Chemical Coal

8/9/2019 Chemical Coal

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Press Release Source: ADA-ES, Inc. On Tuesday June 29, 2010, 4:05 pm EDT


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LITTLETON, Colo.--(BUSINESS WIRE)--ArchCoal, Inc. (NYSE: ACI - News) (Arch) and ADA-ES, Inc.

(NASDAQ: ADES - News) (ADA or the Company)today announced that the two companies have finalizedthe previously announced exclusive development andlicensing agreement for a promising ADA-ES technology

aimed at reducing combustion-related emissions ofmercury and other metals from PRB coal. Inconsideration for certain ADA development work and theexclusive license to Arch, ADA-ES will receive an upfront

payment of $2 million and royalty payments that couldamount to as much as $1 per ton of coal sold by Arch,depending upon the successful implementation of thetechnology and Archs future sales of the resultingenhanced coal product.


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ADA has been successful at developing technologiesthat improve the performance of PRB coals, including

flue gas conditioning (FGC) chemicals used to aid in thecollection of ash from PRB coals. The Company alsodeveloped a cost-effective brominated activated carbontechnology that provides a means of achieving 90%removal of mercury emissions from PRB coals, as well as

CyClean technology, a proprietary coal additive thatimproves combustion of PRB coals in cyclone boilersresulting in enhanced efficiency and reduced emissionsof mercury and nitrogen oxides. Since 2004, ADA hasbeen working with Arch to explore certain uniquecharacteristics of some types of coals produced by Archthat allow them to be burned with lower emissions. Arecent technical breakthrough provides a potentialmeans to obtain similar performance improvements

from all of Archs PRB coals.


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ADA-ES is a leader in clean coal technologyand the associated specialty chemicals. We develop andimplement proprietary environmental technology and

specialty chemicals that enable coal-fueled power plants toenhance existing air pollution control equipment,maximize capacity and improve operating efficiencies. Wesupply activated carbon injection systems, mercurymeasurement instrumentation, and related services.

Through our consolidated subsidiary, Clean Coal Solutions(Clean Coal), we produce refined coal that we expect willqualify for IRS Section 45 tax credits. To meet the needs ofthe power industry for mercury control, we are aparticipant in a joint venture, ADA Carbon Solutions (ADA-

CS), which is developing state-of-the-art facilities toproduce activated carbon (AC) with the first plantprojected to come on-line in 2010. Additionally, we aredeveloping technologies for power plants to address issuesrelated to emissions of carbon dioxide.


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St. Louis-based Arch Coal is the second

largest U.S. coal producer, withrevenues of $2.6 billion in 2009.Through its national network of mines,

Arch supplies cleaner-burning, low-sulfur coal to U.S. power producers tofuel roughly 8 percent of the nation'selectricity. The company also ships coal

to domestic and international steelmanufacturers as well as internationalpower producers.


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Coal is a combustible organic

rock composed primarily ofcarbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.Coal is burned to produce energyand is used to manufacture steel.It is also an important source of

chemicals used to make medicine,fertilizers, pesticides, and otherproducts.


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Coal comes from ancient plants buriedover millions of years in Earths crust, its

outermost layer. Coal, petroleum, naturalgas, and oil shale are all known as fossil fuelsbecause they come from the remains of

ancient life buried deep in the crust.Over millions of years, these

physical conditions caused coal to form fromthe carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,sulfur, and inorganic mineral compounds inthe plant matter. The coal formed in layersknown as seams.


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HOW COALS FORM?

The coal we find today formed from

generations of plants that died in ancient

tropical swamps and accumulated on the

swamp bottoms. The plant material first formeda compact organic material called peat. As

layers of sediment gradually accumulated over

the peat, the pressure and heat exerted by thethickening layers gradually drove out the

moisture and increased the carbon content ofthe peat, forming coal.


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COAL FORMATION


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COMPONENTS OF COALCoal contains organic (carbon-containing)

compounds transformed from ancient plant

material. The original plant material was

composed of cellulose, the reinforcing material inplant cell walls; lignin, the substance that cementsplant cells together; tannins, a class of compounds

in leaves and stems; and other organiccompounds, such as fats and waxes. In addition tocarbon, these organic compounds contain

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur.


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Coal also contains inorganiccomponents, known as ash. Ashincludes minerals such as pyrite andmarcasite formed from metals that

accumulated in the living tissues of theancient plants. Quartz, clay, and otherminerals are also added to coal deposits

by wind and groundwater. Ash lowersthe fixed carbon content of coal,decreasing its heating value.


