CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FIVE SELECTED FORAGES AND THEIR

ACCEPTABILITY BY RED SOKOTO GOATS

BY

Valentine Odinakachukwu OBIASOGU

MATRICULATION NUMBER: 155490

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN

NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN ANIMAL SCIENCE FROM THE

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN

NIGERIA

DECEMBER, 2015

DEDICATION

I dedicated this work to God Almighty for making me believe that through Him all things are

possible, for sparing me thus far and for continually having His eye’s on the sparrow.

ABSTRACT

Though poor nutrition is one of the factors that generally affect the productivity of goats due

to low availability of forage that is of high acceptability to goats and relatively suitable to

their preference during the wet and dry seasons, forages play an important role in the

nutrition of ruminants in the tropics. The acceptability of forage is dependent on plant-based

and animal-based factors. The acceptability of some selected forages was determined to know

the most relished and least relished by the animals using the Coefficient of Preference (CoP).

The chemical composition of the forages was assessed using standard procedure and

acceptability of the grasses was determined using 20 Red Sokoto goats. Result showed that

crude protein content ranged from 7.57% in Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi to 24.97% in

Glyricidia sepium, crude fibre content ranged from 8.47% in Mucuna pruriens to 79.27% in

Panicum maximum. Ether extract content ranged from 4.47% in Panicum maximum to

32.37% in Mucuna pruriens. The dry matter of the forages ranged from 27.15% in Glyricidia

sepium to 52.33% in Mucuna pruriens. Panicum maximum and Panicum maximum cv.

Ntichisi combination had the highest Coefficient of Preference value of 1.51 while Mucuna

pruriens had the least Coefficient of Preference value of 0.139. In conclusion, the

combination of Panicum maximum and Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi had the highest

Coefficient of Preference value and Panicum maximum proves to be the best in Neutral

detergent fibre content.

Word Count: 237.

Keywords: Acceptability, Chemical composition and Red Sokoto goats.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To God Almighty, in Whom I live and have my being, for keeping me alive and for

protecting me through the course of this programme.

I acknowledge my supervisor, Professor O.J Babayemi, for being more than a father to me.

I acknowledge all the academic and non-academic staff of the Department of Animal Science

and the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Ibadan.

To Mrs Akeusola, Mr Dele, Mr Ibukun, ‘Aafa’, Everyone, The fortified forty-seven and

friends. You are acknowledged.

My deep gratitude to my family, who sheltered, propped me up, said “well done” just in time,

honoured my need for time and space, and never stopped praying with that strong faith made

of love: Nwadebereenyi, Valentine and Celestina Obiasogu, Amaka Valentina Nebolisa,

Uchenna Nancy Agwuncha, Nkiruka Hope, Obichukwu Peter, Chukwueloka Paul, Obianuju

Rose-Mary.

To Professor Job Atteh, I thank you and I think I have just started.

To you, whose negatives and positives have shaped me, Stay blessed.

TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENT PAGE

Title I

Dedication II

Abstract III

Acknowledgement IV

Certification V

Table of Contents VI

List of Tables VII

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Objectives of study

1.2 Justification of study

CHAPTER TWO

Literature review

2.0 Productivity of Small Ruminants

2.1 Management of Small Ruminants

2.1.1 Extensive system

2.1.2 Intensive system or Zero grazing system

2.1.3 Semi-Intensive System

2.1.4 Tethering

2.2 Nutrition, Health and Management of Small ruminants

2.3 Features of Grazing goats

2.3.1 Feeding and Behavioural pattern of goats

2.4 Grasses and Browse plants

2.4.1 Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)

2.4.2 Guinea grass (Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi)

2.4.3 Cowage bean grass (Mucuna pruriens)

2.4.4 Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)

2.4.5 Glyricidia (Glyricidia sepium)

2.5 Acceptability and Chemical composition

2.5.1 Acceptability

2.5.2 Chemical composition

2.5.2.1 Moisture content

2.5.2.2 Dry matter

2.5.2.3 Crude protein

2.5.2.4 Crude fibre

2.5.2.5 Ether extract

2.5.2.6 Ash

2.5.2.7 Acid Detergent fibre

2.5.2.8 Neutral Detergent fibre

2.6 Factors affecting the acceptability of forages

2.7 Adaptation of goats to new forage

CHAPTER THREE

Research methodology

3.0 Materials and methods

3.1Experimental location

3.2 Collection of experimental forages

3.3 Chemical and statistical analysis

3.4 Experimental materials

3.5 Acceptability study

3.6 Management of experimental animals

3.7 Experimental observation

CHAPTER FOUR

Results

4.0 Results

4.1 Chemical composition of the forages used in the study

4.2 Coefficient of Preference

4.3 Coefficient of preferences by Red Sokoto goats

CHAPTER FIVE

Discussion

5.0 Discussion

5.1 Chemical composition of forages

5.2 Acceptability of forages

REFERENCES

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Forage preference of experimental Red Sokoto does introduced to five selected

browse plants

Table2: Chemical composition (%) of five selected browse plants fed to Red Sokoto does

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction

Feed resources for livestock in the tropics are mainly natural pastures which are limited in

supply during the dry season (Alhassan, 1985). Smith et al. (1995) observed that dry season

feeding of ruminants had always been a constant problem to livestock farmers, as feeds

supplies are limited both in quantity and quality.

