown concentration of sulfuric acid with a known

concentration of sodium hydroxide. Knowing that this is a neutralization reaction, students measure the

temperature change as sodium hydroxide solution is incrementally added to the hydrogen sulfate. To

analyze their data, students plot the volume of the sulfuric acid and the total volume of the system.

Then, they interpret their data to identify the exothermic or endothermic processes which occur as the

concentration of the solution is altered.


Coral Reefs in Acid—What Is Ocean Acidification?

In this lesson, students expand upon their knowledge of the effects of acids on biological and ecological

systems. Through a brief lab activity, students learn about ocean acidification, a similar process to the

acidification of rain, which they learn about in the lesson pH. Students test the pH of water with

different levels of acidity and then examine how oceanic substances, such as seashells, react with acidic

water. Students extrapolate from their observations to answer questions about the effects of acidic

ocean water on marine organisms.



Ocean Acidification

This article by the Ocean Portal from the Smithsonian Institute provides a detailed overview of ocean

acidification. Ocean acidification is a result of excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which dissolves

in oceans and lowers the pH of the water. Through an exploration of the process and its resulting

effects, the authors describe how ocean acidification is caused by many of the same processes which

cause climate change, namely the burning of fossil fuels. The article explains the many negative effects

that higher acidity has on fish, coral reefs, and other marine life. Then, it offers explanations of ways

that scientists are trying to remediate and prevent the increasing acidification of oceans. Students can

discuss ways they can contribute to decreasing ocean acidification.

https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification



https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification



‘Thirdhand’ Smoke Can Hitchhike to Non-smoking Sites

In this article, writer Lindsey Konkel introduces the concept of thirdhand smoke, which can transfer

cigarette smoke between nonsmoking sites. Konkel describes the phenomenon and explains the

chemical processes involved. Scientists studying this relatively unexplored process, Konkel explains,

believe that reactions between strong and weak bases are helping to transport nicotine and other

chemicals between locations. These chemicals are weak bases and they can react with stronger bases to

separate from clothing or glass and attach to another surface. These interactions present new concerns

about the inevitable spread of harmful chemicals contained in cigarette smoke. Students can create a

multimedia presentation about the transport and dangers of thirdhand smoke.

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/thirdhand-smoke-can-pollute-non-smoking-sites

Soils Start Comeback After Acid Rain Damage

Janet Pelley discusses the feedback observed in soil in response to cutbacks in fossil fuel emissions.

Scientists have been monitoring the negative effects of acid rain on soil for decades. As a result of

greater awareness of the effect of acid rain, companies and governments have been trying to curb fossil

fuel pollution. As Pelley describes, scientists use mineral and pH analysis of topsoil to identify changes

that could be traced to decreasing amounts of acid rain. In some locations, researchers have found that

soil is responding positively to acid rain. Students can discuss the details of this article in conjunction

with their research papers on acid rain to compare, analyze, and interpret the information in the article

as it pertains to their own research.

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/soils-start-comeback-after-acid-rain-damage/

Tooth Decay: Take the Acid Test

This article describes the process in which acids wear away tooth enamel. The author includes

information about the pH of different types of foods and beverages and their interactions with teeth. In

addition, the author describes ways of neutralizing these acids and the function of saliva in naturally

carrying out this process. Students can apply their understanding of acids and bases to propose and

explain methods of combating acid erosion in the mouth. Students can design a plan to share this

information to grade school children and if an opportunity presents itself, carry out the plan.

https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/features/tooth-decay-take-the-acid-test-

1851898.html

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/thirdhand-smoke-can-pollute-non-smoking-sites

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/soils-start-comeback-after-acid-rain-damage/

https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/features/tooth-decay-take-the-acid-test-1851898.html

https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/features/tooth-decay-take-the-acid-test-1851898.html





Voltaic Cells

In this lab, students learn about how batteries produce electrical power. Students also learn how a

voltaic cell is designed, identifying the important characteristics of a voltaic cell. Then, students explore

cell potential and how to calculate it. The lesson plan includes a lab introduction, a procedure, and

questions for reflecting on the lab.


Electroplating

This resource includes a teacher’s guide and a student guide for a lab in which students construct an

electrolytic cell for the purpose of electroplating aluminum foil with copper. Students follow the lab

procedure to examine the effects of an electric current on an ionic solution. Students place different

metals in the solution and run a current through it, resulting in the deposition of copper onto the

surface of the aluminum foil. The student guide includes data tables for students to monitor the voltage

of the current and the exposure time of the solution to the current. Students use proper lab techniques

to compare the differences between the aluminum before and after electroplating.

http://www.nisenet.org/catalog/electroplating-high-school-curriculum-lesson


Where Are All the Hydrogen Cars?

In this article, Avery Thompson provides an overview of hydrogen cars and the hydrogen fuel cells that

power them. In addition, he explains the differences between battery-powered cars and fuel-cell cars.

Then, he describes the efficiency and cleanliness of fuel cell energy and the practicality of actually

implementing fuel-cell vehicles in places, considering the scarcity of hydrogen fueling stations. Students

can discuss this article in conjunction with the lesson Fuel Cells.

https://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/hybrid-electric/a22688627/hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars/


http://www.nisenet.org/catalog/electroplating-high-school-curriculum-lesson

https://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/hybrid-electric/a22688627/hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars/



Engineers Create Voltaic Cell Powered by Stomach Acid

This article describes a type of voltaic cell which can be sustained by acidic fluids in the stomach. The

system can generate enough power to run small sensors or drug delivery devices that can reside in the

gastrointestinal tract for extended periods of time. Students can read the article and discuss the

mechanisms, the benefits, and the limitations of this technology.

https://www.engineering.com/DesignerEdge/DesignerEdgeArticles/ArticleID/14255/Engineers-Create-Voltaic-Cell-Powered-by-Stomach-Acid.aspx

Electroplating: What Every Engineer Needs to Know

Meghan Brown gives an overview of electroplating and breaks down the different types of

electroplating. In addition to an overview of the electrolytic process, the article also includes analyses of

the benefits of electroplating, its uses in industrial processes, and its effects on decorative as well as

functional objects for different purposes. Students can compare the different types of electroplating and

discuss common objects which are transformed by electroplating, including jewelry and common

components of electrical systems.

https://www.engineering.com/AdvancedManufacturing/ArticleID/10797/Electroplating-What-Every-

Engineer-Needs-to-Know.aspx

The Chemical Reactions That Make Hand Warmers Heat Up

In this article, Julia Greenberg deconstructs the various components of a disposable hand warmer, which

is activated by the oxidation of iron powder. Students can analyze the reaction between iron and water

that forms iron oxide, releasing heat. Students can also discuss in small groups or as a class how to write

the reaction between these components, including the presence of sodium chloride as a catalyst.

https://www.wired.com/2014/12/whats-inside-hot-hands/



https://www.engineering.com/AdvancedManufacturing/ArticleID/10797/Electroplating-What-Every-Engineer-Needs-to-Know.aspx

https://www.engineering.com/AdvancedManufacturing/ArticleID/10797/Electroplating-What-Every-Engineer-Needs-to-Know.aspx

https://www.wired.com/2014/12/whats-inside-hot-hands/





Landmark Lesson Plan: Norbert Rillieux, Thermodynamics and Chemical Engineering This two period lesson plan written by Susan Cooper is designed as an extension for high school

chemistry classes studying organic compounds. The handout and activities will help students understand

the advances of Norbert Rillieux (1806–1894), an African American inventor and one of the earliest

chemical engineers. Rillieux had a major effect on how sugar was produced, and his inventions are still

used today. This lesson expands student understanding of the contributions of diverse scientists and

engineers.

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/lesson-plans/rillieux-thermodynamics-engineering.html Landmark Lesson Plan: Man and Materials through History This single period lesson plan from the American Chemical Society uses readings, a video and three

activities to help students gain insight into the connection between materials science and technological

developments through discussion of the world’s first synthetic plastic, Bakelite. Students review the

definition of polymers and polymerization reactions, and they relate these to materials science

developments.

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/lesson-plans/man-and-materials-through-history.html


This Plastic Can Be Recycled Over and Over and Over This news report by Laurel Hamers discusses a new plastic that can be broken down into its initial

building blocks and then reused. Polymer chemist Jianbo Zhu and his colleagues at Colorado State

University in Fort Collins designed the new plastic making it both rigid and reversible. This article

provides students with a review of polymers while applying polymerization to a real-world scenario.

Students can debate the use of plastics and how engineering new plastics can be beneficial.

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/plastic-can-be-recycled-over-and-over-and-over

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/lesson-plans/rillieux-thermodynamics-engineering.html

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/lesson-plans/rillieux-thermodynamics-engineering.html



https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/plastic-can-be-recycled-over-and-over-and-over



We Made Plastic. We Depend on It. Now We’re Drowning in It.

This report by Laura Parker with photographs by Randy Olson documents the global crisis in plastic

debris on land and in our oceans. A graphic explains the longevity of current plastics in the environment,

and the article discusses the impact of plastic pollution. Students can use this article as a springboard for

discussion of waste policies and the importance of recycling.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/06/plastic-planet-waste-pollution-trash-crisis/

Olympic Ski Racers Use Chemistry to Enhance Their Performance

This article by Eric Niiler reports on a real-world use of polymers. Waxes allow athletes to control how

their skis glide under some conditions and grip in others. Students can discuss the properties of

polymers that allow waxes to interact with surfaces in a variety of ways. Students can identify other

substances athletes use to enhance performance and the reasons why some are illegal.

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/olympic-ski-racers-use-chemistry-enhance-their-

performance

Australian Shrub Contains New Class of Organic Compound

The website Science Daily reports that a research team from Kanazawa University has analyzed the

structure of six natural products from an Australian shrub, Cryptocarya laevigata. The compounds

contained a cyclohexene sharing a single carbon with cyclobutane which has never before been seen in

nature. The cyclobutane ring is possibly biosynthesized from two dissimilar alkenes, which is rare. This

article provides a valuable extension for advanced students to experience leading edge research and

consider the importance of structure to function.


https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/06/plastic-planet-waste-pollution-trash-crisis/

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/olympic-ski-racers-use-chemistry-enhance-their-performance

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/olympic-ski-racers-use-chemistry-enhance-their-performance






Nuclear Energy: What’s Your Reaction?

What factors influence whether a solution to a problem is possible? Where can we find credible

information to help us draw conclusions? In this one period lesson by the California Academy of

Sciences, students obtain, evaluate, and critically discuss information about the highly debated topic of

nuclear energy. As citizens of the fictitious town of Solutionville, students must decide whether or not

they support building a nuclear power plant in the community to replace coal as their source of

electricity. This lesson could be used as preparation for the writing essay in Unit 12, Nuclear Energy, on

whether nuclear power should be pursued.

https://www.calacademy.org/educators/lesson-plans/nuclear-energy-whats-your-reaction

Fission and Chain Reactions

This two-period lesson by the US Office of Nuclear Energy reviews that the nuclei of atoms store energy

and how unstable atoms decay and release energy. Students then consider how nuclear engineers use

this knowledge to help them harness energy to make electricity. Handouts provide information on how

engineers are able to start a nuclear chain reaction in fuel inside a nuclear power plant and keep it

going. Students can examine the nuclear reactions in fission, as well as explore how uranium is

processed from ore to fuel.

https://www.energy.gov/ne/downloads/lesson-5-fission-and-chain-reactions


To Witness Maximum Pressure, Peek inside a Proton This article by Emily Conover reports new data that suggests nothing else in the universe matches the

pressures inside the proton. This reading could be used to further student understanding of the

structure of the atom, and the forces involved in nuclear energy.

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/witness-maximum-pressure-peek-inside-proton

https://www.calacademy.org/educators/lesson-plans/nuclear-energy-whats-your-reaction

https://www.energy.gov/ne/downloads/lesson-5-fission-and-chain-reactions

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/witness-maximum-pressure-peek-inside-proton



Photons Map the Atomic Scale to Help Medicine and More This article by Kathiann Kowalski discusses how researchers at The Advanced Photon Source are probing

the world of the very small. This reading reviews the definitions of several subatomic particles, and

reports on how scientists are applying their properties to medical therapies. This article can be used as

an extension for students interested in applications of science and technology.

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/photons-map-atomic-scale-help-medicine-and-more Nuclear Power in the World Today This report by the writers at the World Nuclear Association documents the state of nuclear power in

2018. Graphics show long term trends in capacity, with detail on nuclear energy usage by region and by

country. Students can use this article as a resource for statistics on current use of nuclear power when

debating whether nuclear energy is a viable option in meeting the world’s energy needs.

http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx Possibility of Strange New Particle Surprises Physicists Reporter Emily Conover writes that hundreds of recent research papers are discussing the possibility of

the existence of a new subatomic particle. This article could be used to interest students in the pursuit

of basic science to better understand the nature of the world we live in. Students could predict the

impact of this discovery on nuclear science.

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/possibility-strange-new-particle-surprises-physicists

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/photons-map-atomic-scale-help-medicine-and-more

http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx

http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx

https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/possibility-strange-new-particle-surprises-physicists



WRITING PROMPTS, SAMPLE RESPONSES, AND RUBRICS

Students engage in writing activities regularly throughout the course. Rubrics for assessment are

available for both students and teachers. Different modes of writing are incorporated in student

activities. The following prompts provide opportunities to respond in a variety of narrative/procedural,

informative/expository, and argumentative writing modes.

WRITING PROMPTS

Unit 1: Atoms and the Periodic Table

1. After reading “Looking for Silicon-Based Alien Life?” by Kate Baggaley in Popular Science, write a

short narrative describing a space traveler finding silicon-based life somewhere in the universe.

Make sure to use the properties of silicon and carbon when describing the new life form.

2. The discovery of new elements has helped us learn about physical and chemical properties that

can possibly lead to new technological advances. The first periodic table included many gaps.

This gave scientists like Marie Curie the opportunity to discover new elements, increasing our

overall knowledge of the elements (in this case, radioactive elements). With each new

discovery, we learned more about new, useful properties of elements. The modern periodic

table has 118 elements. However, many of the larger, newly discovered elements are

unstable—lasting less than a second. Write a letter to a chemist who is working on discovering

new elements. In the letter, argue whether the chemist should continue their work or focus on

another project. Use the concepts you learned in this unit and the ideas discussed in the

readings to support your answer.

Unit 2: States and Properties of Matter

1. After reading the article “What Causes Humidity?” from Scientific American, write an

informative text explaining the molecular properties of humidity in the air. Include an overview

of humidity and how it is related to the properties of the different phases of water. In addition,

provide information about the processes of condensation and vaporization as they relate to the

formation of dew and water vapor.

2. Write an argumentative text based on the reading about metallic hydrogen research and its

potential effect on the study of habitable planets. Write a letter to the scientists arguing for or

against continuing this research. In your argument, explain your opinion about the usefulness of

this or another similar study involving the search for life outside of our solar system. Consider

both sides of the argument as you make your case.



Unit 3: Chemical Bonding

1. Write a short procedural text describing a lab activity you could perform to determine the

effects of molecular structure on a physical property such as boiling point, melting point, or

malleability. Apply your knowledge of molecular structures and forces to offer hypothetical

results and what they would mean.

2. Write an argumentative text about the practical applications of the engineered plastic described

in the article “Bottles That Could Make Every Drop of Shampoo Count.” Decide whether this

technology should be implemented in consumer products. Consider factors such as costs,

resources required to develop this technology, environmental impact, and the importance of

the problem it solves. Weigh both sides of the argument and evaluate the effect of this

technology on people’s lives.