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KINDS AND TYPES OF COAL1. Anthracite highest ranked and the hardest

coal

2. Bituminous coal ranked second highest

and can be metallurgical and thermal.

3. Sub-bituminous coal softer than

bituminous coal.

4. Lignite

a soft, brown or black coal. Somelignites contain significant amounts of

uranium.


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Peat deposits are made up

of wet, partially decomposedorganic matter, with low energycontent per unit weight.Deposits are mainly in isolatedareas and the drying problem is

severe. It is not a significantpower source, even in developedcountries


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COAL MININGTYPES OF COAL MINING:

A. Surface Mining

1. Open-pit Mining2. Drift Mining

3. Slope Mining

4. Contour Mining5. Auger Mining

6. Satellite Aids to Surface Mining


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B.UNDERGROUND MINING

1. Conventional Mining2. Continuous Mining

3. Longwall Mining

4. Room-and-Pillar Mining


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Surface Miningtechniques are used when the coal ispresent near the surface, and the overburden is thin

enough. These techniques include contour mining, stripmining, and auger mining.

Contour Mining is used in hilly country side area wherethe slope of the surface will permit only a narrow bench to

cut around the side of a hill.Strip Mining is used in flat gently rolling lands on theMidwest and West where large and efficient equipmentcan be used. In this technique, the coal is exposed by

removing the overlying strata, or overburden.

Auger Mining - is a supplementary method used toreach coal in stripped areas where the over burden has

become to thick to be removed economically.


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Underground Miningtechniques are somewhat morelabor-intensive than surface mining and are used to

remove coal located below too much overburden forsurface mining. However machines are used in mostinstances to dig load, and haul the coal.

Drift mine is one of that enters a coal seam exposed

at the surface on the side of a hill or mountain. Themine follows the coal horizontally.

Slope mine is one where an inclined turned is driventhrough the rock to the coal, with the mined coal

removed by conveyors or truck haulage.

Shaft mine is one where a vertical shaft is dugthrough the rock to reach the coal, which may be of

great depth below the surface.


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Two General Underground

Mining System:Room-and-pillar mining is an open stopping

method where mining progresses in a nearlyhorizontal or low-angle direction by opening

multiple stops or rooms, leaving solid material toact as pillars to support the vertical load

Long-wall-mining uses a machine that is pulled

back and forth across the face of the coal seamin larger rooms.


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COAL DEPOSITS AND RESERVES

Although coal deposits exist in nearlyevery region of the world, commercially

significant coal resources occur only inEurope, Asia, Australia, and NorthAmerica. Commercially significant coaldeposits occur in sedimentary rock

basins, typically sandwiched as layerscalled beds or seams between layers ofsandstone and shale.


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Coal AroundTheWorldIt is the worlds most abundant fossil fuel and

is widely distributed as compared with oil andnatural gas. China, United States, Poland and Indiaare among the worlds largest coal producers andconsumers. It is second to oil as an energy source inthe world.

About 70% of the worlds coal production is

used to generate 40% electricity, 12% is made tocoke t produce 70% of the worlds steel, and theremaining 18% is used for industrial and domesticpurposes.


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COMBUSTION EQIUPMENT

yStroke firing

yPulverized-coal firing

yFluidized-bed Combustion

Industrial and electric utility boilers

are fired with either strokers, pulverized-coal fired burners or cyclone burners, the

choice depending on the kind of coal and

the amount of steam needed.


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WASTE TREATMENTThe emission of sulfur and

nitrogen oxides and particulates fromcoal combustion has become aproblem of increasing concern andregulation. The combustion of coalcontributes about 25% of theparticulate matter, 25% of the sulfuroxides, and 5 % of the nitrogen oxidesin the atmosphere.


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A major concern about the particulate

matter, most of which is inorganic matterderived from the mineral content of the coal,

is that the smallest particles are respirableand may pose a health hazard. The collection

of a particulate matter is done in most powerplants by the use of electrostatic

precipitators, which have been developed to

very high efficiencies (>99%). Othertechniques for particulate removal includebag-houses and cyclone collectors.


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The current technology for

removal of SO2 is Flue-GasDesulfuration (FGD), in units known asscrubbers. The most common

scrubbers use a slurry of lime oflimestone to capture the sulfur oxides,and the product is a sludge containingcalcium sulfite and calcium sulfate.However the disposal of sludge isanother environmental problem.