Ruminants in tropical areas of the world rely on all year round grazing of natural pastures or

hand fed cut grass, crop residues and leaf materials from trees and shrubs which drop in

quality, energy and nitrogen content (Ibrahim et al., 1995). Forages form a natural part of the

diets of goats which meets over 60% of the forage requirement and have been used as a

traditional source of forage in Nigeria. Browse plants are resistant to heat, drought, salinity,

alkalinity, grazing, drifting sand, grazing and repeated cutting, they are the major feed

sources during the dry season (Fagg and Stewart, 1994). Forages utilize the low quality of

roughages mainly through the supply of protein to rumen microbes. Feeding accounts for

more than 60 % of the total production cost (Schoeminon, 2003) and ruminants eat low

quality feeds, particularly fibrous vegetation which cannot be eaten by man and other

monogastric animals. Forages supply high protein, vitamins and minerals for ruminants

(Raghuvansi et al., 2007). These plant materials can easily be converted for tissue

development which is dependent on the stage of growth of the plant and season in which we

are in. Small ruminants have the ability to convert poor quality foodstuffs, such as grasses,

legumes, forages, farm wastes and crop residues that are unsuitable for human body tissue

(Fajemisin et al., 2010). An all year round pasture is not always guaranteed in the tropics

especially in Nigeria as half of the period is a dry season, an off-season ( Babayemi et al.,

2009). Animal research has shifted to a search for cheaper, locally available alternative

feedstuff which are nutritionally viable and non-toxic (Ademosun, 1985). These animals are

mostly reared for meat and are also important sources of milk, skins and manure. Their

fecundity, short generation interval and capability for fitting into all existing agricultural

production systems, as well as the prevailing demand for mutton, place them in a unique

position (Ozung et al., 2011). Also, relative to other ruminants in the tropics, ruminants have

high fertility and reproductive rates. They are an important item of trade within the humid

West Africa.

This problem of inadequate nutrition is further aggravated particularly in the dry season when

grassland productivity is low. According to Devendra (1987), the dominant stall feeding or

the cut and carry system of small ruminant production in south-eastern Nigeria is highly

labour intensive.

Coefficient of Preference (CoP) is a direct measure of acceptability and nutritional capability

of feedstuff and forages. In recent times, cafeteria technique has been used to assess the

acceptability of some forage (Bamikole et al., 2004; Babayemi et al., 2006). The feed intake

or the palatability of forage is regulated by many factors: harvesting, physical and metabolic

feedback and secondary metabolites. Preservation method may affect these factors, especially

in reducing the secondary compounds or anti-nutritional substances.

1.1 Objectives of study

This research work is aimed at:

1. To determine the acceptability of five selected forages to Red Sokoto does

2. To determine the chemical composition of five selected forages

1.2 Justification of study

This work is justified by the need to bridge the gap of inadequate and unreliable food supply,

to assess the level of acceptability of forages in relation to its chemical composition

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Productivity of Small Ruminants

Small ruminants are gradually becoming the subject of revamped interest. In the past, they

have been given less attention because of the small size of most tropical breeds. This is an

unjustified conclusion because their size relative to their productivity is greater than that of

the cattle. Though, the productivity of small ruminants reared in tropical Africa is low there is

an ample opportunity for improvement (FAO, 1982).

Ruminants have a faster population turnover which is determined by parturition level, age of

first parturition and litter size as yardstick for the determination of production efficiency in

which many of these parameters is influenced by environmental and ecological factors.

Problems related to nutrition, health and management causes pre-weaning and post-weaning

mortality in small ruminant animals. Disease and parturition number (Williamson et al.,

1978) are associated problems.

2.1 Management of Small Ruminants

In all production systems of small ruminant animals, it is generally economically sensible to

maximize the production of forage in the diet to minimize feeding cost. In addition, as people

are becoming increasingly aware to the image of animal products, maximizing forage

utilization is an increasingly important tool in animal production

2.1.1 Extensive System

The extensive system is productive to a certain extent depending on the management and the

richness of the natural vegetation. But due to the minimum requirement for investment,

extensive system of production is very profitable. Under the extensive system of production,

animals roam freely browsing and grazing a variety of forages resources in the areas where

the natural vegetation and climate are suitable during the day and at the night, they are

confined in a simple shed. In extensive systems, grazing also contributes to resource

preservation. However, efficient utilisation of forage resources and control of animal impact

on vegetation need through knowledge of what determines dietary choices and feeding

behaviour (Baumontet al.,2000).

2.1.2 Intensive System or Zero Grazing System

The intensive system of management involves continuous confinement with limited access to

land. Intensive system of grazing is otherwise called the zero grazing system in which

animals are stall fed. However, this has the advantage of close supervision and control over

the animals. The collected dung in this system can be used as a good fertilizer as less space is

sufficient for more number of animals. The intensive system of keeping animals is however

expensive because of the high cost required for housing and purchasing managerial

implements.

2.1.3 Semi-intensive System

Semi-intensive system of animal production is an intermediary between the extensive and

intensive systems of production. It inculcates extensive management but usually with

controlled grazing in a fenced pasture or grassland. It consists of the provision of stall

feeding, shelter at night under a shed and 3 to 5 hour daily grazing and browsing on pasture

and range. This system has the advantage of meeting the nutrient requirement of animals both

from grazing and stall feeding and making a profitable gain due to less labour input put into

the production cycle.

2.1.4 Tethering

This is a system in which the animal is tied to a rope and fed using a feeding trough is also an

additional practice. It is practised in most urban areas to prevent the animals from theft or

from escaping. It is also practiced to prevent the animal from using its faeces to pollute the

environment and to feed the animals before they are slaughtered for intended purposes.