Unit 4: Chemical Reactions

1. Write a letter to the owner of a factory that produces carbon-silicon from carbon-hydrogen to

make automobile parts. Make an argument to persuade the factory owner to adopt the

palladium catalyst described in the article “Novel Chemical Reaction.” Include a discussion of

catalyst’s efficiency, its effects on the yield of carbon-silicon, and the benefits it would provide

to the owner and the workers at the factory.

2. Consider the interview with pyrotechnic chemist John Conkling in the article “Fireworks!” by

Kathy De Antonis. Write a narrative text describing the design process of a new firework from

the perspective of a pyrotechnic chemist. Include information about the laboratory procedures

and tests that must be performed when developing a firework.

Unit 5: Stoichiometry and the Gas Laws

1. Write an expository essay explaining the mechanisms of air bags to an audience unfamiliar with

gas laws. Describe the gas law principles that relate to air bag deployment and explain why air

bags deploy in some situations but not others.

2. Write a short narrative from the perspective of Amedeo Avogadro as he discovers and develops

the principles of gases that are now named after him. Write about an experiment or other

laboratory procedure in which he makes a discovery about the number we now call Avogadro’s

constant or about the molar volume of gases.

Unit 6: Energy and Chemical Reactions

1. Your friend is trying to eat more healthfully. In a two-page expository essay, explain what the

calorie values on a nutrition label mean and how they are measured. Then, explain how to

determine the number of calories your friend should consume each day. Use the information

presented in the article, “The Big Reveal: What’s Behind Nutrition Labels.”



2. Describe two events, a spontaneous and a nonspontaneous reaction, three different times. In

each description, tell about the event from a different point of view. Tell from the point of view

of enthalpy, entropy, and free energy. Consider what each quantity is measuring when telling

the story from different perspectives. For example, entropy will probably talk about the

disorder of the system and the second law of thermodynamics. Be creative and make sure to

define the system in your story.

Unit 7: Reaction Rates and Equilibrium

1. Using the article, “What Is So Equal about Equilibrium?” for information, write a five-paragraph

expository essay that explains the equilibrium of gases in the atmosphere. The first paragraph

should define and give an example of equilibrium. The next three paragraphs should each focus

on one type of gas found in the atmosphere, explaining the reactions of each gas and any

factors affecting the rates of reactions of these gases. The last paragraph should conclude the

essay and explain why it is important to monitor ozone equilibrium in the atmosphere.

2. Write a short story involving a world without enzymes. You should focus on how this would

affect reactions rates involved with living things and nonliving things. Make sure to include at

least three examples of reactions without enzymes and emphasize how this would be different

than real life.

Unit 8: Mixtures, Solutions, and Solubility

1. Write a narrative that follows a drop of water through the water cycle. Describe the starting

phase of the droplet and where it originates. As you describe the processes of the water cycle,

include information about the energy transfers and the phase changes that occur.

2. Consider the article “Chilean Company Creates Water-Soluble Bag to Fight Pollution” from The

Santiago Times. Write a letter to the CEO of a company that uses plastic bags in its stores, and

make an argument about why that company should or should not implement the water-soluble

bag described in the article. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the soluble plastic and

its effects on the environment. Consider both sides of the argument to make your case. Include

in your argument an explanation of the chemical processes that allow the bag to dissolve.

Unit 9: Acid-Base Reactions

1. Write an expository essay explaining how ocean acidification occurs and how it affects marine

ecosystems. Use specific examples to describe its various impacts.

2. Write a letter to a government official in which you argue for or against regulating fossil-fuel

emissions to lessen the effects of acid rain. Use your own research of acid rain as well as the

article “Soils Start Comeback after Acid Rain Damage” to make your argument. Explain both the

causes and effects of acid rain and propose a solution. Consider both sides of the argument as

you make your case.



Unit 10: Redox Reactions

1. Consider the use of electroplating in jewelry. Research the advantages and disadvantages of

electroplating different metals with gold to be sold as gold jewelry. Write an informative text

that explains the advantages and disadvantages of using this process on different jewelry.

Analyze the properties of the jewelry and describe any negative effects of wearing this jewelry.

2. Write a letter to a friend thinking about buying a hydrogen fuel-cell car. Make an argument

about why the friend should or should not buy the car. Include a discussion of the benefits and

disadvantages of this type of car versus a typical combustion engine.

Unit 11: Organic Chemistry

1. You are a carbon atom in a glucose molecule in a delicious piece of pizza! Write a one-page story

about your experiences as you undergo digestion and then enter a cell to undergo respiration.

Be sure to include a beginning, middle, and end to your adventure.

2. Read the article, “We Depend on Plastic. Now We’re Drowning in It” by Laura Parker. In a well-

structured paragraph, suggest a solution to the crisis of plastic pollution. Be sure to give three

reasons for your solution, providing evidence for each reason.

Unit 12: Nuclear Reactions

1. Research the effects of radiation on DNA and the way certain drugs and foods may combat and

mitigate the effects of radiation. In a well-structured essay, discuss the effects of radiation, and

provide ideas about how drugs and diet can offer protection from radiation damage.

2. Read the article “Photons Map the Atomic Scale to Help Medicine and More” by Kathiann

Kowalski. In a well-structured paragraph, explain how subatomic particles are advancing medical

therapies.



STUDENT WRITING SAMPLES AND RUBRICS

Edgenuity understands that students often find it difficult to understand assessment criteria and what

represents “quality” work in a given writing mode. A useful teaching strategy to help students

understand the nature and characteristics of quality writing in the different modes is to analyze and

discuss exemplar student work prior to students tackling their own related task. Teachers may be

reluctant to show exemplar writing assignments that exactly match the given task for fear that students

may rely too heavily on these exemplars, or that students will assume there is an expected answer.

However, Edgenuity has provided the following recommended resources that contain multiple

exemplars of the different writing modes that can be used to further writing instruction.

Common Core Appendix C Writing Sample with Annotations

http://www.corestandards.org/assets/Appendix_C.pdf

Achieve the Core Writing Samples with Annotations

https://achievethecore.org/category/330/student-writing-samples

In addition to the above-annotated exemplars, Edgenuity has provided the following argumentative,

informative, and narrative student writing samples. These deliberately flawed samples can be used in

the teaching of writing workshops as a guide for students’ writings of varying ability levels.

http://www.corestandards.org/assets/Appendix_C.pdf

https://achievethecore.org/category/330/student-writing-samples



Narrative/Procedural Writing Student Sample

This student exemplar serves to provide teacher guidance regarding the lab report students write in the

lesson Phase Changes.

Assignment summary: In this activity, you will plan and conduct an investigation to compare a single

property across several substances. You must select a measurable property, such as boiling point or

surface tension. After your investigation, you will compare the results and use your data to make

inferences about the strength of the electrical forces in each substance you tested.

The Relationship Between Boiling Point and Intermolecular Forces of a Liquid

Purpose

The purpose of this lab is to compare the boiling points of different liquids in order to evaluate the

relative strengths of their intermolecular forces.

Background Information

When a liquid begins to boil, the average kinetic energy of the liquid has increased enough to overcome

the strength of the intermolecular forces which keep the substance in a liquid state. As the average

kinetic energy increases, molecules move faster and weaken the forces interacting between them. At a

certain point, the high kinetic energy results in a phase change of the substance from a liquid to a gas.

The stronger the intermolecular forces are, the more difficult it is to disrupt those intermolecular forces.

The hypothesis for this investigation proposed that if a liquid boils at a high temperature, then its

intermolecular forces are stronger than those of liquids which boil at a lower temperature.

Materials

Beaker

250 mL water

hot plate

test tube clamp

thermometer

5 mL acetone

5 ml methanol

5 mL ethanol



Procedure

In this lab activity, three different liquids were tested: acetone, ethanol, and methanol. First, a beaker

was filled with 250 mL of water and placed on a hot plate. Then, a test tube clamp was used to hold a

test tube in the hot water bath so the test tube does not touch the beaker. Five mL of acetone was

placed in the test tube. A thermometer was held by one lab participant in the water without touching

the beaker. Then, the hot plate was turned on and the acetone was observed. When the acetone began

to bubble, the temperature of the water was recorded as the approximate boiling point of the acetone.

Because the gaseous fumes of acetone and ethanol could be unsafe in large amounts, the hot plate was

turned off and the test tube removed from the bath at the first sign of boiling. These steps were

repeated for ethanol and methanol, and the data was recorded for each. The water in the beaker was

also brought to a boiling point, as a way to test the accuracy of the thermometer.

Data

The lab results and data showed very different boiling points for each liquid. The acetone began to boil

when the temperature of the hot water bath was 56°C. The boiling point of methanol was slightly higher

at 64°C, and that of ethanol was the highest at 78°C. For the controlled test, the water boiled at 101°C,

which is reasonably close to 100°C, the theoretical boiling point of pure water. This data can be assumed

accurate enough to compare the different liquids, using water as a reference point for comparison.

Analysis

Because the acetone showed the lowest boiling point, it must have the weakest intermolecular forces.

This means that the dipole interactions between molecules of acetone must be easy for kinetic energy

to overcome. Acetone molecules are slightly polar compared to the other liquids examined. The

chemical formula for acetone is (CH3)2CO, which means that it has a lot more atoms per molecule than

water. This makes it much harder for dipole forces to keep these larger molecules together, especially

compared to water, which has strong dipole forces and very small molecules. Methanol has stronger



dipole interactions because its boiling point was higher than the boiling point of acetone. Although 56°C

and 64°C are fairly close, the difference is great enough to assume that methanol has slightly stronger

dipole interactions. The chemical formula for methanol is CH3OH, which is still a larger molecule than

water but smaller than acetone. The dipole forces are stronger between the smaller molecules. Ethanol

has the highest boiling point, but it is still much lower than that of water. Ethanol has stronger dipole

interactions between molecules, although its chemical formula, C2H5OH, shows that its molecules are

not smaller than methanol or acetone. Its polarized regions must have stronger interactions which keep

the substance in a liquid state until a relatively high temperature is reached.

Conclusion

In this lab, three different liquids were compared according to their boiling points. The boiling point and

properties of water were used as a reference to determine the relative strengths of dipole forces

between molecules of each liquid. Of the samples tested, ethanol had the highest boiling point at 78°C,

followed by methanol at 64°C, and then acetone at 56°C. Therefore, ethanol had the strongest dipole

forces. None of these had a boiling point very close to that of water because water has extremely strong

dipole forces interacting between molecules.

There could be error in the exact temperature measurements because the temperature of the liquid in

the test tube is probably not exactly equal to the temperature of the hot water bath. Overall, the results

supported the hypothesis that liquids with weaker intermolecular forces would boil at lower

temperatures. Additional research should be conducted to check for other molecular characteristics that

could affect boiling point of a liquid.



Expository/Informative Writing Student Sample

This student exemplar serves to provide teacher guidance regarding the project response that students

create in the lesson pH.

Assignment summary: In this assignment, you will use reference materials and Internet sites to research

the causes and effects of acid rain. You will also examine ways to minimize the effects of acid rain. You

will use a variety of print and digital sources to gather this information. A list of Internet sites you can use

for your research is provided at the end of this document. Present your findings in a research paper that

includes an introduction, a discussion of the causes and effects of acid rain, a description of ways to

minimize the effects of acid rain, a conclusion, and a works cited page.

The Negative Impacts of Acid Rain

Most people have heard of acid rain and recognize it as an environmental concern, but the

widespread effects of acid rain seem largely ignored. Acid rain occurs when rainfall has been mixed with

elements and gases in the atmosphere. As a result of this chemical mixing, the rain is more acidic than

normal. This precipitation can have negative effects on wildlife, human health, and man-made

infrastructure such as roads and bridges. Both human and natural activities contribute to the

acidification of rain. Although acid rain is sometimes inevitable, there are many ways that humans can

help to fix this problem.

Acid rain is caused by a variety of factors, but the main cause is the burning of fossil fuels. When

sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with natural chemicals in the atmosphere, sulfuric and nitric

acids form and mix with rain (“Effects of Acid Rain,” 2017). Nitric and sulfuric acids in the atmosphere

can come from natural events, such as volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and decomposing plants, but these

sources of acid rain-causing chemicals are very slight. Human activities are the main reason that rain

becomes acidic. Power plants, factories, and automobiles burn great amounts of coal and other

products derived from coal to keep society functioning (“Acid Rain,” 2017). Through the burning of fossil

fuels, large amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere, resulting in

highly acidic rainfall.



Though the main cause of acid rain is fairly easy to identify, its impact on the environment is so

extensive that it is difficult to pinpoint even several main concerns. According to the EPA, acid rain in

lakes and streams makes the water toxic to fish, amphibians, and other aquatic animals (“What is Acid

Rain?,” 2017). In addition, animals that depend on safe drinking water are at risk for harm when their

water source is high in acidity. But animals are not the only organisms harmed by acid rain. When soil

absorbs acid rain, many plants have a greater difficulty getting moisture and nutrients from the ground.

This can cause damage to large areas of forestland; once-abundant landscapes can suffer the loss of

trees and other plants, which are unable to grow or reproduce because of acidic soil (“Pollution,” 2018).

The dangers of acid rain to ecosystems is a major concern for all organisms that depend on the overall

health of the planet to live.

Humans do not suffer the same direct health effects of acid rain as plants and animals do, but

acid rain does impact humans in other ways. The harmful levels of pollutants in the air which cause acid

rain can cause damage to humans’ lungs when inhaled. Acid rain itself does not present a major concern

for human health, though, because most people have purified drinking water that is unaffected by acid

rain. Still, animals and plants can pass on secondhand toxicity to the people who eat them. More visible

effects of acid rain on human society include buildings, bridges, and other manmade structures that

erode more quickly due to acid rain deposits (“Effects,” 2017). Acid rain more indirectly affects humans,

compared to plants and animals, but the long-term effects of a polluted environment are still important

for humans to consider.

The good news is that there are ways humans can prevent acid rain from further damaging the

environment. Limiting fossil fuel consumption is really the only way to help stop acid rain. People can

make an effort to cut their automobile usage whenever possible by riding bicycles or taking public

transportation. By transitioning to renewable energy sources, industries and factories can minimize their



contributions of harmful pollutants to the atmosphere. In some cases, governments that regulate fossil

fuel emissions have observed a reversal of the negative effects of acid rain, including the regrowth of

dying forests and the return of wildlife to acidic ecosystems (“Pollution,” 2018). This is a hopeful sign

that the effects of acid rain are not permanent and that humans really can stop the damage caused by

acid rain.

In summary, acid rain has many negative impacts on animals, plants, and humans. Though

humans are not as immediately impacted as these other organisms, humans necessarily depend on

healthy ecosystems for food and other resources. The main way for humans to help curb the negative

impacts of acid rain across the world is by limiting the use of fossil fuels. Many aspects of human society

need large amounts of fossil fuel to function, but renewable energy sources offer a way to decreased

pollution and a healthier planet. If people work together to burn fewer fossil fuels, then the effects of

acid rain can be minimized, preventing further damage to societal infrastructure, ecosystems, and all

plants and animals that depend on clean water to survive.

Works Cited

“Acid Rain.” National Geographic, 19 Oct. 2017,

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/acid-rain/.

“Effects of Acid Rain.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 1 June 2017,

https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects-acid-rain

“Pollution controls help red spruce rebound from acid rain.” Associated Press. 11 July 2018.

https://www.apnews.com/e525fa9c31c3467891f07982433a6473

“What is Acid Rain?” EPA. 1 March 2017. https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain

https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects-acid-rain

https://www.apnews.com/e525fa9c31c3467891f07982433a6473



Argumentative Writing Student Sample

This student exemplar serves to provide teacher guidance regarding the project response that students

write in the lesson Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures.