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A more favorablesolution for newer plants is touse fluidized-bed combustion

with a sulfur capture agent ofa combined-cycle systemwhere the sulfur can be more

easily removed from thegasification stream.


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The major component of

nitrogen oxides emitted from coal isnitrogen oxide (NO). Most of thenitrogen formed from combustion ofcoal does not originate from the coalbut from the reaction of nitrogen andoxygen in the air that is used to burnthe coal. Consequently, the control of

nitrogen oxides can be most easilyachieved by changing the conditionsof the combustion process.


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This usually involves theuse of stage combustionwhere the coal first is burned

in a fuel-rich flame thatsubsequently is made fuel-

lean. This is made viableoption for an existing plant bychanging the burner design or


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Several techniques are being developed forpost-combustion scrubbing of NOx, such as

selective catalytic reduction. The use of fluidized-bed combustor where the combustion is carried

out at lower temperature in the presence of a

sorbent will reduce both nitrogen oxides andsulfur oxides.

Ash is purchased by some companies for

varoius purposes (e.g. cement). While water forboiler feed passes through a demineralizer

water treatment system producing high purity

water.


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COAL CHEMICALS


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Chemicals from coal were initially andmostly obtained by destructive distillationof coal, furnishing chiefly aromatics. Inrecent years substantial production of

aromatics, particularly benzene, toluene,xylene, naphthalene andmethylnaphthalenes, has been obtained

by processing petrochemicals. However,coal chemicals, except for metallurgicalcoke, are now in a very competitive field.


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Coal is not only the countrysfundamental fuel, but shares withpetrochemicals the furnishing of thebasic raw materials for many essentialindustries from dyes, medicines,

pesticides, and elastomers to modernplastics. Coal also forms the worldslargest reserve of concentratedorganic raw materials, and it serves

not only as a chemical supplier but asa cheap source of heat and powerneeded for processing.


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CHEMICALS FROM COAL

Chemical conversionprocess Products and procedure

a.Carbonization, pyrolysisof coal, lignite andcarbooniferous shales

(destructive distillation)

b.Reduction and refining

of ores.c. Gasification

(blue and producer gas arevery minor)

Coal-tar aromatics, benzene andhomologs, phenol and homologs,naphthalene, anthracene,

phenanthrene, etc. High-temperature, low-temperaturecoke, carbon for pigments, carbonfor electrodes

Iron, ferroalloys, etc., aluminum,magnesium.

Coal gas, blue water gas, producergas, peak gas, synthesis gas,carbon*2 liquid and dry ice.


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d. Combustion forcomfort heatingand powergeneration

e. Combustion for

process heating

f. reduction, chemical

g. Hydrogenation andhydrogenolysis,catalytic.

Electric power utilities, comfortheating, retail deliveries, flyash, sintered ashes for filterand concrete.

Heat for manufacture of lime,cement, ceramics, steel and

rolling mills. Sodium sulfite, sodiun sulfide,

barium sulfide, phosphorous.

Carbide process for aromatics,

hydrogenation of coal bergiusprocess, fischer-tropsch liquidfuels, catalytic methanation ofsynthesis and pyrolysis gases.


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h. Demethylation

i. hydrolysis,alkaline

j. oxidation,

partial(controlled) andcomplete.

k. Electrothermal

Benzene from toluene orxylene, naphthalene from

methyl naphthalenes. Mixed aromatics

Synthesis gas for NH3,

CH3OH, etc., hydrogen,coal acid, carbonmonoxide.

Graphite and electrode,

abrasives: silicon carbide,calcium carbide,cyanamide, carbondisulfide.


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l. Sulfur

recovery

m. Sulfonation

n. Solvent

extraction of

coal

H2S from gas pyrite

from coal

Ion exchange water

softener

Ashless coal

montanwax, humicacid, coumarone

resins.


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Although gas from coal and

aromatics from coal have hadproduction curtailed bypetrochemical and natural-gas

competition, much new researchand development is beingconducted by Bureau of Mines,Office of Coal Research, and byprivate industry.


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THE DESTRUCTIVEDISTILLATION OF COAL

When coal is thermallypyrolyzed or distilled byheating without contact with

air, it is converted into avariety of solid, liquid, and

gaseous products.


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The nature and amounts of each productdepend upon the temperature used in the

pyrolysis and the variety of coal. In ordinarypractice, coke-oven temperatures aremaintained above 1650oF but may range

anywhere from 950 to 1800

o

F. The principalproduct by weight is coke. If a plant usestemperatures from 850 to 1300oF, the processis termed low-temperature carbonization: with

temperatures above 1650oF it is designatedhigh-temperature carbonization. In low-temperature carbonization the quantity ofgaseous product.