2.2 Nutrition, Health and Management of Small Ruminants

The nutrition, health and management of small ruminants in Africa is not developed as

majority of the farm holders are small scale farmers that do not have the adequate knowledge

in effectively managing the nutrition and health of the animals.

Ruminants rely to a greater extent in the production of microbial volatile fatty acids (VFA)

for energy and post-ruminal digestion of microbes for other nutrients though the body size is

probably a factor that contributes to the feeding differences. Small ruminants are confronted

with the challenge of being tethered during the rainy seasons to prevent crop damage and

goats are often fed cut-and-carry green forage in the rainy season. Drying brewers spent grain

and the collaboration of National research institutes will improve the nutrition and general

management of ruminant animals.

Peste de petit ruminants (PPR) is endemic in West Africa and studies have shown that

dipping with gammatox and annual vaccination will dramatically reduce the epidemic of the

ssdisease. Helminthiasis and ectoparasitosis are also widespread but a well-planned and

efficient animal health services in conjuction with an excellent feeding programme will

reduce the negative effect of diseases on the production of small ruminant animals.

2.3 Features of Grazing Goats

2.3.1 Feeding and Behavioural Patterns of Goats

The feeding behaviour of goats is influenced by the type of vegetation, breed and stage of

production, group size and properties of the diets fed in confinement. The influence of

nutrition is common to the feeding and behavioural patterns of animals. Consideration of the

influence of nutrition on behaviour can be categorized into goats in grazing settings and goats

in confinement settings. The origin of the goats also influences the feeding and behavioural

pattern of the goats. For example, the Red Sokoto goats which originates from the North and

has been adapted to long distant trekking will be observed to explore an enclosed rangeland

unlike other species that may be reared with it.

2.4 Grasses and Browse plants

Grasses make up the bulk of the plants found in many mixtures of natural vegetation used as

forage. They also supply the bulk of the energy content of forages. Grass is any plant from

the family Graminae numbering approximately 600 genera and 9,000 species. These grasses

form the major vegetation in areas of low rainfall throughout the world: The plains and

praires of North America, the savannahs and pampas of South America, the steppes and

plains of Eurasia, and the veldts of Africa. Most grasses often have rhizomes and are annual

or perennial herbs with fibrous. Grass stems are always noded and are typically hollow and

swollen at the nodes although many genera have solid stems. Grass leaves have the sheath

part and the blade part. Grass flowers have their inflorescence subdivided into spikelets

containing one or more spikelets. The dried seed and pasture plants-like fruit produced by

grasses is called caryopsis or grain.

The cereal grasses which include wheat, rice, oat, barley, rye and corn provide the grain

which is a major food source. Grasses also include most of the hay and pasture plants and is

loosely used to refer to pseudo-grasses (e.g. clover and alfafa) but which are similarly grown.

Molasses and sugar are products of sugarcane and sorghum grasses. Grasses are also sources

of ethyl alcohol, corn starch, newsprint and other types of paper. They can also be used for

thatching and construction using reeds and bamboo. Grasses can be used to feed wild and

domesticated animals and can be used to prevent erosion where they are planted. Grasses are

classified into the division Magnoliophyta, class Liliopsida, order Cyperales and family

Gramineae. The term browse may either refer to a plant species (shrub or tree) or to the

forage deriving from these species.

Browse is a term referring to tender shoot, twigs and leaves of shrubs and trees that form an

important component of the diet of ruminants especially when available forages for grazing

these animals are inadequate.

Browse plants can provide about 35% of digestible crude protein requirement for cattle in the

semi-arid region of Nigeria and as the dry season progresses the percentage raises to about

60% (Bayer et al., 1987) Browse forage comprises leaves, fruits or pods including seeds,

young twigs and bark. Browse species are also termed fodder trees and shrubs and are often

multipurpose trees and hence may have other uses in addition to feeding livestock.

2.4.1 Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)

According to Babayemi et al (2015), Panicum maximum is a perennial tall tufted grass,

spreading by short rhizomes from which tillers emerge freely, they are indigenous to Africa.

Its common name is guinea grass and from the family Poace and subfamily Panicoidae. They

are often large, annual or perennial grasses growing 1-3metres tall and are angiosermic

monocotyledous plants. Well known Panicum maximum species include proso millet and

switch grass. The flowers of Panicum maximum is developed from a two-flowered spikelet. It

is native to subtropical and tropical Africa and it is drought resistant due to deep root system

by may withstand over 4 months of drought. It is shade tolerant, leafy and acceptable and

suitable for green soilage, hay and silage. It is better cut every six weeks back to 6-9 inches.

It is better grazed continuously for 7 days and spell for 4-6 weeks before the next grazing. It

depletes soil nitrogen severely and responds to heavy doses of the nitrogen element. It could

be grown in mixture with a suitable legume e.g. Centrosema pubescens (Centro) and

Pueraria phaseoloides (Tropical kudzu). It is regarded both as a fodder and a pasture grass

and it is established by seed or by crown splits under very wet conditions. It is a grass that

can contribute a great deal to livestock improvement in Nigeria. The planting material for

Panicum maximum can easily be sort (Aken’Ova et al., 2004). Panicum maximum is used as

a long time pasture, it is ideal for cut-and-carry practice and it is suitable for making silage

and hay. Guinea grass is the most productive forage grass in tropical America. It is an energy

grass with a juice that is reported to stimulate the movement of the intestine and may prove to

prevent tympanitis in cattle.