Assignment summary: In this assignment, you will use reference materials and Internet sites to research

and evaluate claims about the pros and cons of adding fluoride to drinking water. To gather this

information, suggested references are listed at the end of this document. You will also assess the validity

and reliability of these claims to determine whether or not you support the use of fluoride in drinking

water. You will then present your findings as well as your opinion in a research paper, which should

include an introduction, a discussion of the claims for and against the use of fluoride in drinking water,

an explanation of whether you support or oppose this practice and why, a conclusion, and a works cited

page.

The Benefits of Fluoride in Drinking Water

Fluoride is an ionized form of fluorine, an element which belongs to the group of nonmetals

called halogens. Fluoride is found in toothpaste because it has been shown to prevent tooth decay when

present in high concentrations. Although in much smaller amounts, fluoride is also present in common

foods and drinks, such as tea, raisins, and wine. In the United States, municipal water supplies also

contain fluoride. Since the middle of the twentieth century, fluorine has been added to community

water supplies as a way to combat cavities and poor dental health. According to the CDC, community

water fluoridation is one of “10 great public health achievements of the 20th century.” Still, some groups

have fought against adding fluorine to water supplies, saying that it is unnecessary and can be harmful

to human health, though their research and arguments are often not verified. Weighing the two sides, it

is clear that water fluoridation is a benefit for communities. Because the positive effects of fluoride on

dental health were proven long ago, water fluoridation should continue as a practice in the U.S.

According to the Center for Disease Control, fluorinated water is extremely safe and is the most

cost-effective way to deliver fluoride to all people who use the community water supply. Regardless of

age, income, or education, all people can benefit from better dental health by drinking municipal water

(CDC, 2018). Because fluoride hardens tooth enamel, drinking water frequently slowly builds up the

strength of the surface of teeth. This helps in the prevention of cavities and contributes to an overall



healthier mouth. The Maryland Department of Health added that fluorinated water especially benefits

children and infants as their baby teeth develop. In rare cases, high levels of fluoride consumption can

change the color of teeth, especially in children, but most community water supplies have fluorine levels

much too low to cause this condition called dental fluorosis (Maryland Department of Health,

“Community Water Fluoridation”).

Opponents of water fluoridation are often independently-run, meaning they are not connected

to a government or large organization. Paul Connett, of the Fluoride Action Network, says that

fluoridation is not necessary and unethical. He argues that government organizations have not tested or

proven the benefits of fluoridated water. Additionally, this distribution of fluoride in water is a form a

medicating people, suggesting that fluoride is like a prescription drug (Connett, 2012). In a study

published in Environmental Health Perspectives, researchers connected the use of fluoride to decreased

cognitive development in children. Children in one region of China whose water supply had high levels

of naturally occurring fluoride had lower IQs on average than children who consumed water with little

or no fluoride present (Choi, et al. 2012).

The overwhelming majority of scientists agree that fluoride is beneficial and poses no risk, as

long as the concentration of fluoride is controlled. It is only in very rare cases that people are negatively

affected by fluoride, and the negative effects are minor or unsupported by further research. The studies

mentioned by Choi and Connett are largely not verified by additional studies. The amount of research

that supports the benefits of fluoride greatly outweighs the few studies that claim fluoridated water is a

danger to communities. Although the risks claimed by these opponents sound quite severe, there is not

enough reputable evidence to support their claims. On the other hand, the CDC and other governmental

and scientific bodies have conducted a lot of studies which show that there is rarely any negative

consequence of drinking water with fluoride. State departments of health, such as Maryland’s, monitor



how much fluoride is added to water supplies. As long as these levels are controlled, there is no reason

to believe that community drinking water could be harmful to the average person.

The fluoride controversy centered around water supplies in the United States should not really

be a topic of contention. Studies by scientists and by government researchers have largely debunked the

myth that fluoridated water could be anything but beneficial to human health. Though the benefits are

harder to track now as a result of wider access to fluoride toothpaste and increased public education

about dental care, there is very little evidence to support the argument that fluoridated water

negatively impacts people. If anything, it benefits children but has insignificant effects on the teeth of

adults who regularly brush their teeth with fluoride toothpaste. Fluoridated water cannot replace

healthy brushing habits, but, overall it can help to support the health of people’s teeth. The practice of

adding fluoride to municipal water supplies should continue, as long as the levels are kept at the low

levels recommended by scientists.

Works Cited

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Community Water Fluoridation.” CDC, 2018.

https://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/index.html

Choi, Anna L., et al. “Developmental Fluoride Neurotoxicity.” Environmental Health Perspectives, 2012.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3491930/

Connett, Paul. “50 Reasons to Oppose Fluoridation.” Fluoride Action Network, 2012.

http://fluoridealert.org/articles/50-reasons/

Maryland Department of Health. “Community Water Fluoridation.” Maryland Department of Health,

2018. https://phpa.health.maryland.gov/oralhealth/Pages/community-water.aspx

https://phpa.health.maryland.gov/oralhealth/Pages/community-water.aspx



RUBRICS Edgenuity courses contain rubrics for educators to aid in scoring of specific student activities. Teachers

will find the rubrics by selecting the assignment for the lab or project.

Students are able to access rubrics when working on an assignment to evaluate their work, or that of a

peer, prior to submission.



Narrative/Procedural Writing Rubric



Expository/Informative Writing Rubric

Argumentative Writing Rubric



VOCABULARY

Scientific vocabulary is introduced in each lesson and is integrated into instruction and assignments so

that students understand word meaning in context. The following lesson examples show how

vocabulary is selected and how terms are scaffolded for different proficiency levels.


Lesson 1: The Historical Development of Atomic Theory

On-level Words

atomic theory: an explanation of the structure of matter in terms of different combinations of

very small particles (atoms)

law of definite proportions: the small, whole numbers that make up the ratio of the masses of

the elements found in a compound

Supporting Words

ratio: the relationship in amount or size of two things

Advanced Words

cathode-ray tube: a vacuum glass tube with two metal electrodes in which electrons are

projected onto a screen; used to study subatomic particles

Lesson 2: The Modern Atomic Theory

On-level Words

electron cloud model: the modern model of atomic structure in which protons and neutrons

make up the very dense, tiny nucleus, and electrons surround the nucleus in clouds of probable

locations

emission spectrum: an electromagnetic radiation spectrum in which wavelengths of light

emitted by a substance show up as brightly colored lines on a black background

photoelectric effect: the process in which matter emits electrons as the result of absorbing light

Supporting Words

model: a tool used to represent an idea or explanation

Advanced Words

ultraviolet light: a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths below that of visible light



Lesson 3: The Structure of the Atom

On-level Words

atom: the smallest particle of an element that has the same properties as the element

electron: a negatively charged particle in the orbitals surrounding the nucleus of the atom

isotope: an atom of the same element that has a different mass number

neutron: a neutral particle in the nucleus of an atom

nucleus: the center of the atom that holds the protons and neutrons

proton: a positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom

Supporting Words

particle: a small unit of matter or energy

Advanced Words

quark: a subatomic particle that makes up protons and neutrons

Lesson 4: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

On-level Words

compound: a pure substance made up of two or more elements that are chemically combined

element: a pure substance made up of only one type of atom

heterogeneous mixture: a mixture whose components can be distinguished

homogeneous mixture: a mixture whose components cannot be distinguished and that appears

as a single phase

mixture: a combination of pure substances that are not chemically combined

pure substance: a type of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler components without

undergoing a chemical change

Supporting Words

bond: a force holding two atoms or ions together

Advanced Words

chromatography: a method of separating solutions in which the solute is separated by the

density or size of particles

distillation: a process in which a mixture is separated using differences in boiling point between

the different components of the mixture



Lesson 5: Atomic Numbers and Electron Configurations

On-level Words

Aufbau principle: the principle that states that an atom’s electron configuration is developed by

progressively adding electrons that assume their most stable conditions in electron orbitals with

respect to the nucleus and the other electrons

electron subshell: a set of orbitals with the same principal quantum number, n, and the same

angular momentum quantum number, l

Hund’s rule: the rule that states that in the ground state, electrons in the same sublevel (p, d, or

f) are placed in individual orbitals before they are paired up to increase atomic stability

orbitals: the regions that surround the nucleus and in which the electrons are located

quantum numbers: the numbers that describe the location of an electron in an atom

shell: the electron configuration around the nucleus of an atom in which the electrons share the

same principal quantum number

Supporting Words

electron configuration: a representation that shows how electrons are positioned in an atom

Advanced Words

Pauli exclusion principle: the principle that states that no two electrons in the same atom can

have the same four quantum numbers; orbitals may contain only one or two electrons that have

opposite spin

Lesson 6: The History and Arrangement of the Periodic Table

On-level Words

halogen: a Group 17 or 7A element, which is highly reactive

metal: an element, typically a solid, that is malleable and ductile and conducts electricity and

heat well

noble gas: a Group 18 or 8A element; also called inert gas

nonmetal: an element that is brittle and a poor conductor; can be a solid, liquid, or gas

periodic table: a table that organizes the chemical elements in order of increasing atomic

number and that groups elements based on similarities in chemical properties and electron

configurations

semimetal (metalloid): an element that has properties of both metals and nonmetals

transition metal: an element in Groups 3 to 12 of the periodic table



Supporting Words

period: a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table

group or family: a vertical column of elements with similar physical and chemical properties in

the periodic table

Advanced Words

actinides: the inner transition elements from actinium to lawrencium

lanthanides: the inner transition elements from lanthanum to lutetium

Lesson 7: Electrons and the Periodic Table

On-level Words

core electrons: the electrons in the inner shells or lowest energy levels of an atom and are not

involved in reactions with other atoms

d-block elements: the elements in which the final electron used to fill orbitals occupies a d

orbital; transition elements in Groups 3 to 12

f-block elements: the elements in which the final electron used to fill orbitals occupies an f

orbital; inner transition elements

p-block elements: the elements in which the final electron used to fill orbitals occupies a p

orbital; elements in Groups 13 to 18

s-block elements: the elements in which the final electron used to fill orbitals occupies an s

orbital; elements in Groups 1 and 2

valence electrons: the electrons in the outermost shell or highest energy levels of an atom and

that determine the reactivity of the atom

Supporting Words

reactive: relating to a substance that is likely to go through a chemical reaction

Advanced Words

noble-gas notation: a shorthand notation for writing the electron configuration for an element;

substitutes the symbol of a noble gas to represent the configuration of inner shell electrons

Lesson 8: Periodic Trends

On-level Words

atomic radius: a term for half the distance between two identical atoms in a diatomic molecule

electron affinity: the energy required to add an electron to a neutral atom in the gas phase

electronegativity: the ability of an atom to attract electrons from another atom in a chemical

compound

ionic radius: a measure of the size of an ion



Supporting Words

diatomic: consisting of two atoms

Advanced Words

ionization energy: the energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion in the gas

phase




Lesson 1: Changes in Matter

On-level Words

chemical property: a characteristic of a substance that is observable only when the substance

interacts with another substance

conductivity: the ability to transfer heat or electric current

extensive property: a property dependent on the amount of sample present

flammability: the tendency to ignite or burn in air

intensive property: a property dependent only on a substance’s identity and not on the amount

of sample present

malleability: the ability to be reshaped by the application of physical force

physical property: a characteristic of a substance that can be observed without changing the

identity of the substance

reactivity: the tendency of a substance to interact with other substances to form new

substances

transparency: the degree to which light can pass through a substance

Supporting Words

identity: the chemical composition of a substance, as indicated by a chemical formula

matter: a thing or substance that has mass and occupies space

Advanced Words

ductility: a measure of a metal’s ability to be drawn out into thin wire or threads

luster: the appearance of the surface of a metal dependent upon its reflecting qualities

Lesson 2: Lab: Physical and Chemical Changes

On-level Words

chemical change: a change in the identity and properties of matter

data: quantitative or qualitative information that can be used in calculating or analyzing

something

physical change: a change of some of the physical properties of matter but not its identity

Supporting Words

qualitative observation: a subjective description of something based on its appearance or smell

quantitative observation: a numerical measurement of something



Advanced Words

toxic: poisonous or harmful to humans, especially when inhaled, ingested, or absorbed through

the skin

Lesson 3: Gases

On-level Words

diffusion: the spread of particles through random motion from regions of high concentration to

regions of low concentration

effusion: the movement of a gas through a small opening into a larger volume

Graham’s law: a law that states the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the

square root of the molar mass

ideal gas: a theoretical gas that is composed of random, noninteracting particles

kinetic-molecular theory: a theory that describes gases as a large number of constantly and

randomly moving particles (atoms/molecules) that collide with one another and with the walls

of the container

Supporting Words

compressibility: the capability of a gas to undergo a change in volume when the pressure

increases

kinetic energy: energy associated with movement

Advanced Words

elastic collision: a collision between particles in which the total kinetic energy of the particles

remains unchanged

mole: a measure of the number of particles in a substance

Lesson 4: Liquids

On-level Words

dissolve: to integrate a solid, liquid, or gas into a host liquid (solvent)

immiscible: referring to two liquids separating when mixed

intermolecular forces: attractive or repulsive forces between particles due to molecular dipoles

miscible: referring to a solid, liquid, or gas becoming integrated into a host liquid (solvent)

surface tension: the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force

surfactant: a substance that disrupts the surface tension of a liquid by weakening the

intermolecular forces

viscosity: the thickness or resistance to flow of a liquid



Supporting Words

dipole: the partial negative or positive charge in one region of a particle

solvent: a liquid into which another substance is dissolved

Advanced Words

hydraulic: a type of force produced by the resistance of a liquid being pushed through a

comparatively small tube

Lesson 5: Solids and Plasmas

On-level Words

amorphous solid: a solid matter whose particles are arranged in a nonuniform pattern

crystal: a solid in which the particles are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern

long-range order: a term for an arrangement of particles in which the particles are ordered over

many multiples of the average particle diameter

plasma: a high-energy state of matter characterized by ionized particles

solid: a low-energy state of condensed matter characterized by structural rigidity and resistance

to changes in shape or volume

thermal equilibrium: a term describing a temperature equal to that of the surroundings

Supporting Words

lattice: a regular arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in repeating units of structure, as in a

crystal

Advanced Words

ionization: in plasmas, the stripping of electrons from nuclei as a result of the high kinetic energy

of colliding particles

Lesson 6: Phase Changes

On-level Words

boiling: a transition from liquid phase to vapor phase

condensing: a transition from vapor phase to liquid phase

deposition: a transition directly from vapor phase to solid phase

freezing: a transition from liquid phase to solid phase

melting: a transition from solid phase to liquid phase

sublimation: a transition directly from solid phase to vapor phase

vapor pressure: the pressure exerted by a gas in equilibrium with a pure liquid at a given

temperature



Supporting Words

phase change: the transition of a solid, liquid, or gas to a different state of matter

Advanced Words

altitude: the elevation of an object above Earth’s surface, which has an inverse relationship to

vapor pressure such that an increasing altitude results in a decrease in pressure