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In low-temperature carbonization the

quantity of gaseous product is small inthat of the liquid product is relatively

large, where as in high temperature

carbonization the yield of gaseousproducts is larger than the yield of liquid

products, the production of tar are being

relatively low. The liquid products arewater, tar, and crude light oil; the gaseous

products are hydrogen, methane,

ethylene, carbon monoxide, carbon


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The products other than coke

are collectively known as coalchemicals (coproducts or by-

products).

The destructive distillation of

coal, or its carbonization is reallya striking example of chemical

conversion, or the unit process of

rol sis.


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The chemical theory of the

pyrolysis ofcoalIndicates

the following step-by-step

decomposition:


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1. As the carbon temperature is raised, the

aliphatic carbon to carbon bonds are thefirst to break.

2. Carbon to hydrogen linkages are served

next as the temperatures of 600oC (1100oF)is approached and exceeded.

3. The decompositions during carbonizationare essentially reactions effecting the

elimination of heterocycle complexes and

progressive aromatization.


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4. The average molecular weights

of the volatile intermediateproducts constantly decrease asthe temperature of carbonizationrises. This decrease is marked bythe evolution of water, carbonmonoxide, hydrogen, methane,and other hydrocarbons.

5. Final decomposition are at amaximum between 600 and800oC (1110oF and 1470oF).


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Hill and Lyon suggest that coalconsists of large heterocyclic nuclei-monomers with alkyl side chainsheld together by three dimensionalC-C groups, and includes functional

oxygen groups.HISTORICAL: it is known thatcoke was an article of commerceamong the Chinese over 2,000 years

ago, and in the Middle Ages it wasused in the arts for domesticpurposes.


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Nevertheless, it was not until 1620that the production of coke in an oven

was first recorded. Up until the middleof the nineteenth century, coal-tarcolor, by Sis William Perkin in 1856,caused a great demand for crude coaltar, and it became a commercial productof increasing value. Perkin, with hisdiscovery of the brilliant violet dye

mauve, while attempting the synthesisof quinine through oxidation of crudeaniline in England, laid the foundationof the worlds coal-dye industry.


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In 1792, the first successfulexperiment involving the production

of gas from coal was carried out by

William Murduck, who made itpossible to light the streets of Londonwith gas in 1812. The first battery of

Semet-Solvay ovens was erected inSyracuse, N.Y in 1893.


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Uses and Economics:

Coke is the product oflargest tonnage from the

distillation of coal. Thedemand for coke depends onthe demand for steel, so the

amount of coal-tarproduction reflects thedemand for steel.


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About 98% of coal-tarproduction is from coproduct .

The Liquid products, comprising

coal tar and ammonia liquor, arenot so large in volume as the

solid products of coal distillation,

but are of importance tochemical-recovery ovens.


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A considerable volume of coal tar is stillused as fuel in open-hearth furnaces and for

roofing and roads. Aromatics from petroleum andcoal tar are made into dyes, intermediates,medicinals, flavors, perfumes, resins, rubberchemicals and thousands of other useful products

that are almost indispensable in our present-daycivilization.

COKI

NG OF COAL :Two main types of coking proceduresthe Beehive and the coproduct.


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Beehive is the old primitive method. In

coproduct ovens carefully blended coal chargeis heated on both sides so that heat travelstoward the center and thus produces shorterand more solid pieces of coke than are made in

the beehive oven. No burning takes placewithin the oven, the heat being suppliedcompletely from the flues on the sides. About40% of the oven gas, after being stripped of its

coproducts, is returned and burned for theunderfiring of the battery ovens, and some isused for fuel gas locally.


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1). Beehive cooking The beehive

oven consists of a beehive-shapedchamber provided with a charginghole at the top of the dome and a

discharging hole in thecircumference of the lower part ofthe wall. The coal is introduced

through the hole in the dome andspread over the floor.


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The gases given off from the coal mix

with the air entering at the top of thedischarge door and burn; the heat ofcombustion is sufficient for pyrolysis

and distillation.2). Coproduct coking The coproduct

coke oven is a narrow chamber, usually

about 38 to 40 ft long, 13 ft high, andtapering in with from 17 to 18 in. at oneend and to 15 or 16 in. at the other.