2.4.2 Guinea grass (Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi)

Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi is a giant guinea grasses that has broad bluish green leaves

which makes it suitable for cut-and-carry, grazing and silage purposes. Ntchisi is mostly

propagated by splits because seed harvesting is hampered by variability in seed maturation on

the same panicle which quickly sheds or are eaten by birds. The grass has found its way into

Kenya and Zambia

2.4.3 Cowage bean grass (Mucuna pruriens)

Mucuna pruriens is an angiospermic plant from the family Fabaceae. Its common names

include: velvet bean, lacuna bean, werepe in Yoruba, inyelekpe in igala and agbala in Igbo

language. It is an annual legume that is high in crude protein and they are well adapted to

varying weather and ecological soil condition. They are relished by ruminants and farmers

often use them for soil reclamation (Babayemi et al., 2006). Both seeds and husks of Mucuna

pruriens can be considered as good ruminant feed and have been fed, after coarse grinding, to

different ruminants without a negative impact. Harvesting of these plant parts does not

sacrifice any of Mucuna pruriens beneficial soil fertility impacts; instead, harvesting of seeds

is necessary in many cropping systems to prevent Mucuna pruriens from becoming a weed

through self-re-seeding. While many of the studies conducted to date have focused on

Mucuna’s use as a homegrown feed, the most economically attractive solution may be its

utilization in commercial mixtures. Special attention needs to be paid to preventing spoilage

of ground Mucuna seeds, frequently a concern for early 20 th century workers; and to

incorporate the husk or pericarp in these mixtures. While direct grazing of Mucuna foliage

and pods may be suitable in some situations, in others, cut-and-carry systems may be more

desirable. In certain environments, silage of either pods or foliage may be the recommended

way to preserve the nutritional value of Mucuna pruriens.

In the study by Iyayi and Taiwo, replacement of soybean with Mucuna for broilers at a 33%

level (which constituted 6 and 5% of the diet in the starter and finisher phases, respectively)

did not induce any negative impacts on weight gain or feed intake.

2.4.4 Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)

Leucaena leucocephala is a tropical and subtropical legume that belongs to the family

Leguminoseae. It is vigorous, rapid growing, palatable, drought tolerant and enriched in

nutritional components. It has been hailed as the perfect tree because it can serve many

purposes (Brewbaker, 1989). Although it has multi-purpose use in industries, the introduction

of Leucaena leucocephala outside its indigenous range has often led to acute and chronic

toxicosis in animals (Szyszkaet al., 1984).

Leucaena leucocephala has high potentials as ruminant feed as a result of its high level of

protein and evergreen nature of its browse in the tropics. Regrowth shoots are composed of

more than 65% nutritious leaf. The leaves, young stems, flowers and pods are all excellent

sources of protein and minerals (Jones, 1979).

The specific name ‘leucocephala’ comes from ‘leu’, meaning white, and‘cephala’, meaning

head, referring to the flowers as having white head. There are 3 recognized subspecies of

Leucaena leucocephala. Leucaena leucocephala has one the highest quality and most

palatable fodder trees of the tropics, often being described as the ‘alfalfa of the tropics’. The

leaf quality compares favourably with alfalfa in feed value except for its higher tannin

content and mimosine toxicity to non-ruminants. Livestock feed should not contain more than

20% of Leucaena leucocephala, as the mimosine can cause hair loss and stomach problems.

Leaves have a high nutritive value (high palatability, digestibility, intake and crude-protein

content), resulting in 70-100% increase in animal live weight gain compared with feeding on

pure grass pasture. Herbage taken at peak quality has 55-70% digestibility and 20-25% crude

protein. In addition, it is very persistent over several decades of cutting or grazing, is highly

productive, recovers quickly from defoliation, combines well with companion grasses and

can be grazed with minimal losses from trampling or grazing. Forage, packed in pellets and

cubes, is internationally marketed as animal feeding materials.

Leucaena leucocephala is composed of high level of mimosine when grown on tropical soil.

This has a severe constraint to its commercial exploitation (Blunt, 1979; Blunt and Jones,

1977; Jones and Hegarty, 1984). When Leucaena leucocephala forms more than 30% of the

diet of ruminants, mimosine toxicity ensues. The ingested mimosine is metabolized in the

rumen to 3-Hydroxy-4-(1H)-pyridone (DHP) which is a potent goitrogen (Hertargy et al.,

1979) and which reduces feed intake (Jones and Lowry, 1984).

2.4.5 Glyricidia (Glyricidia sepium)

Glyricidia sepium belongs to the family Leguminoseae and subfamily Papilionoideae. It is a

genus of six to nine species of small, spreading, unarmed, fast growing perennial shrubs or

short lobed trees, reached 5-15m in height (Bennison and Paerson, 1993). It is one of the

commonest and best known multipurpose trees in many parts of Central America and West

Africa and it adapts to a wide variety of soil types. Glyricidia sepium is a specie native of

Central America, where it probably originated (Smith et al., 1987), and South America. The

leguminous shrub is considered to have high fodder quality and it is a potential substitute of

other feed resources (Abdulrazaket al., 1996).