Lesson 1: Types of Chemical Bonds

On-level Words

chemical bond: a strong connection between atoms

covalent bond: a bond resulting from the sharing of electrons between two atoms

ionic bond: a bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged atoms

metallic bond: a bond resulting from the sharing of valence electrons among many atoms

molecule: a collection of atoms connected by covalent bonds; the smallest unit of a covalent

compound

Supporting Words

electronegativity: a measure of an atom’s ability to attract the shared electrons of a covalent

bond to itself

ionization energy: the ease with which an electron can be removed from an atom

Advanced Words

electrostatic force: the attraction or repulsion of particles resulting from the interactions of their

electric charges and the relative positivity and negativity of each charge

Lesson 2: Ionic Bonding

On-level Words

anion: a negatively charged particle (typically a nonmetal)

cation: a positively charged particle (typically a metal)

crystal: a solid in which the particles are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern

polyatomic ion: group of covalently bonded atoms which act as a single ionic unit

lattice energy: energy released when gas-phase ions combine to form crystals

Supporting Words

crystal lattice: a three-dimensional structure of points that represent the alternating patterns of

atoms or ions in a crystal

formula unit: an electrically neutral group of ions joined by ionic bonds; the smallest unit of an

ionic compound

Advanced Words

optics: a science that deals with the genesis and propagation of light, the changes that it

undergoes and produces, and other closely associated phenomena



Lesson 3: Covalent Bonding

On-level Words

bonding electrons: the electrons shared between two atoms joined in a covalent bond

double bond: a type of covalent bond involving two pairs of electrons shared between two

atoms

expanded octet: a condition of some atoms having empty d-orbitals that can be used for

bonding, allowing for more than eight valence electrons to be involved in bonding

nonbonding electrons: the valence electrons in an atom that do not participate in bonding with

another atom

nonpolar bond: a bond characterized by the equal sharing of bonding electrons between two

atoms

octet rule: the general principle that atoms of nonmetals tend to be most stable when their

valence shells are filled with eight electrons

pi bond: an overlap of p-orbitals of one atom with p-orbitals of another atom to allow additional

sharing of electrons beyond those shared in a sigma bond

polar bond: a bond characterized by bonding electrons having greater association with one

atom than another atom

resonance structures: a condition that results when two or more Lewis structures can be drawn

from a molecular formula; the actual structure is a blend of the resonance structures

sigma bond: a type of bond formed from the overlap of s-, p-, or d-orbitals of one atom with s-,

p-, or d-orbitals of another atom to allow the atoms to share two electrons

single bond: a covalent bond that consists of two shared electrons

Supporting Words

atomic orbitals: region around a nucleus that may contain zero, one, or two electrons

Lewis structure: a diagram that uses dots to represent electron positions of an atom

Advanced Words

electron affinity: the degree to which an atom or molecule attracts additional electrons

Lesson 4: Lab: Ionic and Covalent Bonds

On-level Words

dissolve: to cause a solid to become incorporated into a liquid

solubility: the amount of a substance that will dissolve in a given solvent

Supporting Words

crystalline: referring to a solid with a regular arrangement of ionic units in



Advanced Words

solvent: liquid substance capable of dissolving another substance

Lesson 5: Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds

On-level Words

nomenclature: the rules for naming compounds

oxidation state: the charge (positive or negative) that an element is assigned when bonding

polyatomic ion: an ion that is made up of two or more atoms bonded together, that acts as a

single unit, and that has an overall electric charge

Supporting Words

chemical symbol: a one or two-letter representation of an element

subscript: a character or symbol set or printed or written beneath or slightly below and to the

side of another character

Advanced Words

electromagnetic radiation: the flow of wave energy in the form of electric and magnetic fields,

such as radio waves, visible light, and gamma rays

Lesson 6: Nomenclature of Covalent Compounds

On-level Words

acid: a compound that ionizes to form hydrogen ions; a chemical substance that increases H+

concentration in an aqueous solution

amine: a derivative of ammonia which acts as a covalent base by attaching to hydrogen ions

base: a compound that ionizes to form hydroxide ions; a chemical substance that decreases H+

concentration in an aqueous solution or that increases OH– concentration in a solution

binary acid: an acid composed of two different types of atoms

oxyacid: an acid containing polyatomic ions that contain one or more oxygen atoms

Supporting Words

chemical formula: written notation for the smallest unit of a chemical substance which uses

chemical symbols and subscripts to identify the number and types of atoms present

Advanced Words

insulator: a material that surrounds a conductor so as to prevent the transfer of electricity or

heat



Lesson 7: Metallic Bonding

On-level Words

alloy: a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals

delocalized electrons: mobile electrons that are not associated with specific atoms in metal

crystals

metals: elements located mainly in the s, d, and f blocks of the periodic table

electron sea model: the most commonly used model for bonding in metals, which assumes that

electrons flow easily between metal nuclei

molecular orbitals: the atomic orbitals that combine to form shared orbitals

Supporting Words

s block: the first two groups on the periodic table, containing the alkaline and alkali metals

d block: the region of the periodic table between groups 2 and 3a, containing the transition

metals

f block: the region of the periodic table which contains the inner transition metals called

lanthanides and actinides

Advanced Words

band theory: theoretical model of metallic compounds which characterizes the movement of

electrons in molecular orbitals

Lesson 8: Intermolecular Forces

On-level Words

dipole-dipole interactions: attractive forces between the positive pole of one molecule and the

negative pole of another molecule

intramolecular forces: attractive forces within a molecule that hold the molecule together,

which include ionic and covalent bonds

intermolecular forces: attractive or repulsive forces between molecules in a substance, which

include hydrogen bonds, London dispersion forces, and Van der Waals forces

hydrogen bond: the attractive force that a hydrogen atom has on an electronegative atom on

another molecule or on a different region of the same molecule

London dispersion forces: Van der Waals forces that cause molecules to move apart in the

absence of any other intermolecular forces

Van der Waals forces: attractive or repulsive intermolecular forces resulting from random,

short-lived redistribution of electrons

Supporting Words

dispersive: causing to break or spread apart



Advanced Words

volatility: a measure of the ease with which a substance vaporizes, or changes to the gas state

Lesson 9: Molecular Geometry

On-level Words

Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory: a model used to predict the geometry of

individual molecules from the number of electron pairs surrounding their central atoms

hybrid orbital model: an electron orbital formed by the combination of two or more atomic

orbitals in the same atom

molecular geometry: the way atoms are arranged in a molecule which ultimately determines the

overall shape of the molecule

Supporting Words

electron domain: the number of lone pairs or bond locations around a particular atom in a

molecule

Advanced Words

electrostatic repulsion: the force of electron pairs pushing each other as far apart as possible




Lesson 1: Evidence of Chemical Reactions

On-level Words

chemical reaction: a process that changes one or more reactants into one or more products

product: a substance formed as a result of a chemical change

reactant: a substance that enters into a chemical reaction

Supporting Words

endothermic: a chemical reaction that absorbs energy

exothermic: a chemical reaction that releases energy

Advanced Words

light emission: energy given off as light as a result of the movement of electrons from higher-

energy orbitals to lower-energy orbitals

Lesson 2: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

On-level Words

chemical equation: a group of chemical formulas and symbols that represent that reactants and

products in a chemical reaction

coefficient: a number in front of a chemical formula that indicates how many molecules of a

substance are present in a chemical reaction

law of conservation of mass: principle that states that, when a chemical reaction takes place, the

number of atoms of each type cannot change from the reactants to the products

Supporting Words

yield: the amount of product obtained in a chemical reaction, which can be given in grams or in

moles

Advanced Words

catalyst: a substance that enables a chemical reaction to proceed at a faster rate than usual



Lesson 3: Types of Reactions

On-level Words

combustion: a reaction of a substance with oxygen

decomposition: a reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more new

products

double replacement: a reaction in which two ionic compounds exchange ions to form new

products

single replacement: a reaction in which one ion displaces another to form a new compound

synthesis: a reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product

Supporting Words

stability: a measure of a compound’s resistance to chemical change

Advanced Words

oxide: a product of combustion that results from the addition of oxygen to the chemical formula

of the original reactant

Lesson 4: Lab: Types of Reactions

On-level Words

aqueous: characterizing the state of a metal that is dissolved in a water-based solution;

represented by the symbol (aq) in a chemical equation

carbonation: the process by which carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid,

usually resulting in effervescence, or bubbling of the liquid

monatomic ion: one atom with one specific charge

Supporting Words

burn: to cause a substance to undergo combustion

Advanced Words

tarnish: a thin layer of corrosion that forms on a metal from a chemical reaction with oxygen

Lesson 5: Percent Composition and Molecular Formula

On-level Words

empirical formula: the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a molecule or formula unit

molecular formula: the true ratio of atoms in a molecule or formula unit

percent composition: the percent by mass of each element that makes up a compound; for

example, the percent composition of water is 11.2 percent hydrogen and 88.8 percent oxygen



Supporting Words

molar mass: physical property of a compound defined as the mass dived by the amount of

substance, measured in g/mol

mole ratio: the ratio of the subscripts for each type of atom in a chemical formula

Advanced Words

hydrate: a compound that contains water molecules as part of its crystal structure

Lesson 6: Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield

On-level Words

actual yield: the actual amount of a product that is produced during a reaction

excess reactant: a reactant that is not fully consumed in a reaction

limiting reactant: the reactant that determines the maximum amount of products that can be

formed

percent yield: the actual yield divided by the theoretical yield, expressed as a percentage

theoretical yield: the ideal maximum amount of a product that can be produced during a

reaction, calculated from stoichiometric relationships

Supporting Words

efficiency: the degree to which an experimental reaction achieves the expected or desired

outcome

Advanced Words

contamination: the presence of undesired chemicals which disrupt the efficiency of a chemical

reaction

Lesson 7: Lab: Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield

On-level Words

complete reaction: a reaction in which the limiting reactant is fully used up and converted into

product

filter system: a material used to separate a solid from liquid in a mixture

stoichiometry: the calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions through

dimensional analysis

Supporting Words

dimensional analysis: the process of converting given units and amounts to desired units and

amounts for a chemical equation



Advanced Words

polymer: a large molecule composed entirely of repeating molecular subunits; examples include

proteins and plastics




Lesson 1: Molar Masses

On-level Words

Avogadro’s number: the number of units in a mole, 6.02 x 1023

molar mass: the mass of 1 mole of a substance, which is equal to the molecular or formula mass

in grams

mole: the SI unit for the amount of a substance; the number of atoms in 12 g of C-12, which is

6.02 x 1023

Supporting Words

magnitude: a numerical measure

unit conversion: a multistep process of changing measurements or quantities from one form to

another

Advanced Words

constituent: being one of the parts that make up a substance

Lesson 2: Introduction to Stoichiometry

On-level Words

stoichiometry: the study and calculation of relative amounts of substances involved in chemical

reactions

mole ratio: the proportion of one substance to another in a balanced chemical equation

Supporting Words

significant figure: any digit in a numerical measurement which expresses a degree of accuracy

relative: comparative rather than absolute

Advanced Words

scale: to regulate or set according to a standard



Lesson 3: Stoichiometric Calculations

On-level Words

conversion factor: a mole-mole or mole-mass ratio which is used to transform the units

dimensional analysis: a method of converting between units of measurement using conversion

factors

invert: to turn a measurement upside down, expressing, for example, molar mass in moles per

gram instead of grams per mole

Supporting Words

consume: to use up, as a reactant, in a chemical reaction

Advanced Words

photosynthesis: formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in plants exposed to

light

Lesson 4: Gas Laws

On-level Words

Boyle’s law: the law that states that the pressure and volume of a fixed quantity of a gas are

inversely proportional under constant temperature conditions

Charles’s law: the law that states that the volume and absolute temperature of a fixed quantity

of a gas are directly proportional under constant pressure conditions

combined gas law: the law that combines Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and Gay-Lussac’s law, and

states that for a fixed quantity of a gas, the pressure varies inversely with volume, while the

temperature varies directly with pressure and with volume

Dalton’s law: the law that states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum

of the individual partial pressures of the gases in the mixture

Gay-Lussac’s law: the law that states that the pressure and absolute temperature of a fixed

quantity of a gas are directly proportional under constant volume conditions

Supporting Words

partial pressure: an individual gas’s contribution to the total pressure exerted by a mix of gases

Advanced Words

boiling point: the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the pressure of

the gas above the liquid

vapor pressure: forced applied by a gas that is in equilibrium with its solid or liquid form



Lesson 5: Lab: Charles ’s Law

On-level Words

absolute temperature: a measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance in Kelvin

capillary tube: a container with a movable stopper that allows the gas inside to determine

changes in volume

constant: a number that has a fixed value; an unchanging variable

pressure: the force exerted by a gas on its surroundings, which is dependent on the number of

gas particle collisions per second

Supporting Words

closed system: a physical system which exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings

Advanced Words

capillary action: the movement of liquid as a result of pressure changes

Lesson 6: Lab: Boyle’s Law

On-level Words

atmospheric pressure: the force exerted in every direction at any given point by the weight of

the atmosphere

unit of pressure: force per area

Supporting Words

initial condition: a starting-point value for a variable in a system

Advanced Words

water pressure: the force exerted in every direction at any given point in a container or body of

water

Lesson 7: The Ideal Gas Law

On-level Words

Avogadro’s law: the law that the volume of a gas is proportional to the number of moles of the

gas when pressure and temperature are kept constant

ideal gas law: an equation (PV = nRT) that relates the volume, pressure, absolute temperature,

and number of moles of a gas under ideal conditions

ideal gas constant: the constant (given the symbol R) that is used to relate volume, pressure,

absolute temperature, and number of moles of a gas in the ideal gas law equation



Supporting Words

proportionality: a direct or inverse relationship between two variables

Advanced Words

piston: a cylinder which moves up and down within a tube as the result of gas compression and

expansion

Lesson 8: Gas Stoichiometry

On-level Words

molar volume: the volume of one mole of any ideal gas at STP; 22.4 L

standard temperature and pressure (STP): the set of conditions used for unit conversions and

standard comparisons in gas stoichiometry

Supporting Words

standard comparisons: method of converting between units for gaseous reactants and products

when the temperature is established at 0 °C and the pressure is 1.00 atm

Advanced Words

reaction control system: a part of an aircraft which uses pressurized gas to stabilize the velocity

of the aircraft




Lesson 1: Heat

On-level Words

conduction: a heat transfer that involves direct contact between two substances so there can be

collisions between molecules

endothermic: describing a process that involves the absorption of energy from the surroundings

by substances undergoing change

exothermic: describing a process that involves the release of energy into the surroundings by

substances undergoing change

heat: the transfer of kinetic energy between molecules as faster-moving molecules collide with

slower-moving molecules; energy that flows from a warmer object or substance to a cooler

object or substance

temperature: the measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules making up a

substance

thermal energy: the kinetic energies of the molecules making up a substance; energy that can

flow as heat

Supporting Words

solar: referring to the sun

Advanced Words

prototype: a functional model used to test a new design

Lesson 2: Calorimetry

On-level Words

calorie: a unit of energy equal to 4.18 J

calorimeter: a device used to measure the heat absorbed or evolved during a physical or

chemical change

heat capacity: the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of a given sample of a

substance by one degree Celsius (Kelvin)

specific heat capacity: the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a

substance by one degree Celsius (Kelvin) at constant pressure

Supporting Words

joules (J): a SI unit used to measure energy or work



Advanced Words

calorimetry: the use of a calorimeter to measure energy given off or absorbed during a physical

or chemical process

Lesson 3: Lab: Calorimetry and Specific Heat

On-level Words

coolant: substance with a high specific heat used to keep devices such as engines, refrigerators,

and air conditioners from overheating

density: the amount of something per unit volume

first law of thermodynamics: the law that states that energy can be transformed and transferred

but not created or destroyed; also known as conservation of energy

Supporting Words

compute: to calculate

Advanced Words

corrode: to wear away slowly from a chemical reaction

Lesson 4: Thermochemical Equations

On-level Words

enthalpy: a measure of heat and internal energy in a system

enthalpy of combustion: the enthalpy of reaction for a combustion reaction, typically of a

hydrocarbon

enthalpy of formation: the energy absorbed or released when a pure substance forms from

elements in their standard states

enthalpy of reaction: the energy absorbed or released during a chemical reaction

standard state: the natural state of an element at 1 atm and 25 °C

state function: a quantity whose change in magnitude during a process depends only on the

beginning and end points of the process, not on the path taken between them

thermochemical equation: the chemical equation that shows the state of each substance

involved and the energy change involved in a reaction

Supporting Words

combustion: a chemical process that produces heat and sometimes light

Advanced Words

methane: a colorless, odorless gas that is made of one carbon and four hydrogen atoms