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The oven hold from 16 to 24 tons ofcoal. These ovens are used for carbonizing

coal only in large amounts and are built inbatteries of 10 to 100 ovens. The generalarrangements for the operation of a productcoke oven with its various accessories,

followed by the initial treatment on itscoproducts, are depicted. The coproductcoke oven is one of the most elaborate andcostly masonry structures and is erected with

the closest attention to engineering details,so that it can withstand the severe strainsincurred in its use and remain gastight, evenafter the great expansion during heating up.


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The oven block is built ofrefractory brick, with heating fluesbetween the coking ovens.

The individual coproduct cokeoven operates intermittently, buteach oven started and stopped atdifferent times, so that theoperation of the entire block

continuously produces gas of goodaverage composition.


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Bituminous coal

Coalis transferredCrushed and screened

Coalis charged toa hot empty oven

Oven bin (at 2000oF)

Coalis chemically transformed tocoke and

volatiles by pyrolysis


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Hot coke is pushed out of the oven, quenched,

and transported

Condensable products of distillation are liquefied

and collected in the hydraulic main.

Foul gas is cooled, and tar extracted.

Ammonia is removed from gas as ammoniumsulfate.a


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Gas is cooled and subjected to benzol andtoluol removal by absorption in straw oil.

Hydrogen sulfide is removed.

Purified gas is metered and transferred to

consumers.


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Recovery ofcoalchemicals:

The gaseous mixture leavingthe oven is made up of permanentgases which form the final purified

coke-oven coal gas for fuel,accompanied by condensable watervapor, tar and light oils, with solid

particles of coal dust, heavyhydrocarbons, and complex carboncompounds.


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Low-Temperature Carbonization:

In this century a large amount ofexperimental work has been carried out onthe carbonization of coal at temperatureranging from 750 to 1100oF, with the mainobject of obtaining maximum yields of liquidproducts and producing semicokescontaining from 8 to 20% volatile matter. The

characteristics and yields of the variousproducts depend upon the coal, thetemperature, and the treatment.


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The disco plant at Mc Donald, Pa.,

is the only plant in this country toutilize a low-temperaturecarbonization process and has a daily

capacity convert high-volatile coal into800 tons of Disco char, a domestic fuel.The tar is sold and refined to producetar-acid oil, tar acids, creosote and

fuel pitch. The gas, after liquid-productremoval, is used for firing.


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The maximum temperature

used in this process is 1050oF.Low-temperature carbonization

has been important in severalEuropean countries, especially

England, for many decades, but

has never been popular in theUnited States.


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DISTILLATIONOF COAL TAR:

Coal tar is a mixture of manychemical compounds, mostly aromatic,which vary widely in composition. It is acoproduct of the destructive distillationor pyrolysis of coal. Most of the tar in thiscountry is produced by steel companiesas a coproduct from blast-furnace coke

production. The quality and quantity oftar from this operation will vary,depending on the rate of production of

the ovens and the nature of the coal


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The specific gravity will vary from

1.15 to 1.2, and the quantity of tar willvary from 8 to 12 gal of tar per ton ofcoal. A typical light-tar composition

Fig. 5.9. The end product of thedistillation (Fig. 5.6) of coal tar is pitchusually more than 60% of the crudetar. The objects of the distillation areto produce a salable end product,with a separation of the valuableproducts into useful cuts.


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Methods of Distillation :

There have been many improvement incoal-tar distillation over the years. These can bedivided into three general classification:

1. The 3,000 to 10,000-gal batch still which has

been much improved and used for specialend products such as pipe enamel.

2. The continuous still with a single distillation

column using side streams.3. The continuous unit, using multiple columswith reboilers.


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Products of Distillation:Modern practice, as exemplified by the

pipe still and fractionating columns, isproducing such clean cut fractions that oftenlittle further purification is necessary. Thefractions obtained in an ordinary continuous

distillation, which will vary with the coal andwith conditions.a. Light oils usually comprise the cut up to

390oF. They are first crudely fractionated

and agitated at a low temperature withconcentrated sulfuric acid, neutralized withcaustic soda, and redistilled, furnishingbenzene, toluene, and homologs.


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b. Middle oils - or creosote oils, generallyare the fraction 390 to 480 or 520oF,which contains naphthalene, phenol, andcresols. The naphthalene settles outupon cooling, is separated by

centrifuging, and is purified bysublimation. After the naphthaleneremoved, phenol and other acids areobtained by extraction with a 10%caustic soda solution and neutralization,or springing, by carbon dioxide. Thesefractionally distilled.