Glyricidia sepium is able to fix nitrogen and nodulation has been observed and evaluated

(Patil and Prasunamma, 1986). Glyricidia sepium nodulates readily within three months of

planting when grown from stakes, or even faster when established from seed (Chadhokar,

1982). It establishes well in the tropics, it is found in lowlands and at altitudes of up to

2000m. After Leucaena leucocephala, Glyricidia sepium is believed to be the most widely

cultivated multipurpose tree. Glyricidia sepium trees can withstand grazing and looping and

can be trimmed to a height of 1-1.5m to serve as living fences posts and to provide limited

forage within reach of browsing animals. Browse productivity is dependent on age, species,

size of tree, prevailing agro-climatic conditions and management practices.

Gliricidia sepium is rarely offered as asole feed. It serves to increase the digestibility of the

diet when used to supplement low quality feeds. Gliricidia sepiumis more degraded in the

rumen than most other plants having similar level of tannin content and it is well digested.

Ash (1989) observed that feeding small quantities of Gliricidia sepium leaf to goats would

significantly increase the total dry mater intake when compared with mature tropical grass

offered as a sole feeding material.

2.5 Acceptability and Chemical composition

2.5.1 Acceptability

Acceptability study is a quick assessment of the physical quality of a feed. Coefficient of

Preference (CoP) is a direct measure of the acceptability and nutritional capability of

feedstuff or forage. In recent times, cafeteria technique has been used to assess the

acceptability of some forage (Bamikole et al., 2004; Babayemi et al., 2006).

It is important to differentiate between acceptability and palatability. Palatability when

broadly defined means the degree of relish with which a particular plant part and specie is

consumed by the grazing animal.

Acceptability on the other hand can be explained as the attractiveness of the feed to the

animal as determined by the factors of the forage and the environment. Thus, it is a relative

term and depends on the circumstance under which the forage is presented to the animal.

Acceptability has generally been found to be positively correlated with the concentration of

protein, energy, minerals, ether extract and water content and negatively correlated with fibre

and lignin contents of the forage. Acceptability is also strongly influenced by the physical

properties and structure of the plant. Plant structure may influence the acceptability by

affecting the accessibility of leaf to the animal (Olanite et al., 2011). Acceptability is

decreased by the presence of hairs, awns, stickiness, coarseness or harshness of the leaves.

Additionally, it is decreased by plant metabolites, negative growing situations and purgative

odor.

For example, If a mature elephant grass in the dry season may both be unpalatable and

unacceptable because of the coarseness of the leaf but if urea lick is provided, the elephant

grass becomes more acceptable to the animal even though its chemical and physical

properties have not been altered and therefore neither its palatability.

Acceptability is a measure of the animal’s tendency to consume a particular feed. It is a

stimulus response of a chain of events that include recognition of food, movement to the

food, its appraisal, initial eating and cessation of eating (Heady, 1964). Preference in a

narrower sense is reserved for selection by the animals and is essentially behavioral. It is the

choice of one feed over another. Acceptability and preference are regarded as synonyms.

Palatability is a complex phenomenon being determined by both plant and animal factors

(Marten, 1978). Ruminants are particularly known to consume a wide range of browse plants

and are reported to select those that meet their nutritional needs and avoid those that can be

toxic (Ngwa et al., 2003)

Palatability of or acceptability of forage species depend on the plant species and phonological

status, the chemical composition of the plants and its organoleptic qualities, relative

abundance of the species within the rangeland, feeding habits linked with management

methods and various environmental factors. The cellulose and mineral contents of the plants

and the species composition also influence palatability. Other factors such as smell of the

herbage or fodder, the presence of silica, stiff hairs or excessive fiber contents may also

influence palatability or acceptability of forage species.

2.5.2 Chemical composition

The chemical composition of browse plants indicates the nutritive value of the browse plants.

The chemical composition of browse plants is dependent on factors such as plant age, variety,

species, soil type, fertilization practice, season and grazing management (Gomide, 1978;

McDowell et al., 1983) though leguminous species are higher in crude protein values than

non- leguminous species.

2.5.2.1 Moisture Content

The moisture content of a feedstuff is the relative amount of water that is present in it. It

represents the amount of moisture a feedstuff has. Feedstuffs with high moisture content tend

to have high rate of seepage, nutrient loss, none palatability and low shelf life. Low moisture

content in feedstuff can cause overheating, lowered feeding value and increased dry matter

loss. The dried portion used to determine moisture content can also be used to determine ash

in a feedstuff (Adewumi, 2015).

2.5.2.2 Dry Matter

Nutrient composition of forage and feedstuff can be evaluated on as-fed basis or on dry

matter basis. Dry matter nutrient values are always greater than as-fed nutrient values and are

the most preferred nutrient values because animal uses the nutrient on a dry matter basis and

it makes ration building much easier.

2.5.2.3 Crude Protein

Crude Protein is 6.25 times the nitrogen content of a feedstuff. It includes non-protein

nitrogen sources. Crude protein primarily on the forage maturity, forage species, forage

cultivar, environmental and fertilization levels. (Olanite et al., 2011)

The protein requirement of animals depends on the animal species, age, physiological state,

and physiological stage. Protein needs to be supplemented when it is lower than required. In

ruminant nutrition, the average minimal protein requirement is 7.5% and the average

maximal protein requirement for high producing animals is 13.5%.

2.5.2.4 Crude Fibre

Crude fibre measure the amount of fiber in the feedstuff or forage. Fiber adds bulk to the

animal diet, keeps the rumen functioning properly and keeps the animal busy in chewing.

Feed that has high content of fibre usually prevents diarrhea.