Lesson 5: Enthalpy and Phase Changes

On-level Words

molar heat of fusion: the amount of heat required to melt one mole of a substance

molar heat of vaporization: the amount of heat required to vaporize one mole of a substance

Supporting Words

vaporization: the act of changing a substance from a liquid to a gas

Advanced Words

heat of solidification: energy released when a substance freezes

Lesson 6: Enthalpy of Reaction

On-level Words

Hess’s law: a law that states that if a series of reactions are combined, the enthalpy change for

the reaction is the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual reactions

Supporting Words

coefficient: numbers in a chemical equation showing the number of each molecule involved in

a reaction

Advanced Words

smog: a form of air pollution that forms from a series of chemical reactions

Lesson 7: Lab: Enthalpy

On-level Words

intermediate reactions: the reactions that make up an overall reaction

reverse: to change the direction or the orientation of something

Supporting Words

absorb: to take in

Advanced Words

magnesium: a metallic element found in nature that is silver-white, malleable, and ductile



Lesson 8: Enthalpy, Entropy, and Free Energy

On-level Words

entropy: a measure of the overall disorder of a system

Gibbs free energy: a quantity that measures the overall spontaneity of a reaction; ΔG = ΔH − TΔS

isolated system: a thermodynamic system that can exchange neither matter nor energy with its

surroundings

nonspontaneous process: a process that has a positive overall free energy change and will not

proceed without continuous external influence

open system: a system that can exchange both matter and energy with its surroundings

second law of thermodynamics: a law that states that the overall entropy of the universe (or any

other isolated system) can never decrease

spontaneous process: a process that has a negative overall free energy change and will proceed

without continuous external influence

Supporting Words

surroundings: all parts of the universe that are not part of the system being studied

system: all components, substances, and so on, that are being studied in a given instance

Advanced Words

glucose: molecule used by living organisms to store energy, C6H12O6




Lesson 1: Reaction Rate

On-level Words

activation energy: the minimum amount of energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction

thermodynamic: concerned with the conversion of different forms of energy

spontaneous reaction: a reaction happening or arising without apparent external cause

collision theory: a model for chemical reactions that requires particles to collide to react

self-sustaining: happening without apparent external cause

kinetic theory: a theory that gases consist of small particles in a random movement

combustion: a rapid exothermic reaction in which heat is the product

reaction rate: the rate which reactants are converted into products

Supporting Words

concentrated: unable to dissolve more of a substance

reactant: a chemical substance that is present at the start of a chemical reaction

Advanced Words

quantum mechanics calculation: a calculation based on quantum theory (especially the Pauli

exclusion principle); applies to the behavior or atoms and particles

Lesson 2: Lab: Reaction Rate

On-level Words

effervescent: giving off bubbles by a liquid

molarity: the concentration measured by the number of moles of solute per liter of solvent

Supporting Words

variation: an instance of change; the rate or magnitude of change

Advanced Words

catalytic converter: an antipollution device on an automotive exhaust system

Lesson 3: Reaction Pathways

On-level Words

activated complex: the short-lived, high-energy intermediate between reactants and products

effervescent tablet: a tablet that dissolves in water and releases carbon dioxide



Supporting Words

dehydration: dryness resulting from the removal of water

Advanced Words

dissociation: the state of being separate and unconnected

qualitative reaction pathway graph: illustrates energy relationships between reactants and

products

Lesson 4: Catalysts

On-level Words

catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction but is not itself consumed

during the reaction

heterogeneous catalyst: a catalyst that is in a different phase than the reactants in a chemical

reaction

homogenous catalyst: a catalyst that is in the same phase as the reactants in a chemical reaction

enzyme: a protein that acts as a biological catalyst

Supporting Words

ozone: a colorless and odorless gas (O3) soluble in alkalis and cold water

Advanced Words

carbonic anhydrase: an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of carbon dioxide and water to form

carbonic acid in the blood

Lesson 5: Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium

On-level Words

equilibrium: a condition in a system in which all parts of the system are balanced

reversible reaction: a reaction in which both reactants and products are present at equilibrium,

and neither is highly favored

dynamic equilibrium: a condition in a chemical system in which the rates of the forward and

reverse reactions are equal

equilibrium constant (Keq): the ratio of the equilibrium concentrations of products raised to their

stoichiometric ratios to the concentrations of reactants raised to their stoichiometric ratios

Supporting Words

reactant: a chemical substance that is present at the start of a chemical reaction

product: a chemical substance that is created at the end of a chemical reaction



Advanced Words

carbonic acid: a chemical compound formed in water with CO2

Lesson 6: Shifts in Equilibrium

On-level Words

common ion: an ion that is present in a system at equilibrium and an external ionic compound

that can be added to the system

Le Chatelier’s principle: the principle that states that if a stress is applied to a chemical system at

equilibrium, the system will respond by shifting in a direction to counteract the stress, and a

new equilibrium will be established

reaction quotient: a value calculated by applying actual concentrations of components in a

chemical reaction to the equation for that reaction’s equilibrium constant

Supporting Words

stress: change that is imposed on a system from the outside

Advanced Words




Lesson 1: Mixtures and Solutions

On-level Words

Brownian motion: the random motion of particles suspended in a fluid as a result of their

collision with the fast-moving molecules in the fluid

colloid: a class of suspension with smaller particles that are dispersed in a manner that prevents

them from being filtered easily or settling rapidly

emulsion: a type of colloid in which two or more liquids that cannot usually mix are held in

suspension by another substance

mixture: a combination of pure substances

solute: the substance that gets dissolved by the solvent in a solution; a substance present in a

relatively smaller amount in a solution

solution: a homogeneous mixture that is made up of two or more substances that appear as one

phase

solvent: the substance that dissolves the solute in a solution; the substance present in the larger

relative amount in a solution

suspension: a type of heterogeneous mixture containing particles large enough to settle out or

capable of being filtered out

Tyndall effect: the scattering of light passing through a transparent medium

Supporting Words

heterogeneous mixture: a mixture that contains more than one phase and in which the

characteristics of the particles vary throughout the mixture

homogeneous mixture: a mixture that appears as one phase and in which the particles have

uniform characteristics throughout

Advanced Words

coagulate: change from a liquid to a solid or semisolid state

Lesson 2: Properties of Water

On-level Words

adhesion: the attraction between molecules of two different substances that are in physical

contact at a surface

cohesion: the attraction between molecules within a substance

surface tension: the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force



Supporting Words

capillary action: the movement of water up a narrow tube due to attractions with the surface of

a tube

meniscus: a bubble or U-shaped surface formed around the edges of a liquid in a container

Advanced Words

turgor pressure: the force of water on the walls of a plant cell that gives stems and leaves their

rigid physical structure

Lesson 3: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

On-level Words

aqueous: describing a solution in which the solvent is water

dissociation: the separation of an ionic compound into ions of opposite charge

electrolyte: a chemical compound that forms ions when dissolved in water; or, any of the ions

which are formed through this process

hydration: the process in which water molecules surround ions and keep them in solution

ionization: the formation of ions as a result of a chemical reaction

precipitate: a solid or solid phase separated from a solution, usually as a result of a chemical

reaction taking place in aqueous solution

Supporting Words

charge attraction: the electrostatic force which pulls a positive charge and a negative charge

toward each other

net ionic equation: a chemical equation that shows only the ions that undergo reaction

Advanced Words

neutral formula: the formula unit for a cation and anion bonded together with no net charge



Lesson 4: Solutions and Solubility

On-level Words

rate of dissolution: the speed at which a solid dissolves in a liquid

saturated solution: a solution in which the concentration of solute is equal to the maximum

concentration predicted from the solute’s solubility

solubility: a property relating to the amount of a solute that will dissolve in a given volume of

solvent at a given temperature and pressure

supersaturated solution: a solution in which the concentration of solute is greater than the

maximum concentration predicted from the solute’s solubility

unsaturated solution: a solution in which the concentration of solute is less than the maximum

concentration predicted from the solute’s solubility

Supporting Words

collision: an encounter between particles resulting in the dissolution of a solute particle in a

solvent

Advanced Words

oil: a nonpolar chemical substance consisting largely of carbon and hydrogen that is a viscous

liquid at room temperature and is hydrophobic, which means that it does not mix with water

Lesson 5: Lab: Solubility

On-level Words

equilibrate: to adjust to a specific environmental condition; for a thermometer, to adjust to the

temperature of a solution

immerse: to submerge something in another, usually liquid, substance

temperature: a measure of the kinetic energy of solvent molecules

Supporting Words

steaming: giving off water vapor as a result of heating

testable: describing a variable which can be manipulated and measured in a lab setting

Advanced Words

linear: describing a relationship between two variables in which the change in the independent

variable is directly proportional to the change in the dependent variable



Lesson 6: Measures of Concentration: Molarity

On-level Words

concentration: a ratio that describes the amount of solute divided by the amount of solvent or

solution

dilution: the process of adding more solvent to a solution to decrease the concentration

molarity: the concentration of a solution expressed as the number of moles of solute per liter of

solution

stock solution: a concentrated solution of a common reagent used to prepare more diluted

solutions

Supporting Words

concentrated: referring to a solution that contains a large amount of solute relative to the

amount of solvent

dilute: referring to a solution that contains a small amount of solute relative to the amount of

solvent

Advanced Words

reagent: a substance used to test for the presence of another substance by causing a chemical

reaction with it

vaporize: to transform into a gas phase

Lesson 7: Measures of Concentration: Molality and Other Calculations

On-level Words

grams per liter: an expression of the concentration of a solution as the mass of solute divided by

the volume of solution

molality: the concentration of a solution expressed as moles of solute divided by kilograms of

solvent

parts per million (ppm): an expression of very dilute concentration as the mass of solute divided

by the total mass of the solution multiplied by 106

percent concentration: the ratio of a solute’s mass to the total mass of a solution; mass of solute

divided by total mass

Supporting Words

molar mass: the mass of a given element or compound divided by the amount of a substance in

kg/mol



Advanced Words

parts per million by volume (PPMV): an expression of concentration as the volume of a solute

divided by the total volume of the solution multiplied by 106

Lesson 8: Colligative Properties

On-level Words

boiling point elevation: the increase in the boiling point of a solution as a result of the number of

particles dissolved in the solution

colligative: the property of a solution that depends on the number but not the identity of the

particles dissolved in the solution

freezing point depression: the decrease in the freezing point of a solution as a result of the

number of solute particles dissolved in the solution ionic compounds: compounds which ionize

when dissolved in water

osmotic pressure: the pressure that must be applied to a solution to prevent osmosis

vapor pressure: the pressure exerted by the vapor on a liquid under equilibrium conditions

Supporting Words

boiling point: the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the atmospheric

pressure

osmosis: the movement of water through a semipermeable membrane toward a higher solute

concentration

Advanced Words

cytoplasm: the fluid and organelles which make up the interior of a cell between the nucleus

and the cell membrane




Lesson 1: Properties of Acids and Bases

On-level Words

acid: a chemical substance that increases H+ concentration in aqueous solution

base: a chemical substance that decreases H+ concentration in aqueous solution or that

increases OH− concentration in solution

neutralization: a type of reaction between an acid and a base which forms a salt and water

salt: an ionic compound formed by combining an acid and a base

Supporting Words

disintegrate: to break or decompose into constituent elements or particles

dissociation: the process in which a molecule separates into ions in solution

Advanced Words

electroplating: the process of coating a surface with metal ions by means of an electric current

Lesson 2: Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis Acids and Bases

On-level Words

Arrhenius acid: a substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of

hydronium ion, H3O+

Arrhenius base: a substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of

hydroxide ion, OH−

Bronsted-Lowry acid: a proton donator in a proton-transfer reaction

Bronsted-Lowry base: a proton acceptor in a proton-transfer reaction

conjugate acid: the acid formed as a result of the addition of a proton to a Bronsted-Lowry base

conjugate base: the base formed as a result of the removal of a proton from a Bronsted-Lowry

acid

Lewis acid: a substance that accepts electrons to form a covalent bond

Lewis base: a substance that donates electrons to form a covalent bond

Supporting Words

hydronium: the ion formed when water dissociates through the addition of an extra hydrogen

ion to a water molecule

Advanced Words

acetic acid: a colorless pungent liquid acid, C2H4O2, that is the main active ingredient in vinegar



Lesson 3: pH

On-level Words

acidic: a word describing a substance with a pH less than 7

basic: a word describing a substance with a pH greater than 7

acidity: the degree to which a substance is acidic

alkalinity: the degree to which a substance is basic, or alkaline

litmus paper: paper treated with coloring matter that turns red in the presence of an acid and

blue in the presence of a base

pH (potential for hydrogen): a measure of the hydronium or hydrogen ion concentration in an

aqueous solution; given by pH = −log[H+]

pOH (potential for hydroxide): a measure of the hydroxide ion concentration in an aqueous

solution; given by pOH = −log[OH−]

Supporting Words

logarithm: the exponent that indicates the power to which a base number is raised to produce a

given number; for example, log10(100) is 2 because 102 is 100

Advanced Words

derivation: a deduction or inference based on a given original equation that provides a

simplified or modified equation

Lesson 4: Lab: Measuring pH

On-level Words

baseline: an initial set of data used for comparison to subsequent data obtained

indicator: a substance used to show the pH of a solution by means of a change of color

molarity: the concentration of a solution expressed as the number of moles of solute per liter of

solution

neutral: a word describing a substance with a pH of exactly 7

Supporting Words

calibrate: to adjust or mark a measuring device so that it can be used in an accurate and exact

way

Advanced Words

distilled: describing water which has been purified through boiling the liquid and then

condensing the water vapor back into the liquid phase



Lesson 5: Neutralization Reactions

On-level Words

electrolyte: a compound that forms ions in an aqueous solution

hydrolysis: the dissociation of a salt in water

neutralization: the reaction of an acid and a base to produce a salt and water

spectator ions: ions which are present on the reactant and the product side of a chemical

equation that do not directly participate in the reaction

strong acid or base: describing an acid or base which completely dissociates in solution

weak acid or base: describing an acid or base which incompletely dissociates in solution

Supporting Words

conductivity: the ability to transfer heat or electric current

electricity: the movement of ions in a particular field, based on their charge

Advanced Words

ammonia: an extremely pungent, alkaline compound of hydrogen and nitrogen; used especially

in cleaning products

Lesson 6: Titration Reactions

On-level Words

bromothymol blue: a chemical indicator which turns yellow below a pH of 6, turns green

between pH 6 and pH 7, and turns blue above a pH of 7

equivalence point: in a titration, the point at which the number of moles of one reactant has

been added in stoichiometric quantity to react completely with the moles of the other reactant

meniscus: the curvature of liquid against the walls of a container

standardized solution: a solution with a known concentration

titration: the process of reacting a solution of unknown concentration with a standard solution

of known concentration

Supporting Words

volumetric pipette: a pipet calibrated to deliver one specific volume of liquid with extreme

accuracy to the hundredths place

Advanced Words

electrode: a conductor that collects and transmits electrons to a device



Lesson 7: Lab: Titration

On-level Words

analyte: the solution that has an unknown concentration in a titration

burette: a graduated glass tube with a tap at one end used for delivering very small volumes of

liquid

titrant: the solution that has a known concentration in a titration

phenolphthalein: a chemical indicator which is colorless in an acidic solution and turns pink to

red as the solution becomes alkaline

Supporting Words

graduations: marks on an instrument or vessel indicating degrees or quantities

Advanced Words

corrosive: tending to damage other substances through contact

Lesson 8: Buffers

On-level Words

amphiprotic: describing a buffer system which can act as both an acid or a base, depending on

the pH of an added substance

buffer: an aqueous solution that contains a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and

its conjugate acid; resists changes in pH when small quantities of an acid or base are added

equilibrium constant (Ka or Kb): a number that expresses the relationship between the amounts

of products and reactants present at equilibrium in a reversible chemical reaction at a given

temperature

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: an equation that relates pH and buffer composition as

pH = p𝐾𝑎 + log[A−]