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c. Heavy oil - may represent thefraction from 480 to 570 F, or itmay be split between the middleoil and the anthracene oil.

d.

Anthracene oil - is usually thefraction from 520 to 570 F up to660 or 750 F. It is washed withvarious solvents to removephenanthrene and carbazole; theremaining solid is anthracene.


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MISCELLANEOUS OF COAL TAR:

In 1976 coal tar used as fuel amountedto about 15 to 20% of the totalconsumption of tar of the year. Coal tar isalso utilized for roads and roofs. For thesepurposes the tar is distilled up to the pointwhere thermal decomposition starts. This base tar is then oiled back with creosote oilto ensure satisfactory rapid drying.Somewhat similar tars are used to

impregnate felt and paper forwaterproofing materials.


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Fractionation and purification ofcoal tarchemicals:

Largely because of the presentcompetition among aromatic chemicals frompetroleum, interest in aromatics from coal tarhas temporarily decreased. Also, syntheticprocesses from acetaldehyde and ammoniaare supplying the increased demands forpyridine, of which coal tar at one time was the

sole supplier. This is also true of phenol. InEurope, which has much coal and littlepetroleum, there is continued interest in coalchemicals.

Th d t f l t t ti l i


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The product of largest potential isphenanthrene (the second most abundant in

coal tar), of which Franck estimates that250,000 tons can be recovered in the Westernworld yearly as soon as profitable uses can befound. This is based on a total recovery of 10

million tons of crude tar and with a 50% yield.

COAL TO CHEMICALS:

Solvent extraction of coals and ligniteshas been tried at temperatures below andabove 300 C and with and without mildhydrogenation.


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Although various resins and waxesresult, the processes have meet only minorcommercial acceptance. Alkalinehydrolysis has likewise been investigated,with meager results. Partial oxidation

yields the tremendously importantsynthesis gas. Dow has experimented withcaustic oxidation (oxygen), obtaining high-molecular-weight poly-functional aromaticcoal acids, which have found limited use inthermo setting resins and water-solublefilms.


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Sulfur recovery from coal is still small and

variable, but in foreign lands that lack theU.S. sulfur raw materials (H2S from gasesand sulfur from salt domes), pyrite has

been recovered from coal and is used tothe extent of about 10,000 tons yearly inEngland and Germany. Sulfonation hasbeen employed to a limited extent to

manufacture ion-exchange material forwater softening.


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Hydrogenolysis (hydrogenation-

pyrolysis):Many development investigation have beencarried out on direct and catalytichydrogenation of coal both in the United States

and abroad. Most of these experiments arereally hydrogenolyses or hydrogenations(methanation) of the pyrolysis products of coal.

They were designed to yield a high-Btu gas tocomplete with natural gas (see peak gas) or tomake motor fuel in petroleum-poor countries.


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The results gave such a gas, but at ahigh cost with much of the coal left as

residual carbon. The motor-fuel objectiveswere largely for wartime demands. Thepresent attack on coal to secure other andhopefully cheaper coal chemicals tends tofollow catalytic hydrogenation and otherprocessing, often grouped together as colerefining and combined with liquid

separation, cooking, and hydrocracking in thepresence of hydrogen, without aiming for theuneconomical total hydrogenation of carbon.


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Coal research:

The office of coal research, created toconduct research on mining, preparation, and

utilization of coal, including chemicals, is

financing industry in many efforts to upgrade

coal and coal chemicals.The energy crisis of1973-1974, the increasing U.S. demand for fuel,

and the fourfold rise in oil cost greatly improve

the outlook for coal as a feedstock in place of

oil. It appears that it will be only a question oftime until coal replaces a significant amount of

oil as feedstock in the United States.


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World Energy Production by Source

Although there is increasing interest in

alternate energy sources such as solar power,

almost two-thirds of the worlds energy comes

from oil and natural gas. Other nonrenewable

resources such as coal are still heavily used

in countries such as China.

World Energy Production


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Coal-Burning Power PlantThis power plant burns coal to produce electricity.

The burning of coal and other fossil fuels releases carbondioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is thesecond most abundant greenhouse gas, after water vapor.Human activities have significantly increased the amountof greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and scientistshave linked this increase to global warming.


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Coal Production and ConsumptionA comparison of the top ten coal-producing countries and the top tencoal-consuming countries shows that China is both the leadingproducer and the leading consumer of coal. Coal is burned in power]plants to produce electricity and in steel mills to make coke for theproduction of steel.


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Chemical Coal

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