2.5.2.5 Ether Extract

Ether extract depicts the amount of oil that is present in a feedstuff or forage.

2.5.2.6 Ash

Ash depicts the amount of inorganic components that are present in a feedstuff or forage. It

also gives a raw data of the amount of minerals present in a feed.

2.5.2.7 Acid Detergent Fibre

Acid Detergent Fibre shows the level of cellulose and lignin that is present in the plant. Acid

Detergent Fibre measures the amount of indigestible components of the feedstuff

2.5.2.8 Neutral Detergent Fibre

It is composed of the values of all the cell wall contents from the Acid Detergent fibre. It

represents the total fiber component of the feedstuff which includes cellulose, hemicellulose

and lignin. As Neutral Detergent Fibre increases, intake is expected to decline and vice versa

2.6 Factors affecting the acceptability of forages

Animals will naturally consume more appetizing and nutritious browse plants, palatability

also increases the level of acceptance of browse plants. Palatability is a complex phenomenon

being determined by both plant and animal factors (Marten, 1978). According to Young

(1948), three interrelated systems including conditioning of previous feeding habits, nutritive

quality of the browse plants and the body system which is affected by initiated energy

release, nerve stimulus, blood sugar level, body temperature, digestive tract movement,

mouthpart fatigue and senses affects the acceptability of browse plants. In addition, anti-

nutritional factors such as tannins affect the palatability and preference of browse plants

offered to ruminants (Krueger et al., 1974; Garcia, 1989; Ngwa et al., 2003).

2.7 Adaptation of goats to new forage

Herbivores use reference memory and working memory as spatial memory to locate food.

Animals could face difficulty to new foraging environment even if the new location has

plenty of forage.

Under the intensive system of grazing, animal encounters adaptation problems in the grazing

field. Animals react by changing their pattern in the field, adopting foraging strategy and

selecting a feeding niche. Thus animal’s strategy of changing their behaviour must be

regarded as their adaptation.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

6.0 Materials and methods

6.1 Experimental location

The study was carried out on an enclosed species-rich pasture of the Teaching and Research

Farm of the University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The experimental site lies within 7°

20’N, 3°50’E at an altitude of 200-300m above the sea level and the fenced pasture has a land

dimension of 108.90m by 89.10m. The site is a sub humid type having an average annual

rainfall of about 1250mm and mean temperature ranging between 25-29°C (Babayemi and

Bamikole, 2006b). The University lies on a transition zone between the southern guinea

savannah and the rainforest. A permanent goat shelter of 8.6m long and 8.5 m wide was

constructed inside the fenced unit.

6.2 Collection of experimental forages

The new and young shoots of the selected forages that were used for the experiment were

collected inside the premises of the University of Ibadan. Panicum maximum, Panicum

maximum cv. Ntchisi, Mucuna pruriens and Glyricidia sepium were harvested from the

enclosed pasture while Leucaena leucocephala was harvested from the land that bounds the

University of Ibadan slaughter house to the left. 17 Kg of the forage was collected using a

sickle, a cutlass and a sac an evening before it would be served on the hay rack and the wilt

weight was recorded at every instance. The forages to be consumed by the 20 Red Sokoto

does are served on the hay rack in a confined space for 8 hours (8h-4h). The animals are

released into the paddock for grazing afterwards.

6.3 Chemical and Statistical analysis

Samples of the experimental browse plants were analyzed for dry matter (DM), Crude protein

(CP), Ether Extract (EE), Crude fibre (CF) and ash according to AOAC (2002). Browse plant

samples were also analyzed for Neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and Acid detergent fibre

(ADF) according to Van Soest et al. (1991). They were harvested, air-dried and carefully

sorted out after which they were oven dried at 1050 C for 24 hours to constant weight, ground

and stored in an air-tight bottle before the chemical analysis.

Data for the chemical composition of the browse plants were obtained in triplicates after

which data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance. Where significant differences

occurred, the means were separated using Duncan multiple range F-test of the SAS

(Statistical Analysis System Institute Inc., 1988) options.

6.4 Experimental materials

The experimental unit is an enclosed paddock with the land dimension of 108.90m x 89.10m.

A permanent goat house of 8.6m long and 8.1m wide was constructed inside the enclosed

unit to accommodate up to 50 animals. 20 Red Sokoto does with an average body weight of

25.2±4.32 Kg were used to perform the experiment. Other materials that were used during the

study include:

Record book: Used to record the initial, wilt and remnant weights of the browse

plants, the time used for the acceptability study, the chemical analysis data and every

other data that made up the experiment.

Weighing scale: Used to take the initial, wilt and remnant weights of the browse

plants used for the acceptability study.

Watering trough: Used to provide drinking water for the animals during the course of

the experiment.

Sickle and cutlass: Used to harvest the experimental browse plants from the pasture

Knitted sacks: Used to contain the harvested experimental browse plant for storage

and weighing.

Hay rack: Used to serve the experimental browse plants to the animals.

Rake: Used to gather the remnant browse plants when they fall from the hay rack

Weighting bowl: Used to contain the experimental browse plants for weighing at the

different stages.

6.5 Acceptability study

The study of the relative acceptability of Panicum maximum, Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi,

Centrosema pubescens, Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala was carried out at the

goat unit near Animal Science Department at the University of Ibadan Teaching and

Research Farm. 20 Red Sokoto does were used in a cafeteria feed preference study, which

lasted for eleven days including a week for the animals’ adaptation to the forage served on

the hay rack (Babayemi et al., 2006). The average experimental weight of the Red Sokoto

goats was 25.2±4.32 Kg. They were in a group pen with the small ruminant house

constructed to achieve good ventilation. The floor of the house was made of wooden palets

placed at strategic location of the ruminant house for easy cleaning of the urine and faeces.