[HA]

Supporting Words

conjugate pair: an acid-base pair that differs by one proton in their formulas

regulate: to stabilize

Advanced Words

enzyme: a biological catalyst which facilitates a specific biochemical reaction




Lesson 1: Oxidation-Reduction

On-level Words

oxidation: the loss of one or more electrons

oxidation number: the number of electrons an atom has gained, lost, or shared to form a

chemical bond with one or more atoms

oxidation-reduction reaction, or redox reaction: a reaction in which electrons are transferred

from one substance to another substance

oxidizing agent: the substance that is reduced in a redox reaction

reducing agent: the substance that is oxidized in a redox reaction

reduction: the gain of one or more electrons

Supporting Words

rust: a reddish substance that forms on iron when it comes into contact with oxygen in the air or

in water

Advanced Words

peroxide: a chemical compound in which two oxygen atoms are linked together by a single

covalent bond, resulting in an oxidation number of –1

Lesson 2: Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

On-level Words

activity series table: a chart which organizes elements by their strength as reducing agents

disproportionation: a process in which a substance behaves as both an oxidizing agent and a

reducing agent

reduction potential: the voltage produced by a reduction half-reaction

Supporting Words

disproportionate: a substance that is simultaneously oxidized and reduced

octet rule: a statement that says that elements tend toward having eight electrons in their

outermost valence shell

Advanced Words

voltage: a measure of the potential difference in charge between two points in an electrical field



Lesson 3: Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations

On-level Words

half-reaction: the oxidation or reduction components of a redox reaction

tarnish: the oxidation of a metal by oxygen that causes discoloration of the metal’s surface

Supporting Words

conservation of mass: the law that the same number and types of atoms must be on the

reactant and product side of a balanced chemical equation

Advanced Words

corrosion: a redox reaction that disintegrates the surface of the oxidized substance

Lesson 4: Fuel Cells

On-level Words

anode: the oxidation site in a fuel cell

cathode: the reduction site in a fuel cell

electrolyte: in a fuel cell, the solution between the anode and cathode in which hydronium ions

are dissolved

fuel cell: a voltaic cell in which the oxidation of a fuel, such as hydrogen gas, is used to produce

electricity

Supporting Words

electric current: flow of electrons in a battery or fuel cell from the anode to the cathode

Advanced Words

membrane: in a fuel cell, a semipermeable material between the cathode and anode that

contains the electrolyte and permits the flow of electrons between the electrodes

Lesson 5: Voltaic Cells

On-level Words

activity series: organized list of metals in order of decreasing ease of oxidation

electrochemical cell: a device that converts between electrical and chemical energy

galvanic cell: an electrochemical cell that produces an electric current through a spontaneous

redox reaction

inert electrode: an electrode that conducts electricity but does not chemically react with ions in

an electrolyte solution



salt bridge: in a galvanic cell, the substance that allows ions to flow between the electrolyte

solutions in the half-cells

voltaic cell: an electrochemical cell that produces an electric current

Supporting Words

inert: unreactive

Advanced Words

series: multiple voltaic cells which produce a greater combined electric current than any

individual cell

Lesson 6: Electrolytic Cells

On-level Words

second law of thermodynamics: a statement that says that in all energy exchanges within a

closed system, the potential energy of the final state will always be less than that of the initial

state

electrolysis: the producing of chemical changes through the passage of an electric current

through an electrolyte

electrolytic cell: an electrochemical cell that induces a nonspontaneous oxidation-reduction

reaction to occur through the use of an external energy source

electroplating: the deposition of a thin layer of metal onto an object through electrolysis

rechargeable battery: a group of electrochemical cells that, after discharging, may be recharged

by passing an electric current through it

Supporting Words

interconvert: to transfer one form of energy into another form

Advanced Words

discharge: to release electrical energy

Lesson 7: Lab: Electrolysis

On-level Words

circuit: the complete path of an electric current

free electron: a negatively charged particle that moves from an anode to a cathode

phenol red: a pH indicator that turns yellow in an acid solution, orange in a neutral solution, and

pink in a basic solution



Supporting Words

decompose: to separate a compound into its components

Advanced Words

terminal: the anode or cathode of an electrical power source




Lesson 1: Organic Compounds

On-level Words

geometric isomers: compounds that have the same molecular formula and sequence of atoms but different three-dimensional arrangements of atoms

hydrocarbon: a molecule made up entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms

isomer: a compound that has the same molecular formula as another compound, but a different structural formula

model: a description used to help visualize something that cannot be directly observed

organic compound: a member of a large class of substances whose molecules contain carbon atoms covalently bonded to other carbon atoms and commonly to hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen atoms

structural isomers: compounds that have the same molecular formula but whose atoms are bonded together in different sequences

Supporting Words

compound: a distinct substance formed by chemical union of two or more ingredients

organic: relating to or containing carbon compounds

Advanced Words

covalent bonds: a chemical union between atoms by the sharing of electrons

radioactive isotope: a natural or artificially created atom of an element with the same atomic number but different mass that have an unstable nucleus that decays

Lesson 2: Properties and Uses of Saturated Hydrocarbons

On-level Words

alkane: a hydrocarbon containing only single bonds

cycloalkane: an alkane with one or more carbon rings

saturated hydrocarbon: a hydrocarbon that contains only single bonds

substituents: a general name for any atom or group of atoms that branch from the main chain of an organic molecule

unsaturated hydrocarbon: a compound that is composed of carbon and hydrogen and contains at least one double or triple bond between carbon atoms

Supporting Words

molecule: the smallest particle of a substance that has all its characteristics and is composed of

one or more atoms

prefix: letters added at the beginning of a word to change its meaning



Advanced Words

hexane: a saturated hydrocarbon molecule with six carbon atoms

hexine: an unsaturated hydrocarbon molecule with six carbon atoms

Lesson 3: Properties and Uses of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

On-level Words

alkene: a type of hydrocarbon in which there is at least one double bond between carbon atoms

alkyne: a type of hydrocarbon in which there is at least one triple bond between carbon atoms

aromatic hydrocarbon: a type of hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms are bonded in alternating single and double bonds in a ring

cis isomer: a geometric isomer in which two groups are bonded to different carbons in a double bond in the same orientation

methyl group: an alkyl derived from methane, containing one carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms ; CH3

trans isomer: a geometric isomer in which two groups are bonded to different carbons in a double bond in the opposite orientation

Supporting Words

bond: an attractive force that holds together the atoms or groups of atoms in a molecule

vapor: a substance in the gaseous state distinguished from liquid or solid Advanced Words

benzene: a colorless volatile liquid aromatic hydrocarbon C6H6 used in organic synthesis and as a motor fuel

petrochemicals: substances obtained from direct or indirect processing of oil or natural gas

Lesson 4: Functional Groups

On-level Words

aldehyde: an organic compound containing a carbonyl group bonded to a carbon atom on one

side and to a hydrogen atom on the other

alkyl halide: an organic compound containing a halide bonded to a carbon atom

alcohol: an organic compound containing the O-H functional group

amine: an organic compound containing an −NH2 group

carbonyl group: a carbon atom bonded to an oxygen atom through a double bond

carboxylic acid: an organic compound containing a carbonyl group bonded to a carbon atom on one side and to an O-H functional group on the other

ester: an organic compound in which a carbonyl group bonded to an oxygen atom has been inserted into a hydrocarbon chain



ether: an organic compound containing an oxygen atom bonded between two carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon chain

functional group: a particular group of atoms that form the same structural pattern from one organic molecule to another

ketone: an organic compound containing a carbonyl group bonded to carbon atoms on both sides

Supporting Words

atom: the smallest particle of an element that can exist alone

inserted: to place inside an item, or in between two items Advanced Words

anesthetic: capable of producing loss of sensation with or without loss of consciousness

industrial solvent: chemical substances, usually organic liquids, that are used to dissolve or dilute other substances or materials in products

Lesson 5: Organic Reactions

On-level Words

addition polymer: a polymer formed by an addition reaction

addition reaction: a reaction in which a substance is added at a double bond or triple bond

condensation polymer: a polymer formed by a condensation reaction

condensation reaction: a reaction in which two reactants combine with the loss of a smaller molecule

elimination reaction: a reaction that occurs when a pair of atoms or groups of atoms on the same or adjacent carbons are removed to form a small molecule, leaving behind a double bond

monomer: a small molecule that can be combined with other similar or identical molecules to form a polymer

polymerization: a process in which monomers combine to produce a polymer

substitution reaction: a reaction in which an atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms

Supporting Words

polymer: a large molecule made up of many repeating units called monomers

reaction: a chemical change through the interaction of chemical substances

Advanced Words

diamide: a compound containing two amide groups, which are substances derived from

ammonia

esterization: the conversion of an acid into an ester by adding an alcohol and removing water



Lesson 6: Metabolism

On-level Words

ADP (adenosine diphosphate): a compound composed of one adenosine and two phosphate groups

ATP (adenosine triphosphate): a compound that stores and transports energy within a cell

cellular respiration: a process that breaks down glucose to provide energy in the form of ATP for metabolic processes

citric acid cycle: the second stage of the metabolic pathway of cellular respiration that results in the production of ATP

electron transport chain: the third stage of the metabolic pathway of cellular respiration that results in the production of ATP; a series of chemical reactions in which electrons carried by

electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) pass from one molecule to another until they synthesize ATP

glycolysis: the first stage of the metabolic pathway of cellular respiration that results in the production of ATP

metabolism: the set of chemical processes that occur within an organism to maintain life

Supporting Words

chain: a series of things or events linked or associated together

cycle: a series of events that recur regularly and return to the starting point Advanced Words

anabolism: a process in which energy is used to synthesize complex molecules from simpler

molecules

catabolism: a process in which complex molecules are broken down into simpler molecules with the release of energy

Lesson 7: Lab: Identifying Nutrients

On-level Words

Biuret solution: a reagent used to test for peptide bonds in a sample

Benedict’s solution: a reagent used to indicate the presence of monosaccharides in a sample

graduated pipette: a narrow tube into which fluid is drawn by suction that has measurement markings

indicator solution: a chemical that changes the color of a solution when it reacts with a specific type of molecule, verifying the presence of that specific molecule

Lugol’s solution: reagent used to test for polysaccharides in a sample

macromolecule: a large particle of a substance that retains its properties, made of one or more atoms

Sudan red solution: a reagent used to test for lipids in a sample



Supporting Words

identify: to establish the distinguishing characteristics of an item or individual

nutrient: a chemical furnishing essential elements to the health of a living thing Advanced Words

negative control: an item or group in an experiment in which no response is expected

positive control: an item or group in an experiment in which a known response is expected




Lesson 1: The Nucleus

On-level Words

isotopes: atoms at the same element that have a different number of neutrons, and different

mass

mass defect: the sum of the masses of the nucleons minus the mass of the atom

nuclear binding energy: the energy required to split the nucleus of an atom into separate protons and neutrons

nucleon: a particle that, along with other particles, makes up the nucleus (protons and neutrons)

radioactive decay: the spontaneous release of energy and particles from the nucleus of an unstable atom

strong nuclear force: the force responsible for binding protons and neutrons together in the nucleus

Supporting Words

atom: smallest part of an element that retains its characteristics

nucleus: the center of an atom containing protons and neutrons Advanced Words

E = mc2 : Einstein’s equation where energy equals mass times the speed of light squared

Lesson 2: Types of Radioactive Decay

On-level Words

alpha decay: the radioactive decay of an atom that emits an alpha particle

alpha particle: a particle with two protons and two neutrons

beta decay: the radioactive decay of an atom that emits an electron or a positron

deuterium: an isotope of hydrogen that has one proton and one neutron in the nucleus, and one electron in the region outside the nucleus

gamma decay: the radioactive decay of an atom that emits a photon

radiation: the high-energy particles emitted by an unstable nucleus as it decomposes

Supporting Words

decay: to become less; to erode

emit: to give off or release something



Advanced Words

photon: the smallest possible quantity of light

positron: a positively charged electron

Lesson 3: Balancing Nuclear Reactions

On-level Words

atomic number: the quantity of protons in an element

balance: to create an equation with an equal number of quantities of reactants and products

mass number: the quantity of protons plus neutrons in an atom

nuclear reaction: reactions that occur in the nucleus of an atom as a result of spontaneous decay, or the collision of two or more nuclei

nuclide: the nucleus itself of a given isotope

transmutation: nuclear reaction that changes an element Supporting Words

neutron: particle within the nucleus of an atom with a neutral charge

proton: particle within the nucleus of an atom that has a positive charge

Advanced Words

nuclear chemistry: the field of science that deals with the chemical and physical properties of

elements as a result of changes in their atomic nucleus

Lesson 4: Half-Life

On-level Words

daughter isotope: an isotope formed from the radioactive decay of another isotope known as

the parent isotope

half-life: the time required for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay

parent isotope: an isotope that undergoes radioactive decay

radioactive tracer: element used in medical testing with a very short half life

radioisotope: an atom with an unstable nucleus that will go through radioactive decay

radiometric dating: process used to determine the age of rock or fossil using radioisotopes by measuring the amount of isotope remaining

radiocarbon dating: type of radiometric dating used to estimate the age of organic materials with the radioisotope carbon-14 as it decays after an organism dies



Supporting Words

meteorite: fragment of rock fallen from space

sample: representative part of an item or group used for experimentation

unstable: not maintaining its current form; capable of constant change

Advanced Words

magnitude: size or extent; a numerical measure expressed as a multiple of a unit

probability: extent to which an event is likely, measured by the ratio of cases of the event to the total number of cases possible

Lesson 5: Lab: Half-Life

On-level Words

Geiger counter: an instrument for detecting the presence and intensity of radiation

modeling: using another item or event to help visualize or understand something that cannot be directly observed

radioactive decay sequence: unstable atomic nuclei decay through a sequence of alpha and beta decays until a stable nucleus is achieved

radon: inert radioactive element from the decay of uranium

scatterplot: a graph in which the values of two variables are plotted along two axes to determine if they are correlated

simulation: production of a model of something, especially for the purpose of study Supporting Words

fraction: a quantity that represents a part of a whole

pattern: a repeated or regular form o sequence identified in certain processes or situations

Advanced Words

exponential decay: event where a quantity decreases at a rate proportional to its current value

regression equation: statistical model that determines the relationship between the independent variable and the outcome variable

Lesson 6: Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

On-level Words

chain reaction: a self-sustaining series of chemical reactions in which the products of one

reaction are the reactants in the next reaction

cold fusion: scientific theory that specific types of fusion reactions can occur at room temperature

critical mass: the amount of fissionable material capable of sustaining a constant rate of fission



nuclear fission: the process in which a heavy nucleus is split into two large fragments of comparable mass to form smaller and more stable nuclei, resulting in the release of great amounts of energy

nuclear fusion: the process in which lighter atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier, more stable nucleus, resulting in the release of great amounts of energy

uranium: element that experiences natural radioactive decay and has one isotope that can cause nuclear explosions

Supporting Words

element: chemical with a specific number of protons, and distinct properties

sustain: to continue, causing to keep going

Advanced Words

plausible: realistic or possible

Lesson 7: Nuclear Energy

On-level Words

control rod: a physical cylinder of material that absorbs neutrons so they cannot initiate a fission

reaction

critical mass: an amount of fissionable material capable of sustaining a constant rate of fission

generator: a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

nuclear fuel: the material used in a nuclear reactor that provides fissionable atoms

nuclear waste: the matter remaining after fission reactions take place in a nuclear reactor

subcritical mass: an amount of fissionable material that is too small to sustain a constant rate of fission

supercritical mass: an amount of fissionable material that produces an accelerating rate of fission

turbine: a cylinder with blades that rotates when steam or other gas expands and moves across the blades

Supporting Words

accelerate: to increase speed

nuclear power plant: a facility designed to generate electricity from fission reactions

Advanced Words

nuclear reaction vessels: reactor pressure vessels in a nuclear power plant containing

the nuclear reactor coolant, core shroud, and the reactor core

tsunami: a series of large sea waves produced by a seismic event such as an earthquake or

volcano eruption under the sea



REAL-WORLD APPLICATIONS AND SCIENTIFIC THINKING

Throughout the course, students participate in 17 labs and 17 projects that engage students in scientific

thinking and provide opportunities to apply concepts they learn in real-world settings. The following

descriptions show examples of how students explore real-world applications and employ scientific

thinking throughout this course.


1. In The History and Arrangement of the Periodic Table lesson, students research an element of

their choice from the periodic table. Students use the Internet and reference materials to

collect information on the element. Students use scientific research to determine the physical

and chemical properties of the element, the way it was discovered, and the ways the element is

used in real-world applications. In completing this research project, students not only discover

real uses of individual elements, but they also learn that studying elements and their properties

can lead to new innovation and technology.

2. Being able to defend an argument is an important scientific practice. In the lesson Elements,

Compounds, and Mixtures, students research and evaluate claims regarding the pros and cons

of adding fluoride to drinking water. Students are provided with various claims and must

determine the validity and reliability of evidence used to support each claim. Once students

have completed their research, they write a research paper with their own argument regarding

the use of fluoride in drinking water, supporting their personal claim with scientific evidence.


1. In the Lab: Physical and Chemical Changes lesson, students explore changes in matter and

identify whether they are physical or chemical. Students carry out a variety of procedures, such

as mixing different chemicals, heating liquids, and burning solids. Based on qualitative

observations of these activities, students evaluate the results and determine whether the

different types of matter experienced a physical or chemical change. Through this lab, students

apply their understanding of the properties of matter to describe changes in the form and

identity of solids, liquids, and gases.

2. In the lesson Phase Changes students plan and conduct an investigation to explore the

relationship between properties of substances and the electrical forces within those substances.

Students implement the practices of the scientific method to create their own lab procedure.

They will follow lab safety guidelines and apply the scientific method to hypothesize about how

intermolecular forces affect an observable property of a substance. Using lab equipment and

materials, they will perform a procedure, taking appropriate measurements and writing down

their observations. They will write a full lab report of their investigation to describe their

investigation, its purpose, procedures, results, evaluations, and conclusions.




1. In the Lab: Ionic and Covalent Bonds lesson, students perform different tests to determine if a

substance contains ionic or covalent bonds. They have learned about types of bonds and their

effects on the physical properties of a substance, including its solubility, conductivity, and state

at room temperature. Through this exploration, students apply their knowledge about types of

bonds and evaluate how these bonds affect the observable properties of matter. They develop

the understanding that ionic compounds are soluble in water and conduct electricity so they are

useful in body processes such as muscle and heart contraction. Covalent compounds have bonds

that can be easily broken to meet the body’s energy needs.

2. In the lesson Covalent Bonding, students apply their understanding of covalent and ionic

bonding to model three different molecules. They use foam balls and toothpicks to create three-

dimensional models using foam balls of various sizes and connecting them with toothpicks. By

evaluating the chemical formulas of the molecules, they can determine how to arrange the

atoms. Modeling is an important tool for understanding how concepts can be represented in a

classroom setting. Students examine their created models and write a summary of each

molecule’s properties, combining their observations of the models with their knowledge of

chemical bonding.


1. In the Lab: Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield lesson, students learn that pharmaceutical,

petroleum, and polymer companies use the limiting reactant and percent yield concepts to

minimize costs and test the efficiency of a process or a chemical reaction.

2. In the lesson Percent Composition and Molecular Formula, students use mathematical

calculations to solve percent composition problems. They apply their understanding of the

concepts to determine empirical and molecular formulas, based on the given mass of each

element in the compound.


1. In the Lab: Charles’s Law lesson, students investigate the relationship between volume and

temperature of a gas. Then, they analyze how the observations made during the lab apply to

hot-air ballooning. Students evaluate how heating the air under a balloon causes the gas to

expand, resulting in the lift off of a hot-air balloon.

2. Students practice solving stoichiometric problems to determine the amount of a substance in a

chemical reaction. Through the lesson Stoichiometric Calculations and the assignments within

the lesson, students apply dimensional analysis to evaluate chemical systems. Because

dimensional analysis involves many unit conversions and ratio reductions, students also exercise

their ability to follow a complex multistep procedure. They write and balance chemical

equations, use the periodic table to determine values, set up ratios of different products and

reactants in a chemical reaction, and convert between mass and amounts of a substance.




1. In the lesson Enthalpy, Entropy, and Free Energy, students apply entropy and free energy

principles to living organisms. Students learn that even though organisms build structures,

organisms do not violate the second law of thermodynamics. For example, in building glucose

molecules, some energy is turned into heat.

2. Students follow a multistep complex procedure in the lesson Lab: Enthalpy to determine the

enthalpy of the combustion reaction of magnesium. Students use two different setups to collect

data such as the number of moles of magnesium and changes in the HCl solution temperatures.

Students then use the data to calculate the enthalpy of the intermediate steps involved in the

combustion reaction. Finally, students apply Hess’s Law to calculate the enthalpy of the

magnesium combustion reaction.


1. The Catalysts lesson contains examples of real-world applications to illustrate concepts for

students. Among others, a real-world example of a catalysts’ causing a reaction is that of the

reactions inside a grain silo. If the grain dust in a silo has settled on the ground there is little

chance of it igniting. However, when the grain dust is up in the air, it ignites very quickly.

2. The lesson Lab: Reaction Rate requires the students to plan and perform controlled tests in a

virtual laboratory setting to apply reaction rate concepts and evidence to provide an explanation

about the effects of changing the temperature or concentration of the reacting particles on the

rate at which a reaction occurs.


1. In the Properties of Water lesson, students practice applying their understanding of water’s

chemical makeup by explaining the chemistry of water. They use their knowledge of the

behavior of water molecules to understand and describe how water functions in biological

systems. Specifically, they explore the effect of water on the structural supports of plant

systems, the effect of sweating on regulating temperature, and the ability of water to transport

bodily fluids as the universal solvent.

2. In the lesson Lab: Solubility, students explore the properties of solubility to analyze the

relationship between temperature and solute concentration. Students test the effects of

changing the temperature of water on the mass of sugar which can be dissolved. Then, they use

their data to create scatterplots. Plotting data points is an important technique for analyzing

solubility data. Students interpret the scatterplots as solubility graphs. These solubility graphs

can then be used to predict and analyze the behavior of solutions when temperature or

concentration is changed.




1. In the lesson pH, students conduct research on the causes and effects of acid rain. Students

apply their understanding of how acids behave in solution to interpret specific changes in the

properties of rain. Once they understand how acid rain is formed and how it affects different

materials, students write a research paper describing acid rain phenomena.

2. In the lesson Lab: Titration, students carefully conduct a multistep experiment to identify the

concentration of a solution using a solution with a known concentration. Because titrations

involve changes in very small increments, students must take extra caution in controlling the

volumes of liquids added. They must also monitor the slightest changes in concentration to be

able to correctly identify the equivalence point. After students have determined the point at

which the moles of titrant and the moles of analyte are equal. Then, students use the data to

calculate the unknown concentration through stoichiometric analysis.


1. In the lesson Fuel Cells, students explore fuel cells and their applications in cars. Students

describe the drawbacks and limitations of fuel-cell automobiles. Then, students investigate a

societal issue related to using fuel-cells as energy sources. After researching a topic, students

write an argumentative essay about the advantages and disadvantages of this use for fuel cells.

2. In the Lab: Electrolysis lesson, students create an electrolytic setup using electrolyte solutions, a

power supply, and electrodes. They investigate how an electrical current causes the water in an

electrolyte solution to decompose into oxygen gas and hydrogen gas. Through the use of phenol

red, they also explore how the pH of the solution changes as an oxidation-reduction reaction

proceeds. For this lab, students must exercise proper safety procedures when handling

chemicals and electrical circuits. After their lab, students analyze their observations and write an

explanation of the processes which occurred in the activity.


1. In the lesson Metabolism, students apply their knowledge of organic chemical reactions to the

real-world process of turning food into energy. Video instruction introduces the definition of

metabolism, and students differentiate between catabolic and anabolic reactions in metabolic

processes. Students review the steps of cellular respiration in their own bodies, emphasizing the

chemical reactions involved.

2. Students apply science and engineering practices in the Lab: Identifying Nutrients lesson.

Students create a hypothesis regarding the nutrients in a food sample, and then use both

positive and negative controls to identify organic compounds in the sample with indicator

solutions. Students analyze data and draw conclusions based on evidence they have collected

about nutrients in food samples.




1. Students apply the concepts of the lesson Nuclear Energy to the real-world scenario of our daily

energy needs to run our homes and appliances. Students consider the advantages and

disadvantages of nuclear power, and they compare nuclear energy to other energy sources such

as fossil fuels and wind energy. Students debate this contemporary issue with resources from

the video-based tutorial, and they write a well-structured argument for or against the continued

use of nuclear energy.

2. Students apply science and engineering practices as they investigate radioactive decay in the

lesson Lab: Half-Life. Students use modeling with everyday objects to study the effect of half-life

on the radioactivity of a sample element over eight cycles. Like engineers, students then

conduct mathematical and graphical analysis to determine how radioactive decay affects the

overall amount of radioactive material remaining and the number of stable atoms created from

an initial sample over time. Like scientists, students analyze their data and draw conclusions in a

complete lab report.



CROSSCUTTING CONCEPTS

Students encounter crosscutting concepts as they are integrated into the lessons. The following

examples show how students use crosscutting concepts in each of the units throughout the course.

UNIT 1: ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE Crosscutting Concept Unit Example

Patterns: Observed patterns in nature guide organization and classification and prompt questions about relationships and causes underlying them.

In The History and Arrangement of the Periodic Table, students explore how elements are classified. Students discover how scientists noticed patterns in the elements and created models. Students compare different classification methods for the elements, ending with an explanation of the current Periodic Table.

Cause and Effect: Mechanism and Prediction: Events have causes, sometimes simple, sometimes multifaceted. Deciphering causal relationships, and the mechanisms by which they are mediated, is a major activity of science and engineering.

Students examine the effects of adding and removing electrons from an atom in the lesson Periodic Trends. Adding or removing energy from a system causes change; in the case of atoms, it causes an ion to become positive or negative. Students also learn that ionization energy is needed to remove an electron from an atom.

Scale, Proportion, and Quantity: In considering phenomena, it is critical to recognize what is relevant at different size, time, and energy scales, and to recognize proportional relationships between different quantities as scales change.

Atoms can be studied only indirectly as they are very small. To understand the structure and properties of atoms, the lesson Atomic Numbers and Electron Configurations engages students in models depicting the nature of electrons and their arrangement in individual atoms. Students indirectly study the concepts of atoms by analyzing these models and comparing them to observable properties.

Systems and System Models: A system is an organized group of related objects or components; models can be used for understanding and predicting the behavior of systems.

In Atomic Numbers and Electron Configurations, students learn how electron models can be used to predict the behavior of an atom. Students model atomic structure using electron clouds and atomic orbitals to express electron arrangements. Different models are explored, as each has limitations to what it can show about the atom structure and behavior.

Energy and Matter: Flows, Cycles, and Conservation: Tracking energy and matter flows, into, out of, and within systems helps one understand their system’s behavior.

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it only moves between places, objects, or systems. Students learn how energy moves between atoms in Periodic Trends. In this lesson’s practice problems, students apply conceptual knowledge to determine the amount of ionization energy present in different elements.



Structure and Function: The way an object is shaped or structured determines many of its properties and functions.

In The History and Arrangement of the Periodic Table, students discover how the properties of element groups vary among one another. These differences are not random; the variations are linked to the atomic structure of the elements in different groups. Students predict the properties of individual elements based on their Periodic Table group. Going further, students research a particular element to demonstrate the real-life uses of the element.

Stability and Change: For both designed and natural systems, conditions that affect stability and factors that control rates of change are critical elements to consider and understand.

Much of science deals with constructing explanations of how things change and how they remain stable. At the atomic level, change and stability are closely related to forces and energy. For example, in Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures, students classify compounds by the bonds that hold them together. Students develop the understanding that water remains H2O unless the bonds are broken between the elements in this molecule.



UNIT 2: STATES AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


In the lesson Solids and Plasmas, students describe the patterns of particle arrangement in a solid. They identify differences between crystalline and amorphous solids, prompting students to analyze how the lattice structure of a crystal determines its particular properties. Students examine the different levels of order that describe various solids and how these arrangements are related to the characteristics of a substance.


In the Lab: Physical and Chemical Changes lesson, students examine the effects that different procedures have on a substance. They perform lab activities such as mixing chemicals and heating substances and observe changes that occur. Through an evaluation of these changes, students analyze the causal relationships between the manipulation of a substance and the resulting effects.


The identity of a gas is the same at different volumes and pressures. Gases undergo physical changes that relate to changes in size and energy scales, according to environmental conditions such as temperature and volume of the container. In the lesson Gases, students recognize the directly and indirectly proportionate relationships between volume, pressure, and temperature of a gas


Students learn about gases by examining the behavior of ideal gas systems. In the lesson Gases, students study ideal systems of gases to understand how gases theoretically behave. They look at models of gas particles and analyze how the system changes with increases in pressure or decreases in volume. These models of ideal gases can be used to predict the behavior of most gases as the size or temperature of the system changes.


In the lesson Phase Changes, students comprehend the transfers of energy that occur to cause a substance to change states. They identify how energy increases in a solid to convert the substance into a liquid. In addition, they also examine the processes of boiling, freezing, and condensation and their effects on the energy and behavior of particles in a substance.


In the lesson Liquids, students compare the structure of particles in a liquid to the structures of solids and gases. They describe how the loosely structured particles of a liquid determine how it functions, including its ability to take the shape of its container. Then, they apply this understanding to other properties, such as the incompressibility of liquids due to the closeness of its molecules.




In the lesson Solids and Plasmas students explore the properties of plasmas as well as some examples of plasmas that have been created in laboratory settings. Students identify the relationship between the high-energy state of plasmas and their stability under certain conditions. In addition, students discover how some common plasmas are kept in controlled environments to prevent them from undergoing a change of phase.



UNIT 3: CHEMICAL BONDING Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


In the lesson Types of Chemical Bonds, students explore the arrangement of atoms in different types of bonds. They explore the relationship between atoms’ electron configurations and the types of bonds they form. By the end of the lesson, students understand that orbital patterns determine how two atoms interact through bonding.


The properties of molecules vary, depending on the types of atoms and bonds that make up the molecule. In the lesson Intermolecular Forces, students learn about the behaviors of different molecules. Then, they explore the forces of attraction and repulsion which affect the physical properties of a molecule. By comparing the properties of different molecules, students understand the nature of intermolecular forces and their observable effect on the characteristic of a substance.


In the lesson Ionic Bonding, students learn about the crystalline structures of certain ionic compounds. Through visual examples of the ionic arrangements in crystals, students observe and understand the higher levels of order which occur throughout ionic solids. Lattice structures are regularly ordered by repeating formula units, the smallest unit of order in a crystal. Students understand how the lattices of larger ionic compounds increase the strength of the substance, observable in its higher melting and boiling points. As lattice energy increases, an ionic compound is more stable.


Modeling molecular structures is an important way to study and interpret the arrangement of atoms bonded together. In the lesson Molecular Geometry, students review the bonding mechanisms determined by electron orbital configurations. They explore VSEPR theory and apply its concepts to predict the shape of a molecule.


The electron sea model describes the behavior of metallic bonds according to the flow of delocalized electrons between individual atoms. In the lesson Metallic Bonding, students study the movement of electrons between atoms of different metals. The properties of conductivity and ductility observed in alloys and other metallic bonds are dependent on the electrons which move freely between atoms.


In the lesson Covalent Bonding, students learn about the arrangement of bonds between nonmetallic atoms. They understand the differences between higher and lower orders of covalent bonds. Then, they create models of covalently bonded molecules and describe how its structure is related to its physical and chemical properties.

Stability and Change: For both Crystalline arrangements of ionic compounds affect the



designed and natural systems, conditions that affect stability and factors that control rates of change are critical elements to consider and understand.

stability of a solid at different temperatures. In the lesson Ionic Bonding, students learn about the different levels of crystalline order and their effects on the tendency of a solid to melt at increased temperatures. Students realize how the strength and size of formula units determine the resistance of a crystal to change according to changes in temperature and pressure.



UNIT 4: CHEMICAL REACTIONS Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


In the lesson Evidence of Chemical Reactions, students classify changes in matter by recognizing patterns of physical and chemical changes. They consider changes in the appearance and identity of a substance and determine if a new product is formed from the interaction.


In the Lab: Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield lesson, students explore the efficiency of a chemical reaction between copper (II) chloride solution and different quantities of aluminum. They calculate percent yield based on their experimental data. Then, they identify potential causes for the difference between theoretical and actual yield. Students also evaluate and any sources of error which may have contributed to the difference.


In the lesson Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield, students consider the concept of percent yield as it pertains to the efficiency of a chemical reaction. They explore how altering the concentration of one reactant in proportion to the concentration of another changes the amount of product formed. Then, they determine the changes in percent yield which occur as quantities of reactants change.


In the Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations lesson, students model chemical reaction systems using word equations and chemical formulas. By balancing the equations, students determine the relative moles of reactants which must be present for a certain amount of product to form.


In the Lab: Types of Reactions lesson, students examine how heating and burning reactants can produce a chemical change. They also conduct experiments in which different metals are mixed together in aqueous solution. For each lab activity, students make observations about the chemical system and its changes, monitoring the physical as well as the chemical changes of substances. Students also note the release or absorption of energy observable in the production of heat, light, or gas. They use these observations to identify each reaction and determine the flow of matter as it transformed or rearranged into new products.




In the lesson Types of Reactions, students learn about single and double replacement reactions. Replacement reactions depend on the similar structures of ionic compounds. Students observe how the ionic structures of reactants determine their ability to function in a double replacement system by enabling the exchange of ions. To practice their understanding, students classify chemical reactions based on the kinds of molecules involved and their prior knowledge of bonding patterns.


Students evaluate the changes in the rate of reaction by combining different masses of reactants in the Lab: Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield lesson. They analyze how changing the mass of reactants affects the stability of the system by causing the reaction to occur faster or to produce more product.



UNIT 5: STOICHIOMETRY AND THE GAS LAWS Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


In the lesson Gas Laws, students learn about the distribution of particles in a gas and the corresponding behaviors of gases according to Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and other gas laws. They understand how the movement and arrangement of gas particles affects the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas system.


In the Lab: Boyle’s Law lesson, students evaluate the relationship between adding weight onto a closed system of gases and the change in volume of the system. Through this lab, students predict the inverse proportionality of pressure and volume. In their lab report, they take into account other factors that may have affected their results, considering the lab equipment used and the procedures followed.


In the Gas Laws lesson, students learn about the proportional relationships between the volume, pressure, and temperature of a gas. They understand how the gas laws can be combined to show the effect of changing one variable on the relationship between the other two variables.


Students understand how the gas laws relate two variables of a gas, whether volume and temperature or pressure and volume. For those laws, extraneous variables must remain constant. In The Ideal Gas Law lesson, students apply their understanding of individual gas laws to understanding the ideal gas law, which approximates how a gas should behave in most real-world situations.


In the Lab: Charles’s Law lesson, students perform an experiment in which the behavior of a gas is monitored in a closed system. Students predict how an energy transfer into a gas system will affect the volume of the system. Through the use of a capillary tube, students understand that a closed system does not allow the transfer of matter but does allow the flow of energy into or out of the system.


In the Lab: Charles’s Law lesson, students practice using lab equipment designed for a specific purpose. Through the use of a syringe and plunger system, students add weight to the system and observe changes in the volume of the system. In their lab report, students analyze what sources of error may have resulted from the improper or incorrect use of the syringe.




In the lesson Lab: Charles’s Law, students examine how applied pressure affects the volume of a gas system. Just as importantly, they also observe how the removal of that pressure stabilizes the system and returns to its initial condition.



UNIT 6: ENERGY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS Crosscutting Concepts Unit Example


Students develop a solar cooker prototype in the lesson Heat. Within the project, students identify patterns of performance to make improvements to the system.


In the lesson Enthalpy and Phase Changes, students study the cause and effect relationship between heat and phase changes. This system requires using graphical models to understand the complex relationship of phase change. Students apply ideas to several phase changes, like vaporization, condensation, and evaporation.


Students use algebraic thinking to compare spontaneous and nonspontaneous reactions in the lesson Enthalpy, Entropy, and Free Energy. Students predict if reactions are spontaneous using the Gibbs free energy equation.


Systems can be designed to do specific tasks. For example, calorimeters are useful tools in measuring the heat of thermochemical reactions. Students construct and use calorimeters in the lesson Lab: Calorimetry and Specific Heat.


In the lesson Enthalpy and Phase Changes, students track the flow of energy over time using phase change graphs. During the lesson, students connect phase change to the law of conservation of energy using examples of weather phenomenon such as condensation.


Students determine which type of metal serves the function of cooking in the lesson Lab: Calorimeter and Specific Heat. Students examine different properties of aluminum, copper, iron, and lead before determining which is best for cookware.




Students observe the relationship between time, temperature, and phase change in Enthalpy and Phase Changes. Using graphical representations of phase changes, students explain how temperature and state of matter change over time in several examples.



UNIT 7: REACTION RATES AND EQUILIBRIUM Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


Students are required to classify chemical reactions as forward and backward in the Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium lesson. They also learn the factors that cause disequilibrium. To understand the patterns involved in chemical reactions, students use mathematical formulas (chemical equations).


In the lesson Lab: Reaction Rates, students collect data in order to support claims about factors affecting reaction rates. Students analyze multiple variables in order to support claims about how temperature and particle size affect reaction rates of sodium bicarbonate.


In the Shifts in Equilibrium lesson, students explore the results of how stress causes the ratios of reactants to change causing a shift in the equilibrium of the reaction.


As part of the Reaction Pathways lesson, students explore and create graphs of reaction rates of various chemicals to predict

energy change in a reaction.


In the Reaction Pathways lesson, students use qualitative reaction pathway graphs to recognize energy relationships between the reactants and the products.


In the Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium lesson, students identify the fact that gases and dissolved substances appear in equilibrium equations while pure solids and pure liquids do not. They demonstrate understanding that this fact is because of the atomic structures.


In the Shifts in Equilibrium lesson, students explore the results of how stress causes the ratios of reactants to change causing a shift in the equilibrium of the reaction.



UNIT 8: MIXTURES, SOLUTIONS, AND SOLUBILITY Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


In the Mixtures and Solutions lesson, students learn about the differences between types of mixtures and solutions. They explore the arrangements and interactions of particles. Through this lesson, students understand how to identify and classify types of mixtures based on physical appearances. In addition, they explore the chemical properties which affect the type of mixture that is formed between two or more substances.


In the lesson Properties of Water, students learn about surface tension, cohesion, adhesion, and other observed properties of water. They explore the intermolecular forces between polar and nonpolar molecular regions which cause these properties.


In the Colligative Properties lesson, students learn about the effect of changing the concentration of a solution. As the number of solute particles increase, a solution exhibits boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.


In the lesson Solutions and Solubility, students learn about modeling solubility graphs. Students are given experimental solubility data and use the information to calculate changes in solubility that occur as temperature changes. They also predict the state of saturation of a solution which results as an increase or decrease in temperature.


In the lesson Reactions and Aqueous Solutions, students learn about the formation of a precipitate. As they explore chemical reactions which take place in solution, they learn that, as they have observed in previous lab activities, sometimes a product is formed and falls out of solution. This rearrangement of atoms into a new phase is a property of substances which are insoluble in water.


In the Colligative Properties lesson, students learn about membrane structure and its function as a facilitator of osmosis. Students determine how water can move back and forth through a semipermeable membrane, while other substances cannot. In addition, students identify the use of a semipermeable membrane as an effective way to balance the concentrations of solutes on either side of the membrane.




Students explore vapor pressure by looking at examples of liquids in closed containers. In the Colligative Properties lesson, they learn about the changing equilibrium of these systems when solute particles are added to the liquid. Because solute particles interfere with the vaporization process, the vapor pressure of a system decreases as concentration increases. Students learn about the rate of vaporization as it applies to the examples of water and honey, two liquids with very different vapor pressures.



UNIT 9: ACID-BASE REACTIONS Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


In the lesson Lab: Titration, students carry out and analyze a titration to determine the unknown concentration of a solution. They use a chemical indicator called phenolphthalein to identify the point at which equivalency is reached. Because titrations are sensitive experiments carried out in very small incremental changes, students may have to redo the experiment if the indicator turns dark pink. Knowing these patterns, students are able to successfully perform a titration and stoichiometrically determine the concentration of the analyte.


In the Titration Reactions lesson, students learn about the different methods of measuring pH. In addition to pH meters, students learn about the advantages of chemical indicators to determine pH within a standardized range. Because students understand the ionic concentrations underlying the resulting change of color of an indicator, they explore how those concentrations affect changes in several universal indicators.


In the Lab: Titration lesson, students learn how to indirectly measure the pH of an unknown solution. Although pH meters directly detect the pH of a solution, titration is an important technique used to determine pH by means of relative changes in the acid or base concentration.


As students explore acid-base reactions, they also learn about buffer systems. In the lesson Buffers, students apply their knowledge of acid-base reactions to understand how a buffer regulates the pH of a solution. Buffer systems easily accept and donate ions to counter a change in the pH balance of a solution which is sensitive to minute changes in acidity or alkalinity. Based on their understanding of how buffers react within solutions, students predict the behavior of a buffer in a solution undergoing a change in ion concentration.


In the lesson Neutralization Reactions, students learn about acid-base reactions and explore the properties of electrolytes. An electrolyte dissociates into ions in solution. This property of the ionic compounds helps to explain the conductivity of electrolytes in aqueous solutions. Solutions with high concentrations of electrolytes conduct electricity as a result of ionization.




In Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis Acids and Bases, students learn about three different theories of acid-base behaviors. They explore different situations in which one theory is favored over the other for the purposes of describing chemical interactions. Students also come to understand how the three different definitions can be used to predict and explain the behavior of a chemical in a reaction system based on the ionization properties of given chemical formulas.


Understanding the processes through which pH is regulated is particularly important for studying biochemical systems. In the Buffers lesson, students learn about how the presence of a buffer in biological systems acts to stabilize the pH of solutions. More specifically, students explore the buffer systems that regulate the pH of blood and the process in which an antacid neutralizes stomach acid to aid in the reduction of indigestion.



UNIT 10: REDOX REACTIONS Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


In the lesson Oxidation-Reduction, students identify the patterns of oxidation numbers that underlie a chemical change. Then, students practice identifying redox reactions based on electron transfers.


In the lesson Electrolytic Cells, students identify the mechanisms underlying the production of a current in an electrolytic cell. They review the electrochemical processes of redox reactions and indicate how oxidation and reduction cause the transfer of electrons. Then, they interpret how these electron transfers can be used to produce an electric current in a designed system.


In Lab: Electrolysis, students carry out a procedure in which they analyze the effects of an electric current on a solution. They identify changes in the solution that occur over time as electrical energy flows through an electrolyte solution. Students also demonstrate the proportional relationships between the amount of oxygen and hydrogen produced.


In the lesson Oxidizing and Reducing Agents, students examine activity series, an organized system of oxidizing and reducing agents that can be used to predict a redox reaction. Then, they explore the relationship between activity series and reduction potentials of half-reactions. With an understanding of these tables, students identify whether or not a reaction will spontaneously occur at standard conditions.


In the lesson Oxidation-Reduction Equations, students implement their understanding of redox reactions to write half-reactions for oxidation and for reduction. Students track the transfer of electrons between atoms to understand how the chemical system behaves.


In the lesson Voltaic Cells, students create a sketch of a lemon battery. Through this activity, students make connections between the structure of the battery and its ability to function as a generator of an electric current. They then demonstrate their understanding of these connections by describing their sketch and answering questions about the various functions of each component.




In the Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations lesson, students identify the oxidation states of elements to understand how they affect the stability of a chemical system. Then, they describe how these oxidation states can be applied to predict the rate of a reaction, identifying whether or not it will occur spontaneously.



UNIT 11: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


In the lesson Organic Reactions, students observe patterns in chemical processes in order to classify reactions involving organic compounds.


In the lesson Organic Reactions, students observe the causes of reactions involving organic compounds and study the effects of organic reactions.


Students further explore the characteristics of organic compounds in the lesson Functional Groups. Students recognize the differences in the quantity and type of chemical bonds in organic compounds, and the effect of bonding on a compound’s properties.


In the lesson Organic Compounds, students identify the bonding characteristics of carbon and use models to understand and predict the properties of carbon compounds.


In the lesson Metabolism, students track energy in the chemical reactions that occur in living things, and they explain how metabolic processes convert food into the energy needed to sustain life.


In the lesson Properties and Uses of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons, students learn about the structure and functions of hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond. Students then explain how the structure of a material makes it useful for certain purposes.


In the lesson Functional Groups, students identify the structure and function of side chains in an organic compound. Students then identify how a change in one atom or group of atoms can change the properties of a hydrocarbon.



UNIT 12: NUCLEAR REACTIONS Crosscutting Concept Unit Example


In the lesson Types of Radioactive Decay, students observe patterns in decay processes. Students then practice distinguishing chemical reactions and nuclear reactions in order to classify reactions.


In the lesson Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion, students examine the causes and effects of each process. Students analyze what occurs when a nucleus is split and when nuclei combine.


In the Lab: Half-Life, students explore the process of radioactive decay (half-life) through simulation. Students recognize proportional relationships of stable and unstable nuclei in radioactive elements over time.


In the lesson Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion, students create models that illustrate radioactive decay, fission, and fusion.


In the lesson Nuclear Energy, students analyze how nuclear energy is created and used. Students write about nuclear energy options, and they create a multimedia presentation about the pros and cons of using fission as an energy source.


In the lesson Nucleus, video-based instruction reviews the structure of the atom and its nucleus, and students analyze how atomic structure and the number of neutrons in an isotope creates the properties of the nucleus.


In the lesson Nucleus, students examine how the strong nuclear force and proton number combine to create stability in the nucleus and analyze when the stability of the atom is disrupted.

CHEMISTRY - edgenuity.com · Each lesson begins with a thought-provoking warm-up activity to engage...

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Transcript of CHEMISTRY - edgenuity.com · Each lesson begins with a thought-provoking warm-up activity to engage...