17kg of each of the grasses were served on the hay rack over 10 weeks period. Panicum

maximum was served in the first week, Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi was served in the

second week, Mucuna pruriens was served in the third week, Panicum maximum and

Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi was served in the fourth week, Panicum maximum and

Mucuna pruriens was served in the fifth week, Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi and Mucuna

pruriens was served in the sixth week, Panicum maximum, Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi

and Mucuna pruriens were served in the seventh week, Gliricidia sepium was served in the

eight week, Leucaena leucocephala was served in the ninth week and a combination of

Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocepala was served in the tenth week. The consumption

was monitored for 8 hours (8h-4h) per day and the quantity consumed was recorded. The dry

matter content of each forage species was determined. Average daily intake was calculated by

deducting the refusal from the amount served. Forage preference was determined from the

Coefficient of Preference (CoP) values, calculated as the ratio between the intakes of

individual forage divided by the average intake of all the forage (Karbo et al., 1993). On this

basis a forage was taken to be relatively preferred if the Coefficient of Preference was greater

than unity.

6.6 Management of Experimental animals

Drinking water was also provided ad-libitum and a salt lick that will provide the necessary

minerals and nutrient lacking for the maximal performance of the animals was also provided.

The watering troughs were washed when they were observed to be dirty. The goat house was

cleaned each day and the goats were released into the paddock to graze after the experimental

hours.

6.7 Experimental observations

Amongst the five selected browse plants, Glyricidia sepium showed the highest rate of

interest to the goats. The goats sometimes moved into the pasture while the browse plant is

still harvested and they are very keen towards consuming it. The goats sometimes nodded

each other while Glyricidia sepium was served on the hay rack.

This may be attributed to the fact that out of all the five selected browse plants, Glyricidia

sepium was the only type that grew like a tree. Therefore, apart from the fact that it was

relished by the goats it is not often consumed by the goats because it is out of their reach

resulting to the high rate of consumption of Glyricidia sepium by the goats when it is served.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

4.0 Results

Presented on Table 1 are the results of the Average daily intake and the Coefficient of

Preference. After the experiment, the browse plant preference was calculated from the

Coefficient of Preference (CoP) value, calculated from the ratio between the intakes of the

browse plants divided by the average intake of the browse plants (Babayemi et al., 2006a).

The Coefficient of Preference expresses the acceptability in unity while the average daily

intake portrays the average intake of the Red Sokoto does in a day. Based on the Coefficient

of Preference value, Panicum maximum, Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi, Glyricidia sepium,

the combination of Panicum maximum and Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi, the combination

of Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi and Mucuna pruriens and the combination of Glyricidia

sepium and Leucaena leucocephala were preferred by the animals but Mucuna pruriens,

Leucaena leucocephala, the combination of Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi and Mucuna

pruriens and the combination of Panicum maximum, Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi and

Mucuna pruriens had a Coefficient of Preference value that is lower than unity

Table 1: Forage preference of experimental Red Sokoto does introduced to five

selected browse plants

Combinations of Browse species Acceptability parametersAverage daily

intake (Kg DM)

Coefficient of preference

(CoP)100% Panicum maximum 8.44 1.14100% Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi 10.35 1.39100% Mucuna pruriens 1.03 0.1450% Panicum maximum + 50% Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi

11.21 1.51

50% Panicum maximum + 50% Mucuna pruriens

9.22 1.24

50% Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi + 50% Mucuna pruriens

5.09 0.69

33.3% Panicum maximum + 33.3% Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi+ 33.3% Mucuna pruriens

6.88 0.92

100% Glyricidia sepium 7.67 1.03100% Leucaena leucocephala 6.89 0.9350% Glyricidia sepium + 50% Leucaena leucocephala

7.47 1.01

4.1 Chemical composition of the forages used in the study

On Table 2 is the chemical composition of the browse plants used for the experiment. The

Dry matter ranges from 27.15% in Glyricidia sepium to 52.33% in Mucuna pruriens. The

Crude protein ranges from 7.57%in Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi to 24.97% in Glyricidia

sepium. The Crude fibre ranges from 8.49% in Mucuna pruriens to 79.27% in Panicum

maximum. The Ether extract ranges from 7.43% in Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi to 32.37%

in Mucuna pruriens. The ash content ranges from 8.83% in Mucuna pruriens to 16.43% in

Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi. The Neutral detergent fibre content ranges from 40.37% in

Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi to 60.60% in Panicum maximum while the Acid detergent

content ranges from 26.93% in Panicum maximum cv. Ntichisi to 39.19 in Panicum

maximum.

According to Ogunbosoye and Babayemi, (2010) the Dry matter of Leucaena leucocephala

was 32% and its ash content was 9%, the Crude protein content of Glyricidia sepium was

20% and the Neutral detergent fibre was 49% while the Ether extract content of Panicum

maximum was 3% while the Acid detergent fibre content was 37%

According to Babayemi (2009), Panicum maximum had a Crude fibre content f 23.5% while

Leucaena leucocephala had an Acid detergent fibre content of 220.8%.

Iriekpen (2014) reported that the Crude fibre content of Panicum maximum was 28.96%,Tona

(2011) reported that the Crude protein content of Panicum maximumwas 7.67%, Oyeleke

(2012) reported that the Crude fibre content of Panicum maximum, Glyricidia sepium and

Leucaena leucocephala were 74.1%, 66.3% and 67.5% respectively.

The varying relationship between the values and the works cited could be attributed to the

ages of the harvested browse plants, the edaphic and the ecological factors.

The descriptive statistics conducted indicates that there were significant differences between

the proximate compositions of the browse plants.

The different chemical compositions of the browse plants also contributed to the varying

levels of acceptability of the five selected browse plants to the 20 Red Sokoto does.

Table 2: Chemical composition (%) of five selected browse plants fed to Red Sokoto does

Browse plants

Dry Matter

(%)

Crude Protein

(%)

Crude Fibre (%)

Ether Extract

(%)

Ash (%)

Neutral Detergent Fibre (%)

Acid Detergent

Fibre(%)

Panicum maximum

47.53a 8.27c 79.27a 4.47d 11.50b 60.60a 39.17a

Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi

51.48a 7.57c 24.83c 7.43c 16.43a 40.37c 26.93b

Mucuna pruriens

52.33a 18.13b 8.47d 32.37a 8.83c 41.27bc 36.30a

Glyricidia sepium

27.15b 24.97a 64.67b 11.99b 9.77bc 46.49b 34.83a

Leucaena leucocephala

50.43a 24.63a 63.07b 12.00b 10.57bc 40.83bc 27.67b

SEM 2.98 2.09 7.21 2.63 0.76 2.15 1.45

a, b, c means in the same column with different superscript differ significantly (P<0.05)

4.2 Coefficient of preference

Table 4 shows the acceptability parameter of the five selected browse plants by 20 Red

Sokoto does.

After the experiment, the browse plant preference was calculated from the Coefficient of

Preference (CoP) value, calculated from the ratio between the intakes of the browse plants

divided by the average intake of the browse plants (Babayemi et al., 2006a). Therefore,

browse plants were preferred to be relatively acceptable provided the Coefficient of

Preference was greater than unity.

4.3 Coefficient of Preference by Red Sokoto goats

Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi which is one of the most predominant forages available at the

centre of origin of the Red Sokoto goats had the highest Coefficient of Preference. This may

be attributed to the fact that they have been adapted to it. Panicum maximum followed with a

Coefficient of Preference of 1.14, Glyricidia sepium had the third highest preference rate

while Leucaena leucocephala had the fourth highest Coefficient of Preference. Mucuna

pruriens was the least preferred with a Coefficient of Preference value of 0.14.

The amount of crude protein in the feed was observed to be positively correlated to the level

of acceptance of the five selected forages.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

5.0 Discussion

5.1 Chemical composition of the forages

The crude protein of all the forages fell within the acceptable range for ruminant performance

(NRC, 1981). A higher dry matter content gives a higher level of accumulation of nutrients

which makes it easy to utilize more of the atmospheric carbon dioxide by converting it into

useful products during the process of photosynthesis. The ash content represents the

inorganic fraction of the forage. Its value is mainly the content of Phosphorus, Calcium or

Potassium and large amount of Silica (Bogdan, 1977).

The Dry matter content ranged from 27.15% in Glyricidia sepium to 52.33% in Mucuna

pruriens, the Crude fibre content ranged from 8.47% in Mucuna pruriens to 79.27% in

Panicum maximum, the crude protein content ranged from 7.57% in Panicum maximum cv.

Ntchisi to 24.97% in Glyricidia sepium, the Ether Extract content ranged from 4.47% in

Panicum maximum to 32.37% in Mucuna pruriens, The ash content ranged from 8.83% in

Mucuna pruriens to 16.43% in Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi. The Neutral detergent fibre

and the Acid Detergent fibre were highest in Panicum maximum.

5.2 Acceptability of the forages

The combination of Panicum maximum and Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi had the highest

Coefficient of Preference followed by Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi. The combination of

Panicum maximum and Mucuna pruriens had the third highest Coefficient of Preference

value while Panicum maximum had the fourth highest Coefficient of Preference value.

Glricidia sepium had the fifth highest Coefficient of Preference value while the combination

of Glyricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala had the sixth highest Coefficient of

Preference. Leucaena leucocephala had the seventh highest Coefficient of Preference while

the combination of Panicum maximum, Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi and Mucuna pruriens

had the eighth highest Coefficient of Preference value. Mucuna pruriens and the combination

of Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi and Mucuna pruriens had the least Coefficient of

Preference value respectively.

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1 Conclusion

The preference of forages by Red Sokoto does is dependent on many factors linked to the

forage and animal characteristics. The knowledge of the level of intake and chemical

composition of forages for small ruminants is however important to improve herd

management in balancing forage availability towards meeting the animal’s need. The

acceptability based on the Coefficient of preference was higher than 1 for six combinations of

the experimental forages and was lower than 1 for four combinations of the experimental

forages. For individual forages, the ranking for the forages was Panicum maximum cv.

Ntchisi> Panicum maximum> Glyricidia sepium > Leucaena leucocephala> Mucuna

pruriens suggesting that the does have the ability of selecting diets from a range of plant

species in their different chemical compositions, physical characteristics and palatability.

6.2 Recommendation

The acceptability and chemical composition of the forages studied showed that they are

acceptable and contain nutrients that are above the recommended levels of ruminants.

However, further studies should be conducted on other forages to bridge the gap of

inadequate nutrition in ruminant production.